RATE OF FLOW OR DISCHARGE

Rate of flow (or discharge) is defined as the quantity of a liquid flowing per second through a

section of pipe or a channel. It is generally denoted by Q. let us consider a liquid flowing

through a pipe.

Let A = Area of cross-section of the pipe

V= Average velocity of the liquid

Discharge Q = Area x average velocity i.e. Q = AV ……………… (1)

If the area is in m2 and the velocity in m/s, then the discharge,

Q = m2 x m/s = m3/s

CONTINUITY EQUATION

The continuity equation is based on the principle of conservation of mass. It states that if no

fluid is added or removed from the pipe in any length, then the mass passing across different

sections shall be the same.

Consider two cross sections of a pipe as shown in figure 1

(Figure 1: Fluid through a pipe)

Let A1 = Area of the pipe at section 1-1

V1 = Velocity of the fluid at section 1-1

ρ1 = Density of the fluid at section 1-1

The total quantity of fluid passing through section 1-1 = ρ1 A1 V1 and the total quantity of fluid

passing through section 2-2 = ρ2 A2 V2

From the law of conservation of mass (theorem of continuity), we have

𝜌1 A1 V1 = 𝜌2 A2 V2 ………………………. (2)

Equation 2 is applicable to the compressible as well as incompressible fluids and is called the

continuity equation. In the case of incompressible fluids, 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 and the continuity equation

reduces to

A1 V1 = A2 V2 …………………… (3)

CONTINUITY EQUATION IN CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATES

Consider a fluid element (control volume) – parallelepiped with sides dx, dy and dz as shown in

figure 2.

(Figure 2: Fluid element in three dimensional flow)

Let ρ = mass density of the fluid at a particular instant.

𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 = components of velocity of flow entering the three faces of the parallelepiped

Rate of mass of fluid entering the face ABCD (i.e. fluid influx) = ρ x velocity in x-direction x area

of ABCD = ρ x 𝑢 x dydz …………..…………… (4)

𝜕
Rate of mass of fluid leaving the face EFGH (i.e. fluid efflux) = ρ𝑢dydz + 𝜕𝑥 (ρ𝑢dydz)dx ….. (5)
The gain in mass of fluid per unit time due to flow in the x-direction is given by the difference

between the fluid influx and fluid efflux

Mass accumulated per unit time due to flow in x-direction = ρ𝑢dydz − [ρ𝑢 +

𝜕 𝜕
+ (ρ𝑢)dx] dydz = − (𝜌𝑢)dxdydz …………………………. (6)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

Similarly, the gain in fluid mass per unit time in the parallelepiped due to flow in y and z-

directions

𝜕
= − 𝜕𝑦 (𝜌𝑣)dxdydz (in y-direction) ………………………….. (7)

𝜕
= − 𝜕𝑧 (𝜌𝑤)dxdydz (in z-direction) ………………………….. (8)

The total (or net gain) in fluid mass per unit for fluid along the three coordinate axes

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= − [𝜕𝑥 (𝜌𝑢) + 𝜕𝑦 (𝜌𝑣) + 𝜕𝑧 (𝜌𝑤)] dxdydz …………….…………. (9)

𝜕
Rate of change of mass of the parallelepiped (control volume) = 𝜕𝑡 (𝜌dxdydz) ……………. (10)

Equations 9 and 10

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
−[ (𝜌𝑢) + (𝜌𝑣) + (𝜌𝑤)] dxdydz = (𝜌dxdydz
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡

Simplification and rearrangement of terms would reduce the above expression to

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕ρ
(𝜌𝑢) + (𝜌𝑣) + (𝜌𝑤) + =0 …………………. (11)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
Equation 11 is the general equation of continuity in three dimensions and is applicable to any

type of flow and for any fluid whether compressible or incompressible.

𝜕ρ
For steady flow, ( 𝜕𝑡 = 0), incompressible fluids (ρ = constant), the equation reduces to

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ + =0 ………..…………. (12)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

For two dimensional flow, equation 12 reduces to

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

For one dimensional flow say x-direction, we have

𝜕𝑢
=0
𝜕𝑥

Integrating with respect to x, we get

𝑢 = constant ………………… (13)

If the area of flow is “a” then the rate of flow is

Q = 𝑎𝑢 = constant for steady flow

Which is the same as equation 3 and states that if area of flow is constant the velocity of flow 𝑢

will also be constant.

TYPES OF HEADS (OR ENERGIES) OF A LIQUID IN MOTION

There are three types of head or energies of flowing liquids

This is due to configuration or position above some suitable datum line. It is denoted Z

2. Velocity head or kinetic energy

V2
This is due to velocity of flowing liquid and is measured as 2𝑔 where V is the velocity of

flow and g is the acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.81)

3. Pressure head or pressure energy

P
This is due to the pressure of the liquid and reckoned as w where P is the pressure and w

is the weight density of the liquid.

Total Head/ Energy

Total head of a liquid particle in motion is the sum of its potential head, kinetic head and

pressure head. Mathematically,

V2 P
Total head, H = Z + 2𝑔 + m of liquid ………………….. (1)
w

V2 P
Total Energy, E = Z + 2𝑔 + Nm/kg of liquid ………………….. (2)
w

Example

In a pipe of 90mm diameter, water is flowing with a mean velocity of 2m/s and at a guage

pressure of 350 KN/m2. Determine the total head if the pipe is 8m above the datum line.

Neglect friction.

Solution
Diameter of pipe = 90mm

Pressure, P = 350 KN/m2

Velocity of water, V = 2m/s

Datum head, Z = 8m

Specific weight of H2O, W = 9.81 KN/m3

V2 P
Total head of water, H = Z + 2𝑔 + w

22 350
=8+ +
2 x 9.81 9.81

H = 43.88m