Basics of fluid dynamics

• A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the influence of a

shear stress (no matter how small it is ).

• A thorough study of the laws of fluid mechanics is necessary to

understand the fluid motion within the turbomachinery components.

• Fluid mechanics has two parts

- Fluid kinematics
. - Fluid dynamics

• Fluid kinematics concerns about describing the fluid motion without taking
into account the forces that cause the motion.

• In fluid dynamics, the forces are considered for the analysis of fluid
motion. Governing equations are derived by considering the balance of
these forces. The fluid dynamic equations relate force, mass and velocity.

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 Classification of fluid flows
• Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
• Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are
regions (typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where
viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or
pressure forces.

The flow of an originally

uniform fluid stream
over a flat plate, and
the regions of viscous
flow (next to the plate
on both sides) and
inviscid flow (away from
the plate).

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• Incompressible flow: If the density of a flowing fluid remains nearly
constant throughout (e.g., liquid flow).

• Compressible flow: If the density of a fluid changes during flow (e.g.,

high-speed gas flow)

• Mach number is a dimensionless quantity. It is the ration of local flow

velocity to the speed of sound in the medium
V
M
a
• Mach number can be used to identify different flow types

M < 0.3 Incompressible flow

0.3 < M < 0.8 Subsonic flow
0.8 < M < 1.2 Transonic flow
M=1 Sonic flow
M>1 Supersonic flow
Ma > 5 Hypersonic flow

• In many types of turbomachinery, the compressibility effect (high Mach number

flow) is substantial. These effects result in a compact turbomachine due to
increased pressure ratio and mass flow per unit area 3
• Laminar flow: The highly
ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth
layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such
as oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
• Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion
that typically occurs at
high velocities and is
characterized by velocity
fluctuations. The flow of
low-viscosity fluids such as
air at high velocities is
typically turbulent.
• Transitional flow: A flow
that alternates between
being laminar and
turbulent. Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows
over a flat plate.
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• Reynolds number is the ration inertial forces to the viscous forces

VL
Re 

L is the characteristic length

• The value of the Reynolds number in a flow gives an idea about its
nature (turbulent or laminar)
.
• The nature of flow in blade passages in a turbine can be identified
to a great extent by the velocity profiles and the values of Reynolds
number.

• Viscosity is the property of a fluid which resists the shearing

motion of two adjacent layers of the fluid.

• For Newtonian fluids shear stress is directly proportional to the

rate of deformation. The proportionally constant is called as the
coefficient of viscosity µ. E.g. water, air
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• For non-Newtonian fluids the relationship between shear stress and
ate of deformation is not linear. E.g. paints, polymer solution, blood.

Unit of viscosity: Ns/m2 (Pa.s)

• In steady flow, the fluid properties at any fixed point in the flow field
remains constant with time.

• In unsteady flow, the fluid properties at any fixed point in the flow
field change with time.

• In uniform flow, the fluid properties do not change with location over
a specified region.

• Many devices such as turbines, compressors and boilