OPEN CHANNELS

Two Types of Channels

1) Pressure Conduit (Pipes)
2) Open Channels

Open Channel(s)
- one in which the stream is not completely enclosed by solid
boundaries
- has a free surface subjected only to atmospheric pressure
- flow is caused not by some external head but by gravity
component along the slope of the channel
- the hydraulic grade line is coincident with the stream surface
since the pressure at the surface is atmospheric
- flow may either be uniform or non-uniform
UNIFORM FLOW ( 𝑺 = 𝑺o)
 Uniform Flow Condition – the simplest of all open channel
problems
 Conditions for a flow to be uniform:
• Velocity
must be
• Depth of flow constant
• Cross sectional area of flow at any point of stream
Like: 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 ; 𝑑1 = 𝑑2 ; 𝐴1 = 𝐴2

For this condition, the stream surface is parallel to the channel bed and
the energy grade line is parallel to the stream surface, and therefore
the slope of the energy grade line S is equal to the slope of the channel
bed So.
Boundary Shear Stress (o)

The average boundary shear stress , acting over the wetted

surface of the channel is given by

= RS

Where:
 = unit weight of the fluid
𝑅 = hydraulic radius
𝑆 = slope of energy grade line

For uniform flow of for S < 1/10 ( < 5.7o), 𝑆 = 𝑆o

Head Lost, hL
The head lost in an open channel flow can be expressed as

𝑕𝐿 = 𝑆𝐿
𝑛𝑉 2
𝑕𝐿 =
𝑅2 3

Normal Depth
The normal depth, 𝑑𝑛 is the depth at which uniform flow will occur
in an open channel. Normal depth may be determined from the
following equation for discharge

Chezy: 𝑄 = 𝐴𝐶 𝑅𝑆
1
Manning: 𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑅2 3 𝑆 1 2
𝑛
Specific Energy
The specific energy (𝐻) is defined as the energy per unit weight
relative to the bottom of the channel. It is given by

𝑉2
𝐻 = +𝑑
2𝑔

Where:
𝑉 = the mean velocity of flow
𝑑 = depth of flow
 We have formulas used which are derived from basic properties of
fluids and from these formulas other formulas came up through
experimentation in open channels.

Chezy’s Formula

𝑽 = 𝑪 𝑹𝑺
Where:
𝑄 = AV
𝑉 = velocity of water
𝐴 = cross sectional area of channel
𝐶 = Chezy’s coefficient
𝐴
𝑅 = hydraulic radius =
𝑃
𝑃 = wetted perimeter
𝑆 = slope of energy gradient
Kutter’s Formula

1 0.00155
23+ +
𝑛 𝑆
𝐶= 𝑛 0.00155
1+ 23+
𝑅 𝑆

Where:
𝑛 = roughness coefficient
𝐶 = Kutter’s coefficient
𝑅 = hydraulic slope
𝑆 = slope of energy gradient
Manning’s Formula

1
𝑉= 𝑅2/3 𝑆1/2
𝑛

Where:
𝑛 = roughness coefficient
𝑛 = coefficient of rugosity

Manning’s Coefficient
The most widely used
1 1 6
𝐶= 𝑅 formula for 𝑪 in the
𝑛 Chezy equation is the
one given by Manning

Where:
𝐶 = Manning’s coefficient
Bazin’s Formula
87
𝐶= 𝑚
1+
𝑅

Where:
𝐶 = Bazin’s coefficient
𝐴
𝑚 = hydraulic mean depth =
𝑃

Darcy Weishback Coefficient

2𝑔
𝐶=
𝑓

Where:
𝑓 = friction factor
𝑔 = 9.81 m/s2
Most Efficient Cross Sections (MES)
- Also known as the most economical sections
- These are sections which for a given slope, area, and roughness,
the rate of discharge is maximum

For Manning Formula

1 2 3 1 2
𝑄 =𝐴 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛

It can be seen that with A, n, and S constant, Q is maximum

when the hydraulic radius R is maximum, and since R = A/P,
then R is maximum if P is minimum since A is constant.
Therefore, the most efficient section is the one that has the
least wetted perimeter and therefore requires the least cost of
grading and lining, which also makes it mot economical.
 Of all canal shapes, the semi-circular open channel is the most
efficient. Semi-circular flumes are often built of pressed steel
and other forms of metal, but for other types of construction
such a shape is impractical.

