1-Two Dimensional Potential Flow Theory:

1.1 Introduction:
Mathematical analyses of problems in generally possible only if
certain simplifying assumptions are made. And complete solution
of problems can seldom be obtained without resource to
experiment.
The most common simplifying assumption is that the fluid is
ideal / perfect, thus eliminating the complicating viscous effects.
The other may be assuming that the flow doesn’t change with
time.
1
Two methods of study of the fluid flow
A. In the Lagrangian method
 a single particle is followed over the flow
field, the co-ordinate system following the
particle.
B. In the Eularian method,
the description of flow is on fixed coordinate
system based and the description of the
velocity etc. are with reference to location and
time i.e., V = V (x, y, z, t) and not with
reference to a particular particle.

2
3
 Types of fluid motion

I. laminar and Turbulent flow

II. steady and Unsteady flow
III. Uniform and Non-uniform flow
IV. Incompressible and Compressible flow
V. Irrotational and Rotational flow
VI. One, two and three dimensional flow

4
 I. Laminar and Turbulent flow

• Laminar flow (Streamline Flow) – in a

laminar flow fluid particles move in parallel
layer (laminea) and there is no transverse
component of velocity. It occurs in low
velocity flow or in highly viscous fluids
• Turbulent flow – flow is said to be turbulent
when its path lines are irregular curves
crossing one another. The fluid particles
occupy successively different transverse
position
• Example: smoke from an extinguished
candle changes from laminar to turbulent.
Syrup and oil are
highly viscous
fluids 5
 II. Steady and Unsteady flow
• Steady flow – a flow said to steady when the
flow characteristics, such as velocity, pressure,
temperature etc at any point constant with
respect to time. i.e dVdt  0 dP
dt
0

• Unsteady flow – the flow is unsteady if the

velocity and other hydraulic characteristics
vary with respect to time . i.e
dV dP
0 0
dt dt

6
 III. Uniform and Non-uniform flow
• Uniform flow – the flow said to be uniform
when there is no variation in the magnitude
and direction of the velocity vector from one
point to another along the path flow.
i.e ds
dV
 0
dP
ds
0

• Non-uniform flow – the flow is non-uniform

when flow characteristics change at various
points along the path. i.e dV
ds
0

7
 IV. Incompressible and Compressible
flow

• Incompressible flow – the volume of flowing

fluid do not change by application of any
force.i.e have constant density.
• Compressible flow - the volume of flowing
fluid change or varies due to some application
of force.i.e have variable density.

8
V. Irrotational and Rotational flow

• Irrotational flow- the flow said to be

irrotational if the fluid elements do not rotate
about their own mass centers.
• Rotational flow- the flow said to be rotational
if the fluid elements rotate about their own
mass centers

9
 One, two and three dimensional flow
(1D, 2D and 3D flow)
• One- Dimensional flow (1D flow) – in one dimensional flow, all the flow parameters
like velocity, pressure etc may be expressed as function of time and one space
coordinate only V, P ……. etc…. f (x, t)

Example:- The flow in pipe of uniform diameter is considered as one dimensional.

• Two – Dimensional flow (2D flow) - in these case the flow parameters are the
function of time and two space coordinates (x and y) only. i.e f(x, y, t)

Example:- Water flowing over a weir of uniform cross-section is an example of 2D –

flow

• Three – Dimensional flow (3D-flow) - in 3D- flow the parameters are function of
time and three coordinates system. i.e. f(x, y, z, t)

Example:- Flow trough converges pipe is an example of three dimensional flow

10
 Definition of Terms
• Stream line – is an imaginary line drawn through
the fluid so that it has the direction of the
velocity vector at every point. No component of
velocity at right angle to the stream line and
hence there can be no flow across a stream line.

• Path line – is a curve traced by a single fluid

particle during its motion over a period of time.
(it is also called path of a particle)
11
12
 Equation of stream line
• Since a particle moves in the direction of the streamline at any
instant, its displacement δs, having components δx, δy, δz, has
the direction of the velocity vector V with components u, v, w in
the x, y, z directions, respectively. Then

• Expressing the displacement in differential form

dX dy dZ
 U, V w
dt dt dt

produces the differential equations of a streamline; any

continuous line that satisfies them is a streamline.

13
 Definition of Terms
• Streak line – a dye or smoke is frequently injected into
a fluid in order to trace its subsequent motion. The
resulting dye or smoke trails are called streak line.
In the steady flow of a
liquid, a colored dye reveals
the streamlines.

• Stream tube – is a tube made by all the stream lines

passing through a small closed curve or circumferential
group of stream lines is called a stream tube.

14
 Stream tube, Path lines and Streak
lines
The flow lines passing through the edge of
an imaginary area such as A is called a
Stream tube

Particles P1, P2, P3, P4, starting from point P at successive

times pass along path lines shown. At the instant of time
considered the positions of the particles are at 1, 2, 3 and 4. A
line joining these points is the streak line
15
Ideal Fluid Flow (Two Dimentional Potential Flow)
• We make five simplifying assumptions in our treatment of
fluid flow to make the analysis easier:
1. The fluid is nonviscous
 Internal friction is neglected
2. The flow is steady
 The velocity of each point remains constant
3. The fluid is incompressible
 The density remains constant
4. The flow is irrotational
 The fluid has no angular momentum about any point
5. The flow is Two Dimentional

16
 BASIC SCIENTIFIC LAWS USED IN THE
ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
• Laws of Mechanics
– Written for systems
– System = arbitrary quantity
of mass of fixed identity
– Fixed quantity of mass, m

• Conservation of Mass • Momentum • Energy

– Mass is conserved and – If surroundings – If heat is added to
does not change exert force on system or work is
system, mass will done by system,
dm
dt
0 accelerate energy will change
1 A1V1   2 A2V2
dm   dE
dE  dQ
dQ dW
dW
0  d d(m(m
VV) )  
F
F  dtdt dtdt dtdt
dt dtdt
17
 The Equation of Continuity

Q: Have you ever used your thumb to control the water flowing
from the end of a hose?
A: When the end of a hose is partially closed off, thus reducing its
cross-sectional area, the fluid velocity increases.
This kind of fluid behavior is described by the equation of
continuity.
18
 Example 1.1

In two-dimensional, incompressible steady flow around an

airfoil the streamlines are drawn so that they are 10 mm apart
at a great distance from the airfoil, where the velocity is 40 m/s.
What is the velocity near the airfoil, where the streamlines are
7.5 mm apart?

For incompressible, steady flow & one dimensional flow

and

19
Equation of Continuity

20
Example 1.2

At section 1 of a pipe system carrying water , the velocity is 3.0

m/s and the diameter is 2.0 m.
At section 2 the diameter is 3.0 m. Find the discharge and the
velocity at section 2.

From Continuity eq.

and

21
Equation of Continuity

• Conservation of
mass is applied to
the control-volume
element δx δy δz
(Fig. 1.2) with
center at (x, y, z),
• where the velocity
components in the
x, y, z directions
are u, v, w,
respectively, and ρ
is the density.

22
 Equation of Continuity
• Consider first the flux through the pair of faces normal to the x direction.
On the right-hand lace the flux outward is

Figure 1.2 Control volume for

derivation of three-dimensional
continuity equation in cartesian
co-ordinates

• Since both ρ and u are assumed to vary continuously throughout the fluid.
• ρu δy δz is the mass flux through the center face normal to the x axis.
• The second term is the rate of increase of mass flux, with respect to x multiplied by
the distance δx/2 to the right-hand face.
23
 On the left-hand lace

The net flux out through these two faces is

• The other two directions yield similar expressions;  the net mass outflow (MNET)
is

24
 the rate of change of the control volume is

 the net mass outflow is equal to the rate of change of the control volume.

 For incompressible ,steady & 3Dimentional flow the continuity equation

becomes, it simplifies to :-

 For incompressible ,steady & 2Dimentional flow the continuity equation

becomes, it simplifies to :-
u v
.V   0
x y 25
 Example 1.3

The velocity distribution for a two-dimensional incompressible flow is

given by

Show that it satisfies continuity.

In two dimensions the continuity equation is,

Then

and if their sum does equal zero, we call the equation satisfying continuity.

26
 The Bernoulli Equation
for constant density the Bernoulli equation yields

 The constant of integration (the Bernoulli constant) varies from one

streamline to another but remains constant along a streamline in steady,
frictionless, incompressible flow.

When it is divided by g,

 Multiplying by (specific weight) gives

two points on a streamline,

27
1.2 Circulation, Vorticity, Definition of
potential flow
• Considering a closed path in a flow field as
shown in Fig.a,
• CIRCULATION is defined as the line integral of
velocity about this closed path. The symbol
used is  or K=

28
 circulation

• In the cartesian co-

ordinate if an element dx.
dy is considered, then the
circulation can be
calculated as detailed d
below:
• Consider the element
1234 in Fig.(b). Starting at
1 and proceeding counter
clockwise,

29
 Definition of Vorticity
• Vorticity is defined as circulation per unit
area. i.e.,
• Vorticity = circulation per unit area, here area
is dx dy, so

30
 Example 1.4
• Consider the two-dimensional velocity distribution u = –By, v = +Bx, where
B is a constant, evaluate the circulation Γ around the rectangular closed
curve defined by (x, y) = (1, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), and (1, 2).

31
 Vorticity

Vorticity (ζ)is twice the angular velocity of a fluid particle

32
N.B For irrotational flow, vorticity and circulation are both zero.

33
34
35
36
 Occurrence of irrotational and rotational regions for flow
through a pipe.

Rotational flow behind a shock wave in a high speed flow.

37
 1.3 Basic equations for a 2-D potential flow
The Stream Function
Stream function is a mathematical expression that describes a flow
field.
The stream function is defined as
For 2  D Flow in Re c tan gular coordinate For 2 D flow in Polar Coordinates
  1  
u ;v   ur  ;V  
y x r  r
Does it satisfy the equation of continuity? YES
u v  2  2
   0
x y xy xy
If the flow is irrotational (no vorticity) then it satisfies Laplace
u v  2  2
Z    2  2  0
y x y x
and is therefore additive    1   2   3  ...... 38
 Properties of Stream Function
A) =constant is a streamline
B) d between two streamlines is proportional to the
Volumetric Flow
Let us consider a line given by , a constant
as shown in Fig. We have
i.e.,
giving

-vdx + udy = 0 after substituting for

etc. we get

this is the equation to a streamline. What we have proved

then is that  =constant line is a streamline of the flow.
39
 Flow between two Stream Lines.
• Consider the volumetric
flow through a small
element of thickness ds
placed on a streamline as
shown in Fig.
• volumetric flow through
the element is given by
dQ

which indicates that the volumetric flow rate is proportional to the

difference between stream functions.
40
 Potential function
Flow is caused by a driving potential. It will be useful to have an
idea of the potential at various locations.
 it is mathematically possible to define a velocity potential
function 

The scalar function of space and time such that its derivative with respect to any
direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction is called velocity potential .
In inviscid, incompressible, irrotational the continuity equation breaks down to:-
u v  2  2
.V  .     2
  2  2  0 it satisfies Laplace Equation
x y x y
and is therefore additive   1 2 3 ......
These are second order Laplace equations for which there are many solutions and
analytical techniques known to solve them 41
Revise

42
Laplace Equation and is encountered in many branches
of physics and engineering.
A flow governed by this equation is called a Potential
Flow.
43
 Example 1.5
.

•The stream function for a flow is given by

Is the flow irrotational? Determine (i) u, v (ii) the vorticity and
(iii) circulation.

44
 Example 1.6
•Given that

, determine the stream function and potential function for the flow described.

45
 Comparison
• Velocity potential φ
• Stream function
• Flow field velocities by
• By differentiating normal to the

velocity direction differentiating in the same

• Constant =D direction

• Apply for Either irrotational or • constant

rotational flow
• Only for irrotational flow
• Only Define to 2D flow
• Apply to 3D
46
 Show that Streamlines and equipotential lines are orthogonal to each

other?

• Similarly for the stream function we have

Thus we find that Eq. 1

Eq. 1 showing that equipotential lines and streamlines are orthogonal to each
other. This enables one to calculate the stream function when the velocity
potential is given and vice versa.
47
Stream lines and Equi-potential lines for flow through a bend

48
 1.4 Velocity potential and stream functions of elementary
potential-flow models:

There are only a few types of flow for which stream and

potential functions can be determined directly.

For other flows can be generally approximated as

combinations of these flows. In this section, the simple flows

are described
Examples of elementary potential-flow models:-
Uniform flow,
source/sink flow,
vortex; 49
 Elementary Planar Irrotational Flows
I. Uniform Flow with constant velocity U
The flow can be described by the condition, u = constant
and v =0

Show that circulation around

any closed curve is identically
zero for a uniform flow?
(In polar coordinates)

50
 Generalised linear flow(Uniform Flow)
  u 0 y  v0 x
u 0  U  cos 

v0  U  sin 
y
 = U(y cos  – x sin ) U
v0

u0
N.B A uniform flow is a physically
possible incompressible flow (i.e it
satisfies .V=0) and that is x

irrotational (i.e it satisfies V=0).

51
 II) Source and Sink
A 2-D source is a line (from a mathematical perspective) that runs
perpendicular to the plane of flow and injects fluid equally in all directions.

The strength of a source, denoted by m(), is the volume rate of flow

emanating from unit length of the line.

52
On Integrating
 Sources
y
m is the source strength in m2s-1 r

m x
 (r , )  
2
m  y
 ( x, y )  tan 1  
2 x
 m x  m y
u  ; v 
y 2 x  y
2 2
x 2 x 2  y 2
m The radial velocity decreases inversely with distance from
ur 
2r the source, but the flow rate, m, remains constant

m x m x m y m y
u   u r cos  ; v   u r sin  54
2 r 2
2r r 2 r 2
2r r
 Source at the origin
3

1
=0
0 y

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x 55
 Sources not at the origin
For a source in a generalised position (x0,y0):

m 1  y  y0 
 tan  
2  x  x0 
m x  x0 
u
2  x  x0 2   y  y 0 2
m  y  y0 
v
2  x  x0 2   y  y 0 2

56
 Sink Flow
Sink is the opposite of source and the radial streamlines are
directed inwards to a common point, origin, where the fluid is
absorbed at a constant rate.

 m<0, the flow is radially inward, the origin is a SINK

the origin is a singularity where ur→∞
conservation of mass is satisfied everywhere except
the origin (i.e Source/sink flow is a physically possible
incompressible flow(i.e .V=0)

57
 Sinks
Basically a source with a negative m y
r
m is the source strength in m2s-1 
m x
 (r , )   
2
m 1  y 
 ( x, y )   tan  
2 x
 m x  m y
u  ; v 
y 2 x  y
2 2
x 2 x 2  y 2
m
ur  
2r
m x m y
u  ur cos  ; v  ur sin 
2 r 2
2 r 2
58
 III) Vortex
•A vortex has the pathlines being circles centered on
the origin, and fluid particles move along these circles.
•The strength of a vortex is measured by the circulation.

On Integrating

59
Whirlpool

60
Elementary Planar Irrotational Flows
Line Vortex

• If vortex is moved to
(x,y) = (a,b)
 Example 1.7

• A source with strength 0.2 m3/s·m and a vortex with strength 1 m2/s
are located at the origin. Determine the equations for velocity potential
and stream function. What are the velocity components at x = 1 m, y =
0.5 m?

Solution:
• The velocity potential for the source is

• and the corresponding stream function is

62
• The velocity potential for the vortex is

• and the corresponding stream function is

• Adding the respective functions gives

• The radial and tangential velocity components are

• At (1, 0.5), , vr = 0.0285 m/s, vθ = 0.143 m/s

63
 IV. Doublet
Consider a combination of a source and a sink of equal strength m and
separated at a distance 2a=ds (left figure):

The streamline pattern for a doublet is shown in the right figure above.

64
 Doublet - Theory
m m
 (r , )      d  
2 2
y
md 
 (r , )  
2
d
r
sin d  sin  r-dr
By the sine rule: 
ds r  dr +d

ds sin  source ds sink x
As ds  0, sin d  d and r  dr  r  d 
r
md mds sin  sin 
Then  (r ,  )     K
2 2 r r
A Doublet is formed when the source and sink approach each other,i.e a0 &
m.Such that mds/2π=constant
 The strength of the doublet is K=mds/2π.=constant

65
 Doublet - Theory y
r

mds x
K is the doublet strength
2
In cartesian coordinates:

sin  y r y This represents a series of circles

 ( x, y )   K  K  K 2 with centre on the y axis
r r x  y2

 y 2  x2
u  u ( x, y )  K
y x 2
y 
2 2

 xy
v  v ( x , y )  2 K
x x  y 
2 2 2

66
 Doublet - example
K= 100m3s-1
13
12
11
10
9 14-16
8 12-14
7 10-12
6
8-10
5
4 6-8
3 4-6
2
2-4
1
0
0-2
-1 -2-0
-2 -4--2
-3
-6--4
-4
-5
-8--6
-6 -10--8
-7 -12--10
-8
-14--12
-9
-10 -16--14
-11
-12
10

12

14
-8

-6

-4

-2

8
-20

-18

-16

-14

-12

-10

67
1.5 Superposition of elementary potential-flow models

• One question that naturally arises is "Why are we

discussing these flows such as uniform flow,
source flow ,vortex and doublet flows when they
do not actually exist.
• The answer is "Yes, they do not exist. But
conceptually they are useful.".
• In fact, they serve as alphabets of potential flow.
By combining these flows we can build up more
complicated flows, which are meaningful.
68
Superposition of elementary potential-flow models

The basic potential flows that have been

discussed so far are more mathematical
constructions than physically realistic entities
(although a source/sink may represent the flow
field of an injection/withdrawing well, and so
on).
However a combination of these basic
potential flows may provide a representation of
some flow fields of practical interest. This is the
subject matter for the next section.
69
 Introduction
The fact that the flow is always along a streamline
and not through it has an important fundamental
consequence.
 This is that a streamline of an inviscid flow can be
replaced by a solid boundary of the same shape
without affecting the remainder of the flow pattern.
 If, as often is the case, a streamline forms a closed
curve that separates the flow pattern into two separate
streams, one inside and one outside, then a solid body
can replace the closed curve and the flow made
outside without altering the shape of the flow

70
I) Source + Uniform Flow = Flow Past a
Half Body
 uniform  uy m
  
2
source
For the combined flow ,
m m
  Uy    Ur sin   
2 2

71
 stagnation point for flow past Half Body
At a point x=−b the velocities due to the two flows cancel each
other, and this is identified as the stagnation point.
 Uniform flow velocity U=radial outward flow due to source Ur
(r=b)
m m m
 U U    b   m  2  bU
2 r 2 b 2 U
r

72
 Flow Past a Half Body
Stagnation streamline(Dividing stream line)
The stagnation streamline defines the shape of the aerodynamic
‘body’.
The value of the stream function on this streamline is the same as
the value at the stagnation point(y=0,=) since Y=r sin 

m m.   m
Stagnation streamline,  s  u 0 y   u 0 .0     bU
2 2 2

For y=0 on the x-axis. There are two solutions, one for the upper and
one for the lower streamlines.
s=m/2
m
s  
2
s=-m/2 73
 Flow Past a Half Body
The stagnation streamline (the dividing streamline that passes
through the stagnation point is given by s)

We knowt hat For the combined flow ,

m m m
  Uy    Ur sin     s 
2 2 2
Where m  2bU r Substituting gives:-
b    
 r   y  b    
sin 
This streamline, which has the shape shown above, can be considered as a solid
boundary of a half-body that extends from x=−b to x→+∞.
The flow exterior to this streamline represents the flow past a half-body, whose
thickness at large x can be estimated to be 2bπ, since

74
 Flow Past a Half Body
V
The velocity components for this flow are given by

U

The square of velocity reduces to:-

If the pressure in the free stream is it follows from Bernoulli Equation that

75
 Source and horizontal flow
=3 3

=2 2

=1 1
=0
=0 0 y

=-1 -1

=-2 -2

=-3 -3

=-4 -4

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x 76
(Example 1.8)Rankine half-body
Streamlines may not be
crossed by the fluid, so the
streamline can represent a
body in the flow given by:
y
  y  10 tan 1

x  10
Determine the distance to the
stagnation point (b)?

