Chapter VI: Fundamentals of Fluid Flow

Intended Learning Outcome:

Upon completing this chapter and working through a problem sets at the end-of-module, you will be able to:
✓ Understand the basic properties of fluids and their behavior under different flow conditions.
✓ Understand the derivation of the Bernoulli equation.
✓ Apply the Bernoulli's equation and the continuity equation to real-world problems in fluid flow.

Chapter Overview:
The previous chapter focuses into the statics of fluids, which is a nearly precise science, except for determining specific
weight (or density) experimentally. However, the nature of real fluid flow is highly complicated, and the fundamental laws that
describe fluid motion are difficult to express mathematically. Therefore, experimentation is necessary. Through an analysis based
on mechanics, thermodynamics, and systematic experimentation, researchers have been able to create large hydraulic structures
and efficient fluid machinery.
This chapter will introduce the fundamental concepts required for analyzing fluid motion. The essential equations for
predicting fluid behavior, including the equations of motion, continuity, and momentum, as well as the first and second laws of
thermodynamics applied to steady flow of a perfect gas, will be stated or derived. The continuity, energy, and momentum
equations will be derived using the control-volume approach in this chapter.
Discussion:
VI.1 Kinematics of Fluid Flow
The branch of science that concerns itself with the motion of particles without taking into account the forces that cause
said motion is known as kinematics. In fluid mechanics, this branch studies the velocity of particles in a flow field at any given time.
Once the velocity is known, the pressure distribution and the forces that act upon the fluid can be determined. This chapter will
discuss the methods used to calculate velocity and acceleration.
In fluid flow, velocity is a vector quantity, which means it has both magnitude and direction. Velocity can be expressed in
terms of streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines. Streamlines represent the instantaneous direction of fluid particles in a flow field
at any given time. Pathlines represent the actual path taken by a fluid particle over a particular period. Streaklines represent the
path of fluid particles that have passed through a specific point in a flow field over a particular period.

Methods of describing fluid motion:

In fluid mechanics, there are various methods for describing fluid motion. These methods include:
✓ Lagrangian Method
This method involves tracking individual fluid particles and observing their position and velocity as they move through
space and time. This method is useful for analyzing the behavior of a specific fluid particle in a flow field.
✓ Eulerian Method
This method involves studying the flow field at a fixed point in space and time. It is useful for analyzing the behavior of fluid
at specific points in a flow field.
✓ Streamlines
Streamlines are used to visualize the flow of fluid in a flow field. They represent the path that fluid particles would follow
if they were released into the flow at a specific point.
✓ Pathlines
Pathlines represent the actual path taken by a fluid particle over a particular period. They are useful for analyzing the long-
term behavior of fluid particles in a flow field.
✓ Streaklines
Streaklines represent the path of fluid particles that have passed through a specific point in a flow field over a particular
period. They are useful for analyzing the behavior of fluid particles in time-varying flow fields.
✓ Vortocity
Vorticity refers to the rotation of fluid particles in a flow field. It is useful for analyzing the behavior of rotating flows, such
as in turbines and pumps.
Types of Fluid Flow:
The fluid flow is classified as:
✓ Steady and unsteady flow
Steady flow is characterized as a form of fluid flow in which the characteristics of the fluid, including density, velocity, and
pressure, remain constant at a particular point in space over time. Mathematically, the continuity equation, Euler's
equation, and Bernoulli's equation are used to describe steady flow.
Steady flow:
v p 
= 0, = 0, =0
t t t
v = velocity
p = pressure
 = density
Unsteady flow is the type of fluid flow where the fluid properties change with time at a given point in space. This means
that the velocity, pressure, and density of the fluid at a point are not constant and vary over time. Unsteady flow occurs in
situations where the flow rate or other flow properties change with time, such as during the startup or shutdown of a pump
or when an object moves through a fluid.
Unsteady flow:
v p 
 0,  0, 0
t t t
v = velocity
p = pressure
 = density
✓ Uniform and non-uniform flow
Uniform flow: This refers to a flow where the fluid properties, such as velocity, pressure, and density, remain constant at
any given point in the flow field over space. This means that the flow is independent of position and does not change with
position.
Uniform flow:
v
=0
S
v = velocity
S = length of flow in the directione S.
Non-uniform flow: This refers to a flow where the fluid properties vary with position at any given point in the flow field.
The flow is position-dependent, and the properties of the fluid can change rapidly or slowly over space.
Non-uniform flow:
v
0
S
✓ Laminar and Turbulent Flows
Laminar flow is characterized by fluid particles that follow distinct paths or streamlines, with all streamlines being straight
and parallel. This results in the fluid particles moving in a layered manner, smoothly gliding over the adjacent layer. Laminar
flow can also be referred to as stream-line flow or viscous flow.
Turbulent flow is characterized by fluid particles that move in a zig-zag pattern, resulting in the formation of eddies that
cause high energy loss. The type of flow in a pipe can be determined by the non-dimensional Reynolds number.
Reynolds number:
vD
R=

