Fluid Mechanics, Lecture 4

Fluid Mechanics Ammar Ali Abd
Email: ammarali@wrec.uoqasim.edu.iq
Fluid Dynamics
Under some circumstances the flow will not be as changeable as this. He following
terms describe the states which are used to classify fluid flow:
• uniform flow: If the flow velocity is the same magnitude and direction at every point
in the fluid it is said to be uniform.
• non-uniform: If at a given instant, the velocity is not the same at every point the flow
is non-uniform. (In practice, by this definition, every fluid that flows near a solid
boundary will be non-uniform - as the fluid at the boundary must take the speed of
the boundary, usually zero. However, if the size and shape of the of the cross-section
of the stream of fluid is constant the flow is considered uniform.)
• steady: A steady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity, pressure and cross-
section) may differ from point to point but DO NOT change with time.
• unsteady: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with time, the flow is
described as unsteady. (In practise, there is always slight variations in velocity and
pressure, but if the average values are constant, the flow is considered steady.
Combining the above we can classify any flow in to one of four type:
1. Steady uniform flow. Conditions do not change with position in the stream or with
time. An example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at constant
velocity.
2. Steady non-uniform flow. Conditions change from point to point in the stream but
do not change with time. An example is flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity
at the inlet - velocity will change as you move along the length of the pipe toward the
exit.
3. Unsteady uniform flow. At a given instant in time the conditions at every point are
the same, but will change with time. An example is a pipe of constant diameter
connected to a pump pumping at a constant rate which is then switched off.
4. Unsteady non-uniform flow. Every condition of the flow may change from point to
point and with time at every point. For example, waves in a channel.
Compressible or Incompressible
All fluids are compressible (even water) their density will change as pressure changes.
Under steady conditions, and provided that the changes in pressure are small, it is
usually possible to simplify analysis of the flow by assuming it is incompressible and
has constant density. As you will appreciate, liquids are quite difficult to compress - so
under most steady conditions they are treated as incompressible. In some unsteady
conditions, very high pressure differences can occur and it is necessary to take these
into account even for liquids. Gasses, on the contrary, are very easily compressed, it is
Al-Qasim Green University Water Resources Engineering

essential in most cases to treat these as compressible, taking changes in pressure into
account.
Some terms important to know, this will help to understand and solve problems:
1- Mass flow rate:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑚. , = , 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠, 𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
2- Volume flow rate – Discharge:

𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑄 . , = , 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠, 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Discharge can be written by:
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 ∗ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑄= = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 ∗ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Continuity Equation:
Continuity equation represents the law of conservation of mass. In general, for
unsteady flow the continuity equation is:
Matter cannot be created or destroyed
(Mass flow rate into the system) - (Mass flow rate out of the system) = Rate of change of
storage.
For steady state condition:
(Mass flow rate into the system) - (Mass flow rate out of the system) = 0
Example:
Inflow: The flow that is coming into a system or an elemental volume such as rainfall
in y direction, flow entering the river or a channel.
Outflow: The flow escaping from the system such as evaporation, seepage, water
released from a system.

Generally, the mass balance is written in all the three directions namely x, y and z.
𝜕𝜌𝑢 𝜕𝜌𝑣 𝜕𝜌𝑤
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
When the density constant and the flow in one dimension the equation will be:
𝜌𝜕𝑢
=0
𝜕𝑥
The continuity equation can be used to calculate the velocity at different points:
𝑈1 𝐴1 = 𝑈2 𝐴2
flow rate in = flow rate out
The mass flow rate can be illustrated in the same way:
Mass rate in = Mass rate out
Now the continuity equation can be shown in different way:
𝑈1 𝐴1 = 𝑈2 𝐴2
𝜋 𝜋
𝑈1 ∗ ∗ 𝑑1 2 = 𝑈2 ∗ ∗ 𝑑2 2
4 4
𝑈1 ∗ 𝑑1 2 = 𝑈2 ∗ 𝑑2 2
Example 1: Figure below shows the branching of a water pipe system. The diameters
of the circular cross-section pipes at positions 1, 2 and 3 are, respectively 20, 6 and 3
cm. Assume inviscid flow so that the flow across any cross-section is uniform. The
volumetric flow rates past positions 1 and 2 are, respectively 0.01 and 0.004 m3/s.
1- Calculate the mass flow rates through the pipes at positions 1 and 2.
2- Find the mass flow rate at position 3.
3- Find the flow speed at positions 1, 2 and 3.
Solution: the fluid here is water, so, the density will be 1000 kg/m3.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1 = 0.01 ∗ 1000 = 10 𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 = 0.004 ∗ 1000 = 4 𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐

And we know that:

Mass rate in = Mass rate out
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 → 10 = 4 + 𝑚3 →= 𝑚3 = 6 𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Now to calculate the speed at 1, 2, and 3:
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 1 0.01
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1 = = 𝜋 = 0.318 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 1 ∗ 0.22
4
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2 ∗ 0.062
4
Now the velocity at point 3 will need some preparations:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 6
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 3 = = = 0.006 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 1000
And:
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 3 ∗ 0.122
4
Example 2: Figure below shows a sprayer system. At the inlet side, the pipe diameter
is 2 cm and flow speed is 2 m/s. The spray rose has 100 holes, each with a diameter of 1
mm. Assuming inviscid flow throughout, calculate the speed of the jets that leave the
sprayer.
Solution: the inlet flow rate can be calculated:

𝜋
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2 ∗ ∗ 0.022 = 0.00063 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
4
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0.00063 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
The flow rate out is for 100 holes so:
0.00063
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 = = 0.0000063 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
100

And the velocity for one hole:

0.0000063
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜋 = 8 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
∗ 0.0012
4
The Bernoulli equation
Work and Energy
We know that if we drop a ball it accelerates downward with an acceleration 𝑔 =
9.81 𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 (neglecting the frictional resistance due to air). We can calculate the
speed of the ball after falling a distance h by the formula:
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 (a = g and s = h)
The equation could be applied to a falling droplet of water as the same laws of motion
apply. A more general approach to obtaining the parameters of motion (of both solids
and fluids) is to apply the principle of conservation of energy. When friction is
negligible the sum of kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy is constant.
1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = ∗ 𝑚 ∗ 𝑣2
2
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
(m is the mass, v is the velocity and h is the height above the datum).
To apply this to a falling droplet we have an initial velocity of zero, and it falls through
a height of h. Now:
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 0, 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
1
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 2 ∗ 𝑚 ∗ 𝑣 2 , 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 0
We know that:
kinetic energy + potential energy = constant
And:
Initial kinetic energy + Initial potential energy = Final kinetic energy + Final potential
energy
1
𝑚∗𝑔∗ℎ = ∗ 𝑚 ∗ 𝑣2
2
Hence:
𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ
Although this is applied to a drop of liquid, a similar method can be applied to a

continuous jet of liquid.

We can consider the situation as in the figure above, a continuous jet of water coming
from a pipe with velocity 𝑢1 . One particle of the liquid with mass 𝑚 travels with the jet
and falls from height 𝑧1 to 𝑧2 . The velocity also changes𝑢1 to 𝑢2 . The jet is travelling in
air where the pressure is everywhere atmospheric so there is no force due to pressure
acting on the fluid. The only force which is acting is that due to gravity. The sum of
the kinetic and potential energies remains constant (as we neglect energy losses due to
friction). Therefore,
1 1
𝑚𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑚𝑢1 2 = 𝑚𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑚𝑢2 2
2 2
The mass of fluid is constant and the equation will be:
1 1
𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑢1 2 = 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑢2 2
2 2
This will give a reasonably accurate result as long as the weight of the jet is large
compared to the frictional forces. It is only applicable while the jet is whole - before it
breaks up into droplets.
Case study:
We can use a very similar application of the energy conservation concept to determine
the velocity of flow along a pipe from a reservoir. Consider the 'idealised reservoir' in
the figure below.

The level of the water in the reservoir is 𝑧1 . Considering the energy situation there is
no movement of water so kinetic energy is zero but the gravitational potential energy
is 𝑚𝑔𝑧1 .
If a pipe is attached at the bottom water flows along this pipe out of the tank to a level
𝑧2 . A mass 𝑚 has flowed from the top of the reservoir to the nozzle and it has gained a
1
velocity 𝑢2 . The kinetic energy is now 2 𝑚𝑢2 2 and the potential energy 𝑚𝑔𝑧2 .
Summarising:
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 0, 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔𝑧1
1
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 2 ∗ 𝑚 ∗ 𝑢2 2 , 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔𝑧2
We know that:
kinetic energy + potential energy = constant
1
𝑚𝑔𝑧1 = 𝑚𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑚𝑢2 2
2
1 2
𝑔(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) = 𝑢
2 2
𝑢2 = √2𝑔(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )
We now have a expression for the velocity of the water as it flows from of a pipe nozzle
at a height (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) below the surface of the reservoir. (Neglecting friction losses in
the pipe and the nozzle).
Case Study:
The pipe is filled with stationary fluid of density 𝜌 has pressures 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 at levels 𝑧1
and 𝑧2 respectively. What is the pressure difference in terms of these levels?
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑔(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )

This applies when the pressure varies but the fluid is stationary. Compare this to the
equation derived for a moving fluid but constant pressure:
𝑝1 𝑝1
𝑔𝑧1 + = 𝑔𝑧2 +
𝜌 𝜌
1 1
𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑢1 2 = 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑢2 2
2 2
You can see that these are similar form. What would happen if both pressure and
velocity varies?
Bernoulli's equation has some restrictions in its applicability, they are:
1- Flow is steady;
2- Density is constant (which also means the fluid is incompressible);
3- Friction losses are negligible.
4- The equation relates the states at two points along a single streamline, (not
conditions on two different streamlines).
All these conditions are impossible to satisfy at any instant in time! Fortunately for
many real situations where the conditions are approximately satisfied, the equation
gives very good results.
The derivation of Bernoulli's Equation:
An element of fluid, as that in the figure above, has potential energy due to its height z
above a datum and kinetic energy due to its velocity u. If the element has weight mg
then:
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔𝑧
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑍
1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = ∗ 𝑚 ∗ 𝑢2
2
1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = ∗ 𝑢2
2𝑔

At any cross-section, the pressure generates a force, the fluid will flow, moving the
cross-section, so work will be done. If the pressure at cross section AB is p and the area
of the cross-section is a then
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑝𝑎
when the mass mg of fluid has passed AB, cross-section AB will have moved to AA'
𝑚𝑔
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐵 =
𝜌𝑔
So, the distance:
𝑚
𝐴𝐴′ =
𝜌𝑎
Work done = force distance AA’
𝑚 𝑝𝑚
= 𝑝𝑎 ∗ =
𝜌𝑎 𝜌
𝑝
Work done per unite weight = 𝜌𝑔
This term is known as the pressure energy of the flowing stream. Summing all of these
energy terms gives:
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 +
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 +
Or,
𝑝 𝑢2
+ +𝑍 =𝐻
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Where:
𝑝 𝑢2
, 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑, , 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑍, 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝐻, 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑

By the principle of conservation of energy, the total energy in the system does not
change, Thus the total head does not change. So, the Bernoulli equation can be
written:
𝑝 𝑢2
+ + 𝑍 = 𝐻 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
As stated above, the Bernoulli equation applies to conditions along a streamline. We
can apply it between two points, 1 and 2, on the streamline in the figure below:

total energy per unit weight at 1 = total energy per unit weight at 2
Or
total head at 1 = total head at 2
Or
𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2 𝑢2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Example 1: A U tube manometer containing water is connected to a nozzle of an air
tunnel that discharges to the atmosphere as shown in figure below. The area ratio is
𝐴1
= 0.25. For given operational conditions the level difference in the manometer is
𝐴2
ℎ = 94𝑚𝑚. Take the water density 𝜌 = 1000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 and the air density 𝜌 =
1.23 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3.
What is the average air velocity at the nozzle exit, 𝑣2 ?

Solution: The average air velocity at the nozzle exit is:
2𝜌 𝑔ℎ
𝑣2 = √ ∗ = 40 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 (1 − (𝐴1 )2
𝐴2
Example 2: Water is flowing in a fire hose with a velocity of 1.0 m/s and a pressure of
200000 Pa. At the nozzle, the pressure decreases to atmospheric pressure (101300 Pa),
there is no change in height. Use the Bernoulli equation to calculate the velocity of the
water exiting the nozzle.
Solution: The velocity at the nozzle exit can be calculated direct by using Bernoulli
equation:

𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2 𝑢2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
From the question that there is no change in height which is 𝑍1 = 𝑍2 .
𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2 𝑢2 2
+ = +
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
Now the exist velocity:
𝑢2 2 𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2
= + − → 𝑢2 = √2 ( + − )
2 𝜌 2 𝜌 𝜌 2 𝜌
200000 12 101300
𝑢2 = √2 ( + − ) = 14.08 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
1000 2 1000
Example 3: Through a refinery, fuel ethanol is flowing in a pipe at a velocity of 1 m/s

and a pressure of 101300 Pa. The refinery needs the ethanol to be at a pressure of 2 atm
(202600 Pa) on a lower level. How far must the pipe drop in height in order to achieve
this pressure? Assume the velocity does not change. (Hint: The density of ethanol is
789 kg/m3)
Solution: from Bernoulli Equation:
𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2 𝑢2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
From the question that there is no change in height which is 𝑢1 = 𝑢2 .
𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝2 𝑝1
+ 𝑍1 = + 𝑍2 → 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = −
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
202600 101300
∆𝑍 = − = 13.08 𝑚
789 ∗ 9.81 789 ∗ 9.81
Case Study:
1- Make a prediction. In the pipe shown in figure above, is the pressure higher at
point 2, where the fluid flows fastest, or at point 1? The fluid in the pipe flows

from left to right. Many people predict that the pressure is higher at point 2,
where the fluid is moving faster.
2- Apply the continuity equation, and Bernoulli’s equation, to rank points 1, 2, and
3 according to pressure, from largest to smallest. Let’s see if the common
prediction, that the pressure is highest at point 2, is correct. First, apply the
continuity equation:
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
Looking at the tube, we know that:
𝐴1 = 𝐴3 > 𝐴2 which tells us that 𝑣2 > 𝑣1 = 𝑣3 .
Now, let’s apply Bernoulli’s Equation. Comparing points 1 and 2, we start with:
𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2 𝑢2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
The vertical positions of these two points are equal so the terms Z cancel out:
𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2 𝑢2 2
+ = +
𝑢2 2 𝑢1 2
Let’s re-write this as: 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌− 𝜌
2 2
The continuity equation told us that 𝑣2 > 𝑣1 , so the right-hand side of the above
equation is positive. This means the left-hand side must also be positive, implying that
𝑝1 > 𝑝2 , Thus, the pressure at point 2, where the fluid speed is highest, is less than the
pressure at point 1. For points at the same height, higher speed corresponds to lower
pressure. We can make sense of this by considering a parcel of fluid that moves from
point 1 to point 2. Because this parcel of fluid speeds up as it travels from point 1 to
point 2, there must be a net force acting on it that is directed right. This force must
come from a difference in pressure between points 1 and 2. For the force to be directed
right, the pressure must be larger on the left, at point 1.
We can also use Bernoulli’s equation to show that the pressure at point 3 is equal to
that at point 1. Thus, we can conclude that 𝑝1 = 𝑝3 > 𝑝2 .

Example 4: A Styrofoam cylinder, filled with water, sits on a table. You then poke a
small hole through the side of the cylinder, 20 cm below the top of the water surface.
What is the speed of the fluid emerging from the hole?
Solution: We’re going to apply Bernoulli’s equation, which means identifying two
points that we can relate via the equation.
Point 2 is outside the container where the hole is, because that is the place where
we’re trying to find the speed. Point 1 needs to be somewhere inside the container.
Any point inside will do, although the most sensible places are either at the top of the
container, where we know the pressure, or inside the container at the level of the hole.
Let’s choose a point at the very top, and apply Bernoulli’s equation:
𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2 𝑢2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
First, we should recognize that, because both of our points are exposed to the
atmosphere, we have 𝑝1 = 𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 . The pressure terms and the density for same
fluid cancel in the equation, leaving:
𝑢1 2 𝑢2 2
+ 𝑍1 = + 𝑍2
2𝑔 2𝑔
The height at point 2 can be taken as zero:
𝑢1 2 𝑢2 2
+ 𝑍1 =
2𝑔 2𝑔
Let say that the velocity at point 1 can be assumed to be zero:
𝑢2 2
𝑍1 = → 𝑢2 = √2𝑔𝑍1 = 1.98 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝑔
Notes:
1- When the diameter of the pipe constant, the velocity will be constant through
the pipe at any point.
2- In some cases, when both velocities are unavailable at both point, it can be
neglected the higher one as it too big compare to the other.

3- The continuity equation can be used when the diameter of the same streamline
is different.
Losses due to friction:
In a real pipe line, there are energy losses due to friction - these must be taken into
account as they can be very significant.
How can the total head be changing? We have said that the total head - or total energy
per unit weight - is constant. We are considering energy conservation, so if we allow
for an amount of energy to be lost due to friction the total head will change.
𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2 𝑢2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 + ℎ𝑓
ℎ𝑓 , the head loss due to friction.
Applications of the Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation can be applied to a great many situations not just the pipe
flow we have been considering up to now. In the following sections, we will see some
examples of its application to flow measurement from tanks, within pipes as well as in
open channels.
1- Pitot Tube:
If a stream of uniform velocity flows into a blunt body, the stream lines take a
pattern similar to this:
Note how some move to the left and some to the right. But one, in the centre, goes
to the tip of the blunt body and stops. It stops because at this point the velocity is
zero - the fluid does not move at this one point. This point is known as the
stagnation point.
Now, we can calculate the pressure drop at this point by using Bernoulli equation:
𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2 𝑢2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
Based on the figure above, velocity at point 2 is zero, as well as, the height is constant,
so:

𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2
+ =
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
And the pressure at point 2:
𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2
+ =
𝜌 2 𝜌
𝑢1 2
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + ∗𝜌
2
This increase in pressure which bring the fluid to rest is called the dynamic pressure.
And the velocity can be calculated by:
𝑢1 = √2𝜌(𝑝2 − 𝑝1 )
Or:
𝑢1 2
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 + ∗𝜌
2
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑢1 2
𝜌𝑔ℎ2 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + ∗𝜌
2
𝑢1 = √2𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
We now have an expression for velocity obtained from two pressure measurements
and the application of the Bernoulli equation.
2- Flow Through a Small Orifice
We are to consider the flow from a tank through a hole in the side close to the
base. The general arrangement and a close up of the hole and streamlines are
shown in the figure below:
Based on the figure, we can conclude that:

1- The velocity at the surface of fluid in the tank can be taken zero.
2- The pressure at the surface is atmospheric pressure which is zero as well.

3- And when the fluid flow from the hole will go under atmosphere pressure as
well.
4- Now, if we take the datum line at point 2, the height will be zero at point 2.
The equation will be as below:
𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2 𝑢2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
With the concluded points the equation will be:
𝑢2 2
𝑍1 =
2𝑔
The velocity can be illustrated by:
𝑢2 = √2𝑔𝑍1
This is the theoretical value of velocity. Unfortunately, it will be an over estimate of

the real velocity because friction losses have not been taken into account. To
incorporate friction, we use the coefficient of velocity to correct the theoretical
velocity,
𝑢𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑣 ∗ 𝑢𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
Each orifice has its own coefficient of velocity, they usually lie in the range (0.97 -
0.99) To calculate the discharge through the orifice we multiply the area of the jet
by the velocity. The actual area of the jet is the area of the vena contracta not the
area of the orifice. We obtain this area by using a coefficient of contraction for
the orifice
𝐴𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑐 ∗ 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒
So, the discharge through the orifice is given by:

𝑄 = 𝑢𝐴
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝑢𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ∗ 𝐴𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑣 ∗ 𝑢𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 ∗ 𝐶𝑐 ∗ 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ √2𝑔𝑍1 ∗ 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑐 ∗ 𝐶𝑣
3- Venturi Meter
The Venturi meter is a device for measuring discharge in a pipe. It consists of a
rapidly converging section which increases the velocity of flow and hence reduces
the pressure. It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe by a gently
diverging 'diffuser' section. By measuring the pressure differences the discharge

can be calculated. This is a particularly accurate method of flow measurement as

energy loss are very small.
Applying Bernoulli along the streamline from point 1 to point 2 in the narrow
throat of the Venturi meter we have:
𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2 𝑢2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
By the using the continuity equation we can eliminate the velocity u2,
𝑈1 𝐴1 = 𝑈2 𝐴2
𝑢1 ∗ 𝐴1
𝑢2 =
𝐴2
Substituting this into and rearranging the Bernoulli equation we get:
𝑝1 𝑝2 1 𝑢1 ∗ 𝐴1 2 𝑢1 2
− + 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 = ∗ (( ) − )
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝐴2 2𝑔
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 𝑢1 2 𝐴1 2
+ 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = ∗ (( ) − 1)
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝐴2
𝑝 −𝑝
( 1 𝜌𝑔 2 + 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 )
𝑢1 = √
𝐴 2
(𝐴1 ) − 1
2

Example 5: Water is flowing from a garden hose figure below. A child places his
thumb to cover most of the hose outlet, causing a thin jet of high-speed water to
emerge. The pressure in the hose just upstream of his thumb is 400 kPa. If the hose is
held upward, what is the maximum height that the jet could achieve?
Solution: the velocity does not change from point 1 to point 2, and the pressure at
point 2 is atmospheric, therefore, the Bernoulli equation will be:
𝑝1 𝑝2
= + 𝑍2
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
And the height will be:
𝑝1 𝑝2 400
𝑍2 = − = ∗ 1000 = 40.774 𝑚
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 1000 ∗ 9.81
Example 6: A large tank open to the atmosphere is filled with water to a height of 5 m
from the outlet tap figure below. A tap near the bottom of the tank is now opened, and
water flows out from the smooth and rounded outlet. Determine the maximum water
velocity at the outlet.
Solution: the assumptions will be:

1- The pressure at point 1 and 2 will be atmospheric pressure.

2- The velocity at point 1 zero.
3- The height at point 2 zero.
And the equation will be:
𝑢2 2
𝑍1 = → 𝑢2 = √2𝑔𝑍1 = 9.9 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝑔
Example 7: A piezometer and a Pitot tube are tapped into a horizontal water pipe, as
shown in figure below to measure static and stagnation (static dynamic) pressures. For
the indicated water column heights, determine the velocity at the center of the pipe.
Solution: Noting that z1 = z2, and point 2 is a stagnation point and thus
V2= 0, the application of the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 gives:
𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2
+ = → + =
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝜌 2 𝜌
This is a steady flow with straight and parallel streamlines, and the gage pressures at
points 1 and 2 can be expressed as:
𝑝1 = 𝜌𝑔(ℎ1 + ℎ2 )
𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑔(ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 )
Substituting the P1 and P2 expressions gives:
𝑢1 = √2𝑔ℎ3 = 1.53 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Example 8: A river flows at 12 ft/s and then turns and drops as a waterfall, from a
height of 80 ft. Determine the velocity of the water just before it strikes the rocks
below the falls.
Solution: based on this case:
The pressure will be atmospheric pressure in both cases, so 𝑝1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝2 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜.
The height at point 1 will be 80ft as given.
The height at point 2 will be zero. And Bernoulli equation will be:

𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2 𝑢2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
Now:
𝑢1 2 𝑢2 2
+ 𝑍1 = → 𝑢2 2 = 144 + 5152 → 𝑢2 = 72.774 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑠
2𝑔 2𝑔
Example 9: Water is discharged through the drain pipe at B from the large basin at
0.03 m3/s. If the diameter of the drainpipe is d = 60 mm, determine the pressure at B
just inside the drain in the drain when the depth of the water is h = 2 m.
Solution: the velocity at point B can be calculated from:

𝑄𝐵 = 𝑢𝐵 𝐴𝐵 → 𝑢𝐵 = 10.6 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
And the pressure can be calculated by using Bernoulli equation:
𝑝1 𝑢1 2 𝑝2 𝑢2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2
Based on the figure:
1- Pressure at point A is zero
2- Velocity at point is zero
3- The height at A is 2m
4- The height at B is zero
Now:
𝑝𝐵 𝑢𝐵 2
𝑍𝐴 = + → 𝑝𝐵 = −36.67 𝑘𝑝𝑎
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Example 10: A fountain is produced by water that flows up the tube at Q = 0.08 m3/s
and then radially through two cylindrical plates before exiting to the atmosphere.
Determine the velocity and pressure of the water at point A.

Solution: Since the water can be considered as an ideal fluid (incompressible and
inviscid) and the flow is steady, Bernoulli’s Equation is applicable. Writing this
equation between points A and B on the radial streamline,
𝑝𝐴 𝑢𝐴 2 𝑝𝐵 𝑢𝐵 2
+ + 𝑍𝐴 = + + 𝑍𝐵
Since point B is exposed to the atmosphere, pB = patm = 0. Here, points A and B
have the same elevation since the cylindrical plates are in the horizontal plane. Thus,
zA = zB = z.
𝑢𝐵 2 𝑢𝐴 2
𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌 ( − ) → 𝑒𝑞𝑢. 1
2 2
Continuity requires that:

𝑄𝐵 0.08
𝑄𝐵 = 𝑢𝐵 𝐴𝐵 → 𝑢𝐵 = = = 6.4 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝜋𝑑𝐿 2𝜋 ∗ 0.4 ∗ 0.005
𝑄𝐴 0.08
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑢𝐴 𝐴𝐴 → 𝑢𝐴 = = = 12.73 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝜋𝑑𝐿 2𝜋 ∗ 0.2 ∗ 0.005
Put the velocities back in equation 1:
𝑢𝐵 2 𝑢𝐴 2
𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌 ( − ) → 𝑝𝐴 = −60.546 𝐾𝑝𝑎
2 2
The negative sign indicates that the pressure at A is a partial vacuum.

Example 11: The average human lung takes in about 0.6 liter of air with each
inhalation, through the mouth and nose, A. This lasts for about 1.5 seconds. Determine
the power required to do this if it occurs through the trachea B having a cross-
sectional area of 125 mm2. Take density of air = 1.23 kg/m3. Hint: Recall that power is
force F times velocity V, where F = pA.

Solution: Assume that air is incompressible and inviscid and the flow is steady. Then,
Bernoulli’s equation can be applied between points A and B on the central streamline
along the trachea.
+ + 𝑍𝐴 = + + 𝑍𝐵
Since the density of air is small, the elevation terms can be neglected. Since the air
is taken in from the atmosphere, which is a large reservoir, pA = 0 and uA = 0, and the
height is zero as well cause it is almost horizontal Then
𝑝𝐵 𝑢𝐵 2
0= +
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
−2𝑝𝐵
𝑢𝐵 = √
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
The discharge can be calculated by:

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 0.6 𝐿
𝑄= →𝑄= = 0.4 = 0.0004 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 1.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
From this discharge:
−2𝑝𝐵
𝑄 = 𝑢𝐵 ∗ 𝐴𝐵 → 0.0004 = √ ∗ 𝐴𝐵
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑄 2
𝑝𝐵 = ∗( )
2 𝐴𝐵
The negative sign indicates that the pressure in the trachea is in partial vacuum.
Then:
𝐹 = 𝑝𝐵 ∗ 𝐴𝐵 → 𝐹 = ∗ ( ) ∗ 𝐴𝐵
2 𝐴𝐵
The power of F is:

𝑃 = 𝐹 ∗ 𝑢𝐵
𝑃= ∗ ( ) ∗ (𝐴𝐵 ∗ 𝑢𝐵 )
2 𝐴𝐵
𝑃= ∗
2 𝐴𝐵 2
By using the given data, the power will be:

𝑃 = 2.52 𝑚𝑊
Example 11: If the hose at A is used to pump air into the tank with a pressure of 150
kPa, determine the discharge of water at the end of the 15-mm-diameter hose at B
when the water level is 0.5 m.
Solution: Since the water is discharged from a large tank, VC = 0. Also, the water is
discharged into the atmosphere at B, thus pB = 0. If the datum is set at
B, zC = 0.5 m and B, zB = 0.
𝑝𝐶 𝑢𝐶 2 𝑝𝐵 𝑢𝐵 2
+ + 𝑍𝐶 = + + 𝑍𝐵
By applying our case, it will be:
𝑝𝐶 𝑢𝐵 2
+ 𝑍𝐶 =
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑢𝐵 = 17.6 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
The discharge can be calculated by:
𝜋
𝑄 = 𝑢𝐵 ∗ 𝐴𝐵 → 𝑄 = 17.6 ∗ ∗ 0.0152 = 0.000311 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
4
Example 12: A fountain ejects water through the four nozzles, which have inner
diameters of 10 mm. Determine the pressure in the pipe and the required volumetric
flow through the supply pipe so that the water stream always reaches a height of h = 4
m.

Solution: Since the water stream DF flows in the open atmosphere, pD = pF = 0. Also,
when the stream achieves its maximum height at F, uF = 0. If we set the datum along
the streamline at the centreline of the pipe, zD = zE = 0
and zF = 4 m. From D to F, now the best way to find the velocity of point D by:
𝑝𝐷 𝑢𝐷 2 𝑝𝐹 𝑢𝐹 2
+ + 𝑍𝐷 = + + 𝑍𝐹
Now based on the figure the equation will be:
𝑢𝐷 2
= 𝑍𝐹 → 𝑢𝐷 = √2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 4 = 8.86 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝑔
By using the continuity equation:
𝑢𝐴 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑢𝐵 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑢𝐶 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑢𝐷 𝐴𝐷
The diameter is equals for each case so:
𝑢𝐴 = 𝑢𝐵 = 𝑢𝐶 = 𝑢𝐷 = 8.86 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
To calculated the pressure:
𝑝𝐸 𝑢𝐸 2 𝑝𝐹 𝑢𝐹 2
+ + 𝑍𝐸 = + + 𝑍𝐹
And based on the figure:
𝑝𝐸 𝑢𝐸 2
+ = 𝑍𝐹
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑢𝐸 2
𝑝𝐸 = 𝑍𝐹 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝑔 − ∗ 𝜌 → 𝑒𝑞. 1
2
The velocity at point E can be calculated by using continuity:
4𝑢𝐷 𝐴𝐷 = 𝑢𝐸 𝐴𝐸 → 4 ∗ 8.86 ∗ 0.012 = 𝑢𝐸 ∗ 0.062 → 𝑢𝐸 = 0.984 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

And the pressure can be calculated by put the velocity back in equation 1:
0.9842
𝑝𝐸 = 4 ∗ 1000 ∗ 9.81 − ∗ 1000 = 38.76 𝑘𝑝𝑎
2

Note: 4𝑢𝐷 𝐴𝐷 = 𝑢𝐸 𝐴𝐸 → 𝑢𝐸 𝐴𝐸 = 𝑢𝐴 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑢𝐵 𝐴𝐵 + 𝑢𝐶 𝐴𝐶 + 𝑢𝐷 𝐴𝐷 , and as mentioned that

the velocity and diameter are equal so, 4𝑢𝐷 𝐴𝐷 = 𝑢𝐸 𝐴𝐸 .
Example 13: Determine the velocity of water through the pipe if the manometer
contains mercury held in the position shown. Take 𝜌Hg = 13 550 kg/m3.
Solution: Since point B is a stagnation point, uB = 0. If the datum is along the

horizontal streamline connecting A and B, zA = zB = 0.
+ + 𝑍𝐴 = + + 𝑍𝐵
Note: the velocity at starting of point of any tube will be assumed as zero (stagnation
point).
𝑝𝐴 𝑢𝐴 2 𝑝𝐵
+ = → 𝑝𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = −500 𝑢𝐴 2 𝑒𝑞𝑢. 1
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
Manometer Equation based on the figure:
𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔 ∗ 0.15 + 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑔 ∗ 0.05 = 𝑝𝐵 + 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔 ∗ 0.2
𝑝𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = −6155.78 𝑒𝑞𝑢. 2
Substitute in equation 1:
−6155.78 = −500 𝑢𝐴 2 → 𝑢𝐴 = 3.5 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Test yourself
1- Air enters the tepee door at A with an average speed of 2 m/s and exits at the
top B. Determine the pressure difference between these two points and find
the average speed of the air at B. The areas of the openings are AA = 0.3 m2 and
AB = 0.05 m2. The density of the air is 1.20 kg/m3.
12𝑚
Answer (𝑢𝐵 = , ∆𝑝 = −84 𝑝𝑎)
𝑠𝑒𝑐
2- A water-cooled nuclear reactor is made with plate fuel elements that are spaced
3 mm apart and 800 mm long. During an initial test, water enters at the bottom
of the reactor (plates) and flows upwards at 0.8 m/s. Determine the pressure
difference in the water between A and B. Take the average water temperature to
be 80°C.
Answer (7.63 kpa)

3- One method of producing energy is to use a tapered channel (TAPCHAN),

which diverts sea water into a reservoir as shown in the figure. As a wave
approaches the shore through the closed tapered channel at A, its height will
begin to increase until it begins to spill over the sides and into the reservoir.
The water in the reservoir then passes through a turbine in the building at C to
generate power and is returned to the sea at D. If the speed of the water at A is
VA = 2.5 m/s, and the water depth is hA = 3 m, determine the minimum height
of the channel to prevent water from entering the reservoir.
Answer(3.32m)
4- Determine the air pressure that must be exerted at the top of the kerosene in
the large tank at B so that the initial discharge through the drain pipe at A is 0.1
m3/s once the valve at A is opened.
Answer (34 kpa)
5- Water flows up through the vertical pipe. Determine the pressure at A if the
average velocity at B is 4 m/s.
Answer (12.8 kpa)

Fluid Mechanics, Lecture 4

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Fluid Mechanics Ammar Ali Abd

Al-Qasim Green University Water Resources Engineering

2- Volume flow rate – Discharge:

Al-Qasim Green University Water Resources Engineering

Al-Qasim Green University Water Resources Engineering

And we know that:

Solution: the inlet flow rate can be calculated:

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And the velocity for one hole:

Although this is applied to a drop of liquid, a similar method can be applied to a

Al-Qasim Green University Water Resources Engineering

Al-Qasim Green University Water Resources Engineering

Al-Qasim Green University Water Resources Engineering

Al-Qasim Green University Water Resources Engineering

𝑍, 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝐻, 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑

Al-Qasim Green University Water Resources Engineering

What is the average air velocity at the nozzle exit, 𝑣2 ?

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Example 3: Through a refinery, fuel ethanol is flowing in a pipe at a velocity of 1 m/s

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Al-Qasim Green University Water Resources Engineering

Al-Qasim Green University Water Resources Engineering

Applications of the Bernoulli Equation

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Based on the figure, we can conclude that:

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This is the theoretical value of velocity. Unfortunately, it will be an over estimate of

So, the discharge through the orifice is given by:

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ √2𝑔𝑍1 ∗ 𝐴𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒

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can be calculated. This is a particularly accurate method of flow measurement as

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Solution: the assumptions will be:

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1- The pressure at point 1 and 2 will be atmospheric pressure.

𝑢1 = √2𝑔ℎ3 = 1.53 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

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Solution: the velocity at point B can be calculated from:

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Continuity requires that:

The negative sign indicates that the pressure at A is a partial vacuum.

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The discharge can be calculated by:

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By using the given data, the power will be:

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4𝑢𝐷 𝐴𝐷 = 𝑢𝐸 𝐴𝐸 → 4 ∗ 8.86 ∗ 0.012 = 𝑢𝐸 ∗ 0.062 → 𝑢𝐸 = 0.984 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

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Note: 4𝑢𝐷 𝐴𝐷 = 𝑢𝐸 𝐴𝐸 → 𝑢𝐸 𝐴𝐸 = 𝑢𝐴 𝐴𝐴 + 𝑢𝐵 𝐴𝐵 + 𝑢𝐶 𝐴𝐶 + 𝑢𝐷 𝐴𝐷 , and as mentioned that

Solution: Since point B is a stagnation point, uB = 0. If the datum is along the

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Answer (7.63 kpa)

Al-Qasim Green University Water Resources Engineering

3- One method of producing energy is to use a tapered channel (TAPCHAN),

Answer (34 kpa)

Answer (12.8 kpa)

Al-Qasim Green University Water Resources Engineering

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