77
 Solution
m 1  y  y0   uniform  u0 y
 source  tan  
2  x  x0 
 y  y0 
For a source and horizontal flow:   U 0 y  m tan 1
 
2  x  x0 

 m x  x0
u u  u0 
y 2  x  x0 2   y  y0 2
At a stagnation point u=0

m x  x0
 u0 
2  x  x0 2   y  y0 2
If the stagnation point is on the x-axis, y=y0 m
x  x0  
2u0
For the example over where:- m
u0  1m / s ,  0  10m and  10m 2 / s
y 2
  y 10tan 1
x   10   10  x  20m  b
x 10 78
 Example 1.9 Y

• A uniform flow of fluid with a density of 800Kg/m3 is

from left to right with a velocity u=2m/s. It is
combined with a source of strength (m)=8m2/s at Py
the origin. Calculate
Ps
A). The distance to the stagnation point
B). The width of the flow stream emanating from the source
when it has reached a uniform state.
C). The pressure difference between the stagnation point and
the point where the zero streamline crosses the y axis.
Solution
m 8 2 2
A) x  x0    x0   ,   b  meters Ans
2 u 0 2  2  
2
B) Width, t=2b t  2  ( )  4 meters Ans

C) Ps-Py=2248N/m2
79
 Example 1.10
• A Rankine half-body is formed as shown in Fig. below. For the
conditions shown, compute Where m  2aU r

(a) the source strength (m/2) in m2/s; Ans.m=13.4m2/s

(b) the distance a; 
y  b      3  a   

 
  a  1 . 91 m
2 
(c) the distance h; and
At x= 4 m
b     4
 rA  
sin  cos 
1 . 91     4
     47 . 8 0
sin  cos 
4
rA   5 . 95 m  h  r A sin   4 . 41 m
cos 47 . 8
(d) the total velocity at point A.
80
 II) Source + Sink + Uniform Flow = Flow Past a Rankine Oval

Consider, the source and the

sink are of the same strength:
any mass of fluid injected by
the source is eventually drawn
into the sink.

The dividing streamline is

now a closed curve.

 This finite body, called

Rankine Oval, has two
stagnation points, one at the
front end and the other at the
rear end of its boundary.

81
 Rankine Bodies
13
12

=10 11
10

=8 9
8

=6 7
6
10-12
8-10
=4 5
6-8
4

=2 3
2
4-6
2-4
1
=0 0 0-2
-1 -2-0
=-2 -2
-3
-4--2
-4
-6--4
=-4 -5 -8--6
-6 -10--8
=-6 -7
-12--10
-8
=-8 -9

=-10 -10
-11
-12
-20

-18

-16

-14

-12

-10

10

12

14
-8

-6

-4

-2

82
 Rankine Bodies
linear flow + source+ sink
m 1  y  y0  m 1  y  y1 
  u0 y  tan   
  tan  
2  x  x0  2  x  x1 

u
y

u  u0 
m  x  x0 

m  x  x1 
2  x  x0    y  y0  2  x  x1 2   y  y1 2
2 2

for source and sink at general coordinates (x0,y0) and (x1,y1)

83
Rankine Bodies - stagnation points
y

s s
-a a x

To find the stagnation points, put y0=0, y1=0 and x0=-a, x1=a

m  x  a  x  a  
0  u0    
2   x  a  x  a 2 
2

84
Rankine Bodies - stagnation points

m  1 1 
0  u0  
2  x  a  x  a  


m  x  a  x  a  
 0  u0  
2  x 2  a 2  x 2  a 2 

m   2a 
 0  u0 
2  x 2  a 2 

ma
 x2  a2 
u0

85
 Rankine Bodies – example 1.11
• A Rankine body is formed with a source and
sink, 5 m apart, each of strength 10 m2/s, and
a uniform flow of 5 m/s as shown in Fig. Find
the length L and thickness t of the body.

86
 Solution
V=u0= 5ms-1, m=10m2s-1, a=2.5m ma
 x a 
2 2

u0
10  2.5
x 2  2.52 
 5
x  2.8m
The body is therefore L=5.6m long.

m 1  y  y0  m 1  y  y1 
  u0 y  tan   
  tan  
2  x  x0  2  x  x1 
10 1  t /2  10 1  t /2 
0  5 (t / 2 )  tan    tan  
2  0  (  2 .5 )  2   0  2 .5 

10 1  t 
0  5 (t / 2 )  tan  
  5  87
 1.5.2 Lifting flow over a cylinder and
an airfoil, Kutta-Joukowski theorem
As the source and the sink combine to become a doublet, the
Rankine Oval becomes a circular cylinder.
As the flow past a circular cylinder is of fundamental interest, let
us examine the flow in some detail.
A. Doublet + Uniform Flow = Flow Past a Circular Cylinder

88
Doublet + Uniform Flow = Flow Past a Circular
Cylinder
(U=V, Free stream velocity)

89
Examples of Irrotational Flows Formed by
Superposition(Flow over a cylinder)

• Compute pressure using

Bernoulli equation and
velocity on cylinder
Turbulent
surface
separation

Laminar
separation

Irrotational
flow
B) Free Vortex + Doublet + Uniform Flow =
(Flow Past a Rotating Circular Cylinder )
Lifting flow over a cylinder

The effect of adding a vortex is to upset the symmetry of flow

about the horizontal diameter. Therefore, the pressure in the
upper half of the cylinder is not balanced by the pressure in the
lower half. This results in a net lift force acting laterally on the
cylinder.

91
 Lifting flow over a cylinder
Consequently the velocity components will be,

 The tangential velocity on the surface of the cylinder (when r=a) is given by,

 The streamline pattern for this flow depend upon the location of the stagnation points given by,

92
.
Stagnation Points for a lifting circular cylinder

The stagnation points we saw in Fig. above are for the case when the
circulation imposed on the cylinder was such that (see fig b)

With zero circulation the stagnation points lie at = o,2 (see fig.a)

When they coincide at =/2 or  =-/2 (see fig.c)

If circulation is further increased the stagnation point will no longer be found on
the cylinder surface, but will appear in the flow as shown in Fig.d

93
(Flow Past a Rotating Circular Cylinder ) Lifting flow over a cylinder (cont’d)

94
 Kutta-Joukowski theorem
:- It states that lift per unit span on a two-dimensional body is directly proportional to the
circulation around the body.

:-It is simply an alternative way of expressing the consequences of the surface pressure
distribution; it is a mathematical expression that is consistent with the special tools we
have developed for the analysis of inviscid, incompressible flow.

95
 Summary
KEY CONCEPTS
• Elementary Flows (Building Blocks, why such a name?)
1. Uniform Flow
2. Source / Sink Flow
3. Doublet Flow
4. Vortex Flow
• What is the purpose? → Simulate real shapes in a simple manner
– Combine (1) + (2) → flow over half-body or oval
– Combine (1) + (3) → flow over a cylinder
– Combine with (4) → flow over a lifting cylinder
– Kutta-Joukowski Theorem
– Combinations of sources, vortex, uniform flow.
– Why can we combine so easily (simply add)?
• Know how to set up  and  for all cases and combined flows (no
time to solve)
• Know how to get velocity components u and v
• How would you model some basic shapes using these tools?

96
SUMMARY OF STREAM AND POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS
TABLE

Where ,m source strength

97
 LIFTING FLOW OVER A CYLINDER
LIFTING FLOW OVER A CYLINDER

 R   r
2
  V r sin  1  2   ln 
 r  2  R 
L   V  Kutta-Joukowski Theorem
98
 Summary
Irrotational (potential) Flow Approximation
2D Flows

99
The Finite Wing Theory

100
 HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?
• Lift due to imbalance of pressure distribution over top and bottom
surfaces of airfoil (or wing)
– If pressure on top is lower than pressure on bottom surface, lift is generated
– Why is pressure lower on top surface?

• We can understand answer from basic physics:

– Continuity (Mass Conservation)
– Newton’s 2nd law (Euler or Bernoulli Equation)

Lift = PA
 Introduction

HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?

1. Flow velocity over the top of airfoil is faster than over bottom surface
– Streamtube A senses upper portion of airfoil as an obstruction
– Streamtube A is squashed to smaller cross-sectional area
– Mass continuity AV=constant, velocity must increase

Streamtube A is squashed
most in nose region
(ahead of maximum thickness)

A
B

102
 Introduction

HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?

2. As velocity increases pressure decreases 1
– Incompressible: Bernoulli’s Equation p  V 2  constant
– Compressible: Euler’s Equation 2
– Called Bernoulli Effect dp   VdV
3. With lower pressure over upper surface and higher pressure over bottom
surface, airfoil feels a net force in upward direction → Li

Most of lift is produced

in first 20-30% of wing
(just downstream of leading edge)

103
 AIRFOILS VERSUS WINGS

Why do airfoils have such a shape?

How are lift and drag produced?

NACA airfoil performance data

How do we design?
What is limit of behavior?
 Introduction
HOW DOES WING GENERATE LIFT?
 When the wing produces positive lift, the pressure of the
lower surface of wing is bigger than the pressure of the upper
surface.
Under the function of pressure difference between the upper
surface and lower surface of wing, the airflow of lower surface
flows around wing tip to the upper surface and forms the tip
eddy.
 Look forward from the back of wing, the left tip eddy rotates
clockwise and the right tip eddy rotates anti-clockwise.
105
a. The creation of induced drag
the tip eddy (vortex):
Y

Wing tip vortex

106
 Downwash and Induced Drag
• Downwash

These wing-tip vortices of

the wing induce a small
velocity component in the
downward direction,
which is called Downwash,
denoted by 

107
 Application of Vortex flow pattern
The flow over an airfoil is two-dimensional. The flow over the finite wing is three-dimensional

w w

downwash speed

108
Lift on an airplane wing…. Flow lines are more
crowded above the wing, which means the velocity of
the air moves faster on top. Increased velocity means
lower pressure on top, producing an upward force
________
we call “Lift”. If “Lift” > weight
_________, the plane “takes off”,
accelerating up.
If angle of wing
becomes too
great, plane can
“stall”.

109
But, is this REALLY the correct “story” to explain
how airplanes can fly??
Believe it or not, there’s some controversy over
the issue…
http://www.amasci.com/wing/airfoil.html
Flow around an airfoil: the dots move
with the flow. Note that the velocities
are much higher at the upper surface
than at the lower surface. The black
dots are on timelines, which split into
two — an upper and lower part — at
the leading edge. The part of a
timeline below the airfoil does not
catch up with the one above. Colors of
the dots indicate streamlines
From Wikipedia.com 110
 Aerodynamic force includes: lift, drag and side force .
 Aerodynamic force definition : The acting force of air on an object when the object
moves relatively with the air.

111
 Section One: The Characteristics
and main geometric parameters of Wing

Airfoil

•The sectional shape of wing refers to the sectional shape of wing

along the flying direction, that is airfoil for short .

112
 I. The Shape of Wing
(I）the commonly used Airfoil

1. Convex concave airfoil

2.Flat convex airfoil

Primary teach-6 aircraft
3.Double convex airfoil
Aerotransport-7 aircraft

113
（II）The commonly used plane shape of wing

114
Section Two: The parameters of wing

1、wing chord (b)

2、Wing area (S)

3、Wing span (L)

4、Aspect ratio ()

5、wing taper ratio (η)

6、 angle of sweep-back (χ)

115
Camber line: The
connection line of a series
of incenters of the airfoil

Leading edge: The front end

of the mean camber line
Trailing edge: The rear end 。

1.Wing chord: The connection line between the

leading edge and the trailing edge 。

116
 2.Relative camber
• Maximum camber :Maximum distance between the
mean camber line of the airfoil and the wing chord
fmax

bb
Relative camber :the ratio of the maximum camber
(fmax) and the wing chord (b)

117
 3.Wing area:
The projected area of wing
on plane xoz is called wing
area which is represented
by S。

Average chord :bav= S/L

PT-6 aircraft， bav

Ｓ＝17m2

118
4.Wingspan:
The distance between
the left and right wing
end (wingtip) is called
wingspan (L) 。

PT-6 aircraft，
L ＝10.22m。

119
5.Aspect ratio:
The ratio of wingspan to
the average wing chord
(baverage) is called aspect
ratio (λ)

  L / b  L2
PT-6 aircraftav， λ＝６；/S

120
6.Wing taper ratio:
the ratio of wing root
chord length to wing tip
chord length ， is called
wing taper ratio (η )。

rectangular wing：η=1
Delta wing η=∞。

121
The influencing factors of the Lift
There are three factors which influencing
the Lift:

Y=Cy（1/2）ρV2S

(1)wing area S
Lift is in direct proportion along with the
wing area S.

122
(2) Dynamic pressure
Dynamic pressure includes two factors: air
density and airflow speed.
( 3) Lift coefficient Cy

Lift is in direct proportion along with the Lift

coefficient Cy . The bigger the Lift coefficient is,
the bigger the lift is.

123
 The changing regularity of the lift
coefficient Cy along with the angle of
attack α
the relationship between α and Cy can be drawn
into a diagram which is called lift coefficient
curve.
Cymax

α αc
124
0 r