v = mean velocity of flow
D = diameter of pipe
 = kinematic viscosity of fluid
If the Reynold number is less than 2000, the flow is called laminar. If the Reynold number is more than 4000, it is called
turbulent flow. If the Reynold number lies between 2000 and 4000, the flow may be laminar or turbulent.
 ✓ Compressible and Incompressible flows
Compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid changes from point to point or in other words the
density (p) is not constant for the fluid. Incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density is constant for the
fluid flow. Liquids are generally incompressible while gases are compressible.

✓ Rotational and lrrotational Flows

Rotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along streamlines, also rotate about their
own axis. And if the fluid particles while flowing along streamlines, do not rotate about their own axis then that type of
flow is called irrotational flow.

Rate of Flow or Discharge (Q):

The term "discharge" refers to the amount of fluid that passes through a particular section of a pipe or channel in a given
unit of time. If the fluid is incompressible, such as a liquid, the rate of flow or discharge is usually expressed in terms of the
volume of fluid flowing across the section per second. However, if the fluid is compressible, the rate of flow is typically
expressed in terms of the weight of fluid flowing across the section.
Discharge:
Q = Av
v = mean velocity of flow
A = cross − sectional area
Note :
For liquids (Volume flow rate) = m3 / s or Litters/s
Other than liquids:
Mass flow rate, M = Q (kg/s)
Weight flow rate, W = Q (N/s)

Continuity Equation
The continuity equation is a fundamental principle in fluid mechanics that is based on the conservation of mass. It states
that the mass flow rate of a fluid remains constant along a pipe or channel, provided that no sources or sinks of mass are
present along the length of the pipe or channel.
For incompressible fluids:
Q = Av = A1v 1 = A 2v 2 = constant
For compressible fluids :
M = Q = Av
M = Av = 1 A1v 1 = 2 A 2v 2 = constant
W = Q = Av
W = Av = 1 A1v 1 =  2 A 2v 2 = constant
Examples:
Problem 6.1. A 30 cm diameter pipe, conveying water, branches into two pipes of diameters 20 cm and 15 cm respectively. If the
average velocity in the 30 cm diameter pipe is 2.5 m/s, find the discharge in this pipe. Also determine the velocity in 15 cm pipe if
the average velocity in 20 cm diameter pipe is 2 m/s.
sol'n;
Qin = Q A

Q A = Av = 0.25 ( 0.3) ( 2.5)

2

Q A = 0.177 m3 / s  answer!
solve : velocity in pipe B
Q A = Q B + QC
A A v A = A B v B + AC v C
(0.3)2(2.5) = (0.15)2 v B + (0.2)2(2)
vB = 6.44 m/s  answer!

Problem 6.2. A 25 cm diameter pipe carries oil of sp. gr. 0.9 at a velocity of 3 m/s. At another section the diameter is 20 cm. Find
the velocity at this section and also mass rate of flow of oil.
sol'n;
Qin = Q A

Q A = Av = 0.25 ( 0.25) ( 3.0)

2

Q A = 0.147 m3 / s  answer!
solve : velocity in pipe B
Q A = QB
A A v A = A B v B + AC v C
(0.25)2 (3.0) = (0.20)2 v B
vB = 4.69 m/s  answer!
M = AB v B
M = 900(0.25)(0.20)2 (4.69)
M = 132.61 kg/s  answer!

Problem 6.3. A jet of water from a 25 mm diameter nozzle is directed vertically upwards. Assuming that the jet remains circular
and neglecting any loss of energy, determine the diameter at a point 4.5 m above the nozzle, if the velocity with which the jet
leaves the nozzle is 12 m/s.
sol'n;
Q in = Q A

Q A = Av = 0.25 ( 0.025) ( 12)

2

Q A = 0.00589 m3 / s
solve :diameter in water jet at point B
h = 4.5 m
v2f = v2i − 2gh
v2B = (12)2 − 2(9.81)(4.5)
v B = 7.46 m/s
Q A = QB
(0.025)2 (12) = D2 (7.46)
D = 0.03171 m = 31. 71 mm  answer!
VI.2 Dynamics of Fluid Flow
The preceding topic focused on examining the velocity and acceleration of fluid flow at a particular point, without factoring
in the forces influencing the flow. However, this topic dwell into exploring the forces impacting fluid flow. Therefore, the dynamics
of fluid flow entails studying fluid motion in conjunction with the forces that drive it. Newton's second law of motion is utilized to
analyze the dynamic behavior of fluid flow, which establishes a link between acceleration and forces. The fluid is presumed to be
both incompressible and non-viscous.

Equations of Motion
According to Newton's second law of motion, the net force Fx acting on a fluid element in the direction of x is equal to
mass m of the fluid element multiplied by the acceleration ax in the x-direction. Thus mathematically,
Fx = ma x
In the fluid flow, the following forces are present:
(i) = Fg , force due to gravity
(ii) = Fp , pressure force
(iii) = Fv , force due to viscosity
(iv) = Ft , force due to turbulence
(v) = Fc , force due to compressibility
Thus, the net force on x-ais, can be expressed as:
( ) + (F ) + (F ) + (F ) + (F )
Fx = Fg
x p x v x t x c x

In Reynold’s equation of motion, compressibility is negligible:

( ) + (F ) + (F ) + (F )
Fx = Fg
x p x v x t x

In Navier-Stokes equation of motion, force due to turbulence is negligible:

( ) + (F ) + (F ) + (F )
Fx = Fg
x p x v x c x

In Euler’s equation of motion, the flow is assumed to be ideal and viscos force, turbulence, and compressibility are zero:
( ) + (F )
Fx = Fg
x p x

Euler’s Equations of Motion

The equation is derived by considering a cylindrical element of cross-section dA and length ds moving along a stream-line
in the s-direction. The forces acting on the element are the pressure force in the direction of flow (pdA), the pressure force
opposite to the direction of flow ((p + (p/s)ds)dA), and the weight of the element (pgdAds), where g is the acceleration
due to gravity and θ is the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of the weight of the element. Thus
mathematically,
 p 
pdA −  p + ds  dA − gdAdscos  = dAds  a s
 s 
dv
a s = , considering v along the direction of s.
dt
dv v dv v vv v  ds 
as = = + = + , note:  v = 
dt s dt t s t  dt 
dv vv
If flow is steady, a = = 0,then :a s =
dt s
 p  vv
pdA −  p + ds  dA − gdAdscos  = dAds 
 s  s
 p vv   1 
 − dsdA − gdAdscos  = dAds   
 s s   dAds 
 p vv 
 + gcos  + = 0 s 
 s s 
p
  + g cos s +  = 0  cos s = z
v v
dp
  + g  dz +  vdv = 0  euler's equation
Bernoulli’s Equations
The equation is obtained by integrating the Euler’s equation of motion,
dp
 + g  dz +  vdv = 0  euler's equation
p v2
+ gz + = constant
 2
p v2
+ + z = constant
g 2g
where :
p
= pressure energy per unit weight of fluid or pressure head

2
v
= kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic head
2g
z = potential energy per unit weight or elevation head.
✓ Assumptions
The following are the assumptions made in the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation.
(i) Fluid is ideal.
(ii) The flow is incompressible.
(iii) The flow is steady.
(iv) The flow is irrotational.

Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem

Bernoulli's energy theorem is a statement of the conservation of energy in a fluid system, and it is derived from Bernoulli's
principle. It states that in a steady flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy of the fluid remains constant along a
streamline. This means that the sum of the pressure energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy at any point on the
streamline is equal to the sum of the pressure energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy at any other point on the same
streamline. This principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss mathematician and physicist, who first described it in the
18th century.

E1 + Eadded − Elost = E2
p1 v12 p v2
+ + z1 + HA − HL = 2 + 2 + z2
 2g  2g
✓ Energy equation without head lost

Energy head without head lost.

✓ Energy equation with head lost

Energy head with head lost.

✓ Energy equation with Pump

Pump is used to increase the head. Usually, to raise water from a lower to a higher elevation. The output power of a pump
is the amount of power that is generated by the pump to move the fluid from one location to another, also measured in
units of watts (W) or horsepower (hp). The input power of a pump is the amount of power that is required to operate the
pump.
p1 v12 p v2
+ + z1 + HA pump − Hlost = 2 + 2 + z2
 2g  2g

✓ Energy equation with Turbine

A turbine is a device that converts the energy of a fluid, such as steam or water, into mechanical energy, which can then
be used to generate electricity or perform other work. The input power of a turbine is the energy that is supplied to it in
the form of the fluid, while the output power is the mechanical energy that is generated by the turbine.
p1 v12 p v2
+ + z1 − HEturbine − Hlost = 2 + 2 + z2
 2g  2g

✓ Power and Efficiency

Power is the rate at which energy is transferred or converted, measured in units of watts (W) or horsepower (hp). In the
case of pumps and turbines, power is typically expressed as input power or output power. Input power is the power that
is supplied to the device to operate it, while output power is the power that is generated by the device to perform work or
produce a desired effect.
P = QHA  output power of pump
P = QHE  input power of turbine
Efficiency, on the other hand, is a measure of how well a device or system converts input power into useful output power,
expressed as a percentage. In general, a higher efficiency means that less input power is needed to produce the same
amount of output power. For example, a pump or turbine with a higher efficiency will generate more output power for a
given input power, resulting in less wasted energy and lower operating costs.
output
Eff(%),  =  100
input
Examples:
Problem 6.4. Water is flowing through a pipe of 5 cm diameter under a pressure of 294.3 kPa (gauge) and with mean velocity of
2.0 m/s. Find the total head or total energy per unit weight of the water at a cross-section, which is 5 m above the datum line.
Given :
D = 5 cm 
p = 294.3 kPa
v = 2 m/s
z=5 m
sol'n : total head
p v2
E= + +z
g 2g
294.3 22
E= + +5
9.81 2(9.81)
E = 35.20 m  answer!
Problem 6.5.(CE BOARD) A pump draws water from reservoir A and lifts it to reservoir B as shown. The loss of head from A to 1 is
3 times the velocity head in the 150 mm Ø pipe and the loss of head from 2 to B is 20 times the velocity head in the 100 mm Ø
pipe. When the discharge is 20 liters per second. Determine the power rating of the pump if the efficiency is 85%.
Given :
ELA = 0, ELpump = −20m, ELB = 240m,
D1 = 150 mm , D2 = 100 mm, Q = 20 L / s
Q Q
v1 = = 1.132 m/s, v2 = = 2.55 m/s,
A1 A2
( 1 )  = 0.196 m
 v 2
HL A −1 = 3 
 2g 
  
( v2 )  = 6.63 m
2

HL2−B = 20 
 2g 
sol'n : from A-1  

pA v A 2 p v2
+ + ELA − HLA −1 = 1 + 1 + EL1
 2g  2g
0
+
(0)2
+ 0 − 3
( )  = p1 + (1.132)2 − 20
 1.132 2 

9.81 2(9.81)  2(9.81)  9.81 2(9.81)

p  
− 0.196 = 1 + 0.0653 − 20
9.81
p1 = 193.64 kPa
from 2-B
p2 v 22 p v 2
+ + EL2 − HL2−B = B + B + ELB
 2g  2g
p2
+
(2.55)2
− 20 − 20 
( )  = 0 + 02 + 240
 2.55 2 

9.81 2(9.81)  2(9.81)  9.81 2(9.81)

p2  
− 6.297 − 20 = 240
9.81
p2 = 2612.37 kPa
from 1-2
p1 v 12 p v2
+ + EL1 + HA pump = 2 + 2 + EL2
 2g  2g
193.64 (1.132)2 2612.37 2.552
+ + HA pump = +
9.81 2(9.81) 9.81 2(9.81)
HA pump = 246.824 m
Power rating of the pump, means input power of the pump.
QHA pump0.02(9.81)(246.824)
P= =
 0.85
P = 56.97 kW  answer!
Problem 6.6. (CE BOARD) A fire pump delivers water through a 300-mm diameter main to a hydrant to which is connected a
cotton rubber-lined fire hose 100-mm diameter terminating to a 25-mm diameter nozzle. The nozzle is 2.5 m above the hydrant
and 16 m above the pump. Assuming frictional losses of 3-m from the pump to the hydrant, 2-m in the hydrant, 10-m from the
hydrant to the base of the nozzle, and the loss in the nozzle is 4% of the velocity head in the jet, to what vertical height can the jet
be thrown if the gage pressure right after the pump is 550 kPa?

