By:

Ms. Yewale A.N.

 Program :
Mechanical Engineering
Course:
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery
CO-Apply continuity equation, Bernoulli’s theorem in
different situations
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies

Program :
Mechanical Engineering
Course:
Fluid Mechanics & Machinery
CO-Apply continuity equation, Bernoulli’s
theorem in different situations
 Discusses the analysis of fluid in motion: fluid dynamics.
 When a fluid flows through pipes and channel or around bodies such as aircraft
and ships, the shape of the boundaries, the externally applied forces and the
fluid properties cause the velocities of the fluid particles to vary from point to
point throughout the flow field.
 The motion of fluids can be predicted using the fundamental laws of physics
together with the physical properties of the fluid.
 The geometry of the motion of fluid particles in space and time is known as the
kinematics of the fluid motion.
 A fluid motion may be specified by either tracing the motion of a particle
through the field of flow or examining the motion of all particles as they pass a
fixed point in space.

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 Comprehend the concepts necessary to analyse fluids in motion.
 Identify differences between steady/unsteady, uniform/non-uniform
and compressible/incompressible flow.
 Appreciate the Continuity principle through Conservation of Mass
and Control Volumes.
 Derive the Bernoulli (energy) equation.
 Familiarise with the momentum equation for a fluid flow.

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Steady Flow- The flow in which the velocity of fluid is
constant at any point is called as steady flow.
Unsteady Flow-When the flow is unsteady , the fluid
velocity differs between any two points.

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uniform flow: flow velocity is the same magnitude and direction at
every point in the fluid.
non-uniform: If at a given instant, the velocity is not the same at every
point the flow. (In practice, by this definition, every
fluid that flows near a solid boundary will be non-
uniform - as the fluid at the boundary must take the
speed of the boundary, usually zero. However if the size
and shape of the of the cross-section of the stream of
fluid is constant the flow is considered uniform.)
steady: A steady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity,
pressure and cross-section) may differ from point to
point but DO NOT change with time.
unsteady: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with
time, the flow is described as unsteady. (In practice
there is always slight variations in velocity and pressure,
but if the average values are constant, the flow is
considered steady.)

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 Uniform Flow, Steady Flow (cont.)
Steady uniform flow:
 Conditions: do not change with position in the stream or with time.
 Example: the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at constant
velocity.
Steady non-uniform flow:
 Conditions: change from point to point in the stream but do not change with
time.
 Example: flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the inlet-velocity
will change as you move along the length of the pipe toward the exit.
Unsteady uniform flow:
 At a given instant in time the conditions at every point are the same, but will
change with time.
 Example: a pipe of constant diameter connected to a pump pumping at a
constant rate which is then switched off.
Unsteady non-uniform flow:
 Every condition of the flow may change from point to point and with time at
every point.
 Example: waves in a channel.

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Laminar flow
 all the particles proceed along smooth parallel paths
and all particles on any path will follow it without
deviation.
 Hence all particles have a velocity only in the
direction of flow.

Typical
particles
path

Figure 3.1a: Laminar flow

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Turbulent Flow
 The particles move in an irregular manner through the flow field.
 Each particle has superimposed on its mean velocity fluctuating velocity
components both transverse to and in the direction of the net flow.

Particle
paths

Figure 3.1b: Turbulent

flow
Transition Flow
 exists between laminar and turbulent flow.
 In this region, the flow is very unpredictable and often changeable back
and forth between laminar and turbulent states.
 Modern experimentation has demonstrated that this type of flow may
comprise short ‘burst’ of turbulence embedded in a laminar flow .

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 Laminar Flow- The flow in which the fluid particles
move in the same direction is called as Laminar Flow.
 Turbulent Flow- The flow in which the fluid particles

move randomly in any direction is called as Turbulent

Flow.

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 Observer

Observer

Boat moving Boat stationary

Flow pattern moves along
channel with boat
 changes with time
 UNSTEADY
Fluid moving past boat
pattern stationary relative to
boat
 does not change with time
 STEADY

Figure 3.2: Relative motion

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 All fluids are compressible - even water - their density will
change as pressure changes.
 Under steady conditions, and provided that the changes in
pressure are small, it is usually possible to simplify analysis of
the flow by assuming it is incompressible and has constant
density.
 As you will appreciate, liquids are quite difficult to compress
- so under most steady conditions they are treated as
incompressible.

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• Compressible Flow- When the density of flow varies
with pressure it is termed as compressible flow.

• Incompressible Flow- When the density of flow does

not varies with pressure it is termed as
incompressible flow.
• Viscous/Non-viscous flow- When the viscosity of the
fluid is zero, it is termed as non-viscous otherwise it
is viscous.

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 In general, all fluids flow three-dimensionally, with
pressures and velocities and other flow properties
varying in all directions.
 In many cases the greatest changes only occur in two
directions or even only in one.
 In these cases changes in the other direction can be
effectively ignored making analysis much more simple.

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 Flow is one dimensional if the flow parameters (such as velocity,
pressure, depth etc.) at a given instant in time only vary in the direction
of flow and not across the cross-section. The flow may be unsteady, in
this case the parameter vary in time but still not across the cross-
section.

 An example of one-dimensional flow is the flow in a pipe. Note that

since flow must be zero at the pipe wall - yet non-zero in the center -
there is a difference of parameters across the cross-section.

 Should this be treated as two-dimensional flow? Possibly - but it is only

necessary if very high accuracy is required. A correction factor is then
usually applied.

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 Flow is two-dimensional if it can be assumed that the flow
parameters vary in the direction of flow and in one direction at
right angles to this direction.

 Streamlines in two-dimensional flow are curved lines on a

plane and are the same on all parallel planes.

 An example is flow over a weir for which typical streamlines

can be seen in the figure below. Over the majority of the
length of the weir the flow is the same - only at the two ends
does it change slightly. Here correction factors may be
applied.

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 Mass and volume flow rate

mass of fluid
mass flow rate = m =
time taken to collect the fluid
mass
time = mass flow rate

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19
 volume of fluid
 discharge = Q =time

 = (
mass of fluid
density =
density x time
)mass
volume



mass fluid rate m
= 
 =
density

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1. The law of conservation of matter
 stipulates that matter can be neither created nor destroyed,
though it may be transformed (e.g. by a chemical process).
 Since this study of the mechanics of fluids excludes chemical
activity from consideration, the law reduces to the principle of
conservation of mass.

2. The law of conservation of energy

 states that energy may be neither created nor destroyed.
 Energy can be transformed from one guise to another (e.g.
potential energy can be transformed into kinetic energy), but
none is actually lost.
 Engineers sometimes loosely refer to ‘energy losses’ due to
friction, but in fact the friction transforms some energy into heat,
so none is really ‘lost’.
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3. The law of conservation of momentum
 states that a body in motion cannot gain or lose
momentum unless some external force is applied.
 The classical statement of this law is Newton's
Second Law of Motion, i.e.
 force = rate of change of momentum

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• Matter cannot be created nor destroyed - (it is simply changed in to a different form
of matter).
• This principle is known as the conservation of mass and we use it in the analysis of
flowing fluids.
 Continuity equation is based upon ,principle of conservation of mass.
 For a fluid flowing through the pipe at all cross section, the quantity of fluid
flowing per second is constant.
 Or in the other words, for a steady and incompressible flow, rate of flow of liquid
remains constant at different sections.

CONTROL Outflow
Inflow
VOLUME

Control surface

Figure 3.10: A control volume

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 For any control volume the principle of conservation of mass says
 Mass entering = Mass leaving + Increase of mass in the
control
 per unit time per unit time volume per unit time
 For steady flow:
 (there is no increase in the mass within the control
volume)
 Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time

Mass entering per unit

time at end 1 = Mass
leaving per unit time at
end 2

Figure 3.11: A streamtube section

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 flow is incompressible, the density of the fluid is constant
throughout the fluid continum. Mass flow, m, entering may
be calculated by taking the product
(density of fluid, )  (volume of fluid entering per second Q)
 Mass flow is therefore represented by the product Q, hence
 Q (entering) =  Q (leaving)
 But since flow is incompressible, the density is constant, so
Q (entering) = Q (leaving) (3.5a)
 This is the ‘continuity equation’ for steady incompressible
flow.
 1A1V1= 2A2V2 But 1= 2
 A1V1=A2V2

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 If the velocity of flow across the entry to the control
volume is measured, and that the velocity is constant at
V1 m/s. Then, if the cross-sectional area of the streamtube
at entry is A1,
 Q (entering) = V1 A1
 Thus, if the velocity of flow leaving the volume is V2 and
the area of the streamtube at exit is A2, then
 Q (leaving) = V2A2
 Therefore, the continuity equation may also be written as
V1 A 1 = V2 A 2 (3.5b)
 Q1= Q2= Q3
 a1v1= a2v2 =a3v3 Q rate of flow in , a=area of
flow ,
 V= velocity of flow

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• Energy
• Three forms:
• Kinematic Energy
• Potential Energy
• Pressure Energy

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• Kinematic Energy: Ability of mass to do work by virtue of its
velocity.
• Potential Energy:It is by virtue of the position of the liquid with
respect to some datum level
• Pressure Energy: Energy possessed by a liquid particle by virtue
of its existing pressure.

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 Application of Continuity Equation
 We can apply the principle of continuity to pipes with cross sections which
change along their length.
 A liquid is flowing from left to right and the pipe is narrowing in the same
direction. By the continuity principle, the mass flow rate must be the
same at each section - the mass going into the pipe is equal to the mass
going out of the pipe. So we can write:
1 A1V1= 2 A2V2

 As we are considering a liquid, usually

water, which is not very compressible,
the density changes very little so we
can say 1 =2 =. This also says that
the volume flow rate is constant or that
 Discharge at section 1 = Discharge at
section 2
Q1 = Q2
A1V1
Figure 3.12:
A1V1 = A2V2 or V2 = A Pipe with a contraction
2

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 As the area of the circular pipe is a function of the diameter
we can reduce the calculation further,

A1 d12/4 d 12
 V1=V = V1=2 V1
A22 d2 /4 d 22

( ) d 12
 2

V1 2
 V d2 2 = (3.6)

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The continuity principle can also be used to determine the
velocities in pipes coming from a junction.

Total mass flow into the junction = Total mass flow out of the
junction
1Q1 = 2Q2 + 3Q3
When the flow is incompressible (e.g. water) 1 = 2 = 
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
A1V1 = A2V2 + A3V3 (3.7)
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 friction: negligible
 sum of kinetic energy and gravitational potential
energy is constant. Recall :
 Kinetic energy = ½ mV2
 Gravitational potential energy = mgh
(m: mass, V: velocity, h: height above the
datum).

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To apply this to a falling body we have an initial velocity of
zero, and it falls through a height of h.
 Initial kinetic energy = 0
 Initial potential energy = mgh
 Final kinetic energy = ½ mV2
 Final potential energy = 0
We know that,
 kinetic energy + potential energy = constant

Initial Initial Final Final

{ kinetic
Energy } +{ potential
Energy } ={ Kinetic
Energy } +{ Potential
Energy }
mgh = ½ mV2 or V  2 gh

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1. Kinetic Energy
2. Potential Energy
3. Pressure Energy
 This theorem states that whenever there is a
continuous flow of liquid the total energy at
every section remains the same provided that
there is no loss or addition of the energy.

 Z= potential energy
 V2/2g=kinetic energy
 P/w=pressure energy

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 2 2
p1 V1 p 2 V2
  z1    z2
g 2 g g 2 g
We see that from applying equal pressure or zero velocities we get
the two equations from the section above. They are both just special
cases of Bernoulli's equation.
Bernoulli's equation has some restrictions in its applicability, they
are:
 Flow is steady;
 Density is constant (which also means the fluid is incompressible);
 Friction losses are negligible.
 The equation relates the states at two points along a single
streamline, (not conditions on two different streamlines).

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Figure 3.19 :
A contracting
expanding pipe

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1. It is applicable to ideal incompressible flow.
2. The heat transfer into or out of fluid should be zero
3. The temperature remains constant so that internal
energy does not change .
4. The effect of presence of any mechanical device
between two sections is ignored.

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Assumption for Bernoullis Equation

The above equation is the celebrated Bernoulli equation.

Assumptions involved
(1) Viscous effects are assumed negligible.
(2) The flow is assumed to be steady.
(3) The flow is assumed to be incompressible.
(4) The equation is applicable along a streamline.

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Copyright © ODL Jan 2005 Open
University Malaysia 39
• In practice, the total energy of a streamline does not remain constant.
Energy is ‘lost’ through friction, and external energy may be either :
 added by means of a pump or
 extracted by a turbine.
• Consider a streamline between two points 1 and 2. If the energy head lost
through friction is denoted by Hf and the external energy head added (say
by a pump) is or extracted (by a turbine) HE, then Bernoulli's equation may
be rewritten as :



± HE = H2 + Hf (3.11)



2
or 2
p1 V1 p V
  z1  H E  2  2  z2  H f (3.12)
g 2 g g 2 g


HE = energy head added/loss due to external source such as pump/turbines
 This equation is really a restatement of the First Law of Thermodynamics for an
incompressible fluid.
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Inthe case of work done over a fluid the power input into the
flow is :
 P = gQHE (3.13)
where Q = discharge,
 HE = head added / loss
 If p = efficiency of the pump, the power input required,

gQH E
 Pin = (3.14)
p

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 3.4 Application of Bernoulli Equation
• The Bernoulli equation can be applied to a great many
situations not just the pipe flow we have been considering up
to now.
• In the following sections we will see some examples of its
application to flow measurement from tanks, within pipes as
well as in open channels.

• Acknowledge practical uses of the Bernoulli and momentum

equation in the analysis of flow
• Understand how the momentum equation and principle of
conservation of momentum is used to predict forces induced
by flowing fluids
• Apply Bernoulli and Momentum Equations to solve fluid
mechanics problems
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• Thank you

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