Cross Section of Greatest Efficiency

- Best hydraulic section
- Minimum wetted perimeter
- Most economical section
- Most advantageous section
- Optimum section
- Maximum discharge
Rectangular Section

𝒃 = 𝟐𝒅 (𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡𝑕 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑸 =𝑨𝑽

𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒)
𝑽 = 𝑪 𝑹𝑺
𝑹 = 𝒅𝟐
𝟏
𝑽= 𝑹2/3 𝑺1/2
𝒏
Trapezoidal Section (most efficient section when  = 30o

Width at the top = sum of the sides

𝒙 = 𝟐𝒚

𝑹 = 𝒅𝟐
Semi-circular Section (most efficient circular section)

𝑹 = 𝒓𝟐
Circular Section

A circular channel will have its maximum discharge when the depth
of flow 𝒅 is 93.8% of the diameter 𝐷, and also, the velocity is
maximum when the depth is 81% of the diameter 𝐷.

𝑸𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝟖𝑫

𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝑫
Triangular Section (most efficient section when  = 90o)

Most efficient triangular section occurs when the angle at the vertex
Is 90o.
Example:
Water flows in a rectangular, concrete, open channel that is 10 m
wide at a depth of 3 m. The channel slope is 0.0025. Using n =
0.013, find the velocity, flow rate, and the boundary shear stress.

Solution:
𝟏
𝑽 = 𝑹𝟐 𝟑
𝑺𝟏 𝟐
𝑽 =
𝟏
(1.875)𝟐 𝟑 (0.0025)𝟏 𝟐
𝒏 𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟑

𝐴 = 10(3) = 30 𝑚2 𝑽 = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟒𝟖 𝒎/𝒔

𝑃 = 10 + 3 × 2 𝑸 = 𝐴 𝑉 = 30 5.848
= 30 𝑚2 𝑸 = 𝟏𝟕𝟓. 𝟒𝟓 𝒎𝟑/𝒔

𝑅 = 𝐴 𝑃 = 30 16  = 𝑹𝑺
= 1.875 𝑚  = (9810)(1.875)(0.0025)
 = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟗𝟖 𝑷𝒂
Example:
Determine the flow through a trapezoidal concrete lined canal
having a slide slope of 3H to 4V and bottom width of 2 m if the
depth of flow is 2 m. The channel is laid on a slope of 3 m per 2
kilometer. Use n = 0.013

Solution:

Given:
𝑑 = 2𝑚
𝑏 = 2𝑚

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐
𝑸 = 𝑨 𝑹 𝑺 𝑦 = (5/4)2 = 2.5 𝑚
𝒏
 5+2
𝑨 = 2 = 𝟕 𝒎𝟐
2
𝑷 = 2 + 2 2.5 = 𝟕 𝒎

𝐴 7
𝑹 = = =𝟏 𝒎
𝑃 7
3
𝑺 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓
2000

1
𝑄 = (7) 12 3 0.00151 2
0.013

𝑸 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟖𝟓 𝒎𝟑/𝒔
Example:
Water flows in a triangular V-notch steel channel, with vertex
angle of 60o, at a velocity of 1.2 m/s. Find the depth of flow if the
channel is laid on a slope of 0.0017. Use n = 0.014

Solution:

𝐴 = 1 2 (2𝑑 tan 60𝒐)𝑑

𝐴 = 𝑑2 tan 60𝒐
𝑃 = 2𝑑 sec 60𝒐

𝑅 = 𝐴 𝑃

𝑑2 tan 60𝒐
𝑅 =
2𝑑 sec 60𝒐
𝑅 = 0.433𝑑
 𝟏
𝑽 = 𝑹𝟐 𝟑 𝑺𝟏 𝟐
𝒏

𝟏
𝟏. 𝟐 = (𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟑)𝟐 𝟑 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟕)𝟏 𝟐
𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟒

𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟏 𝒎
Example:
A section of a storm drain tunnel is shown below. During the
heavy storm, the water surface is 2.5 m above the semi-circular
section. If n = 0.02 and the slope of the channel is 0.009, calculate
the discharge.

Solution:
 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐
𝑸 = 𝑨 𝑹 𝑺
𝒏
1
𝑨 = 5.5 2.5 + 𝜋 1.25 2 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝟐
2
𝑷 = 2 2.5 + 1.5 2 + 𝜋 1.25 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟗𝟑 𝒎

𝐴 16.20
𝑹 = = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝟖 𝒎
𝑃 11.93

𝟏
𝑸 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟐𝟎 × (𝟏. 𝟑𝟓𝟖)𝟐 𝟑 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗) 𝟏 𝟐
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐

𝑸 = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟐𝟖 𝒎𝟑/𝒔
Example:
A 600-mm-radius seer pipe laid on a slope of 0.001 and has a
roughness coefficient n = 0.012, was found to be 7/8 full.
Determine the discharge through the pipe

Solution:

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐
𝑸 = 𝑨 𝑹 𝑺
𝒏
7
𝑨 = 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
8
7
𝑨= 𝝅 𝒓𝟐
8
7
𝑨= 𝝅 (𝟎. 𝟔)𝟐
8
𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟗𝟔 𝒎𝟐
 𝑨𝟏 = 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 − 𝑨
𝑷 = 𝑟 360𝒐 − 𝜃 radians
1 𝜋
= 𝛑 𝒓𝟐 𝑷 = 0.60 360𝒐 − 101.185
8 180
𝑨𝟏 = 𝑨𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 − 𝑨𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑷 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟏 𝒎

1 1 1 𝐴 0.9896
𝜋 𝑟𝟐 = 𝑟2 𝜃𝑟 − 𝑟2 sin  𝑹 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝟓 𝒎
8 2 2 𝑃 2.71

𝜃𝑟 − sin 𝜃 = 0.785 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐
𝑸 = 𝑨 𝑹 𝑺
𝒏
Shift solve to solve for θ 1
𝑸 = (0.9896) (0.365)2 3
(0.001))1 2
0.012
𝜽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝟓𝒐
𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟐 𝒎𝟑/s
Do some checking by substituting
Values to the area equation.
ALTERNATE STAGES OF FLOW

𝑉2
d
2𝑔
EGL
Upper Stage, F < 1.0

F = 1.0
subcritical Qmax
depth
H critical depth, dc
d Lower Stage, F > 1.0

supercritical
depth

0 Q
Variation of discharge with depth
for constant energy

The channel shown in the figure above carries water at a depth of d and a mean velocity of V.
 𝑉2
The total specific energy in the channel is H= + 𝑑
2𝑔

Solving for V = 2𝑔(𝐻 − 𝑑)

and the discharge is Q = A 2𝑔 𝐻 − 𝑑

It appears in the curve that, within limits (from 0 to H), there are two depths
at which any given discharge will flow with the same energy content. These
two depths are called alternate stages, and are spoken as the tranquil or
upper stage and the rapid or lower stage.

On the upper stage, the Froude Number F < 1, while on the lower stage
F > 1.0.

FROUDE NUMBER

The ratio of the inertia force to gravity force and is given by the
expression: 𝑉
𝐅 =
𝑔𝐿
For rectangular channel, L = depth of flow d
𝑉
𝐅 =
𝑔𝑑

Critical Depth, dc

From the previous figure, a certain depth dc given for a total specific
energy H where the discharge is maximum. It is called the critical depth
and is defined as the depth at which for a given total head, the discharge
is maximum, or conversely, the depth at which for a given flow, the specific
energy is minimum.

Can be obtained from the differentiation of:

Q = A 2𝑔 𝐻 − 𝑑
For a rectangular channel, the discharge per meter width can be expressed as:

q = 1 𝑑 2𝑔 𝐻 − 𝑑
where:
q = unit flow in m3/s per meter width of canal = 𝑣𝑑

𝑄
𝑞 = , 𝑄 = total flow in m3/s ; b = channel width in meter
𝑏

𝑑= 2𝑔 (𝑑 𝐻 − 𝑑 )

𝟐 𝟑
dc = 𝑯 𝒐𝒓 𝑯 = 𝒅𝒄
𝟑 𝟐

𝟑 𝒒𝟐
dc =
𝒈
 𝑉
= 1 (Froude number, F)
𝑔𝑑

which shows that the Froude number for critical depth is equal to 1.

The slope required to give uniform flow at critical depth is known as the
critical slope, Sc. The equation for critical slope for a wide rectangular
channel is:
𝑔𝑛2
𝑆𝑐 =
𝑑𝑐 1/3

For any section, the critical depth can be computed by the following
derived formula:
channel is:
HYDRAULIC JUMP
- it is an abrupt rise in water surface which results
from the retarding water flowing at lower stage.
The change in stage from a depth less than the
critical depth to one greater than the critical
depth, but due to loss of head in the jump, the
total energy after the jump is less than the
alternate stage before the jump.
 This is along the length of
the channel or stream

Per foot width or unit width of

channel – meaning you consider a
unit width of the cross sectional area
of the channel which is perpendicular
to the length of the channel/stream.
What is used is q instead of Q
because it is a smaller discharge due
to unit width considered only.
• PURPOSE OF APRON
- to prevent erosion at the toe of the dam which
might result to failure to the structure. As
water discharges over an overflow dam, most of
its potential energy are converted into kinetic
energy thus producing high velocities at the toe
of the dam which probably causes erosion at the
toe of the structure.