Given :
PA = 550 kPa, ELpump = 0
DA = 300 mm , DJ = 25 mm
2
(0.025) v J vJ
vA = =
(0.3)2 144
sol'n : from A-J

pA v A 2 p v2
+ + ELA − HL A −N = J + J + EL J
 2g  2g
2
 vJ 
 
550  144   (v J )2  0 (v J )2
+ + 0 − 3 − 2 − 10 − 0.04  = + + 13.5 + 2.5
9.81 2(9.81)  2(9.81)  9.81 2(9.81)
2 2  
(v J ) (v J )
(1.04) − = 25.065
2(9.81) 2(144)2(9.81)
v J = 21.75 m/s
from J - N

( v ) = ( v ) − 2gh
2 2
N J

( 0) = ( 21.75) − 2(9.81)h
2 2

h = 24.11 m  answer!
PRACTICE PROBLEMS:
Problem 6.1. Water flows in a circular pipe. At one section, the diameter is 0.3 m, the static pressure is 260 kPa gauge, the velocity
is 3 m/s and the elevation is 10 m above ground level. The elevation at a section downstream is 0 m, and the pipe diameter is 0.15
m. Find the gauge pressure at the downstream section. Frictional effects may be neglected. Assume density of water to be 999
kg/m3.
Ans: 290.57 kPa

Problem 6.2. A pump is 2.2 m above the water level in the sump and has a pressure of –20 cm of mercury at the suction side. The
suction pipe is of 20 cm diameter and the delivery pipe is short 25 cm diameter pipe ending in a nozzle of 8 cm diameter. If the
nozzle is directed vertically upwards at an elevation of 4.2 m above the water sump level, determine: (a) the discharge, (b) the power
input into the flow by the pump, and (c) the elevation above the pump level, to which the jet would reach. Neglect all losses.
Ans: 0.1 m3/s, 24.04 kW, 20.31 m

Problem 6.3. In the figure shown a turbine with inlet pipe and a draft tube. If the efficiency of turbine is 80 percent and discharge is
1000 liters/second. Find (a) the power develop by the turbine, and (b) the reading of the gage G.
Ans: 344.6 kw, -32.57 kPa
 PROBLEM SET #6
Instructions: Solve the following problems and present your solution in a very clear and easy to understand. To emphasize the
reaction of every element being solve. Present your solution in colorful pens indicating Reactions, directions (i.e., moments are in
blue, shear are in red and normal rection is in black color designation). Not following instructions will be returned or will not be
accepted. Free Body Diagrams are clearly highlighted in your solution.
1) Water is flowing through a pipe having diameter 300 mm and 200 mm at the bottom and upper end respectively. The
intensity of pressure at the bottom end is 245.25 kPa and the pressure at the upper end is 98.1 kPa. Determine the
difference in datum head if the rate of flow through pipe is 40 liters/sec.

2) For a steady flow of gas in the conduit shown, what is the mean velocity at section 2?

3) A mechanical pump is used to pressurize a bicycle tire. The inflow to the pump is 1 cfm. The density of the air entering the
pump is 0.075 lb/ft3. The inflated volume of a bicycle tire is 0.045 ft3. The density of air in the inflated tire is 0.4 lb/ft3. How
many seconds does it take to pressurize the tire if there initially was no air in the tire?

4) Water flows in a 10 in. pipe that is connected in series with a 6 in. pipe. If the rate of flow is 898 gpm (gallons per minute),
what is the mean velocity in each pipe?

5) A rectangular air duct 20 cm by 60 cm carries a flow of 1.44 m3/s. Determine the velocity in the duct. If the duct tapers to
10 cm by 40 cm, what is the velocity in the latter section? Assume constant air density.

6) Figure shows a pump drawing a solution (specific gravity =1.8) from a storage tank through an 8 cm steel pipe in which the
flow velocity is 0.9 m/s. The pump discharges through a 6 cm steel pipe to an overhead tank, the end of discharge is 12 m
above the level of the solution in the feed tank. If the friction losses in the entire piping system are 5.5 m and pump
efficiency is 65 per cent, determine (a) power rating of the pump, (b) pressure developed by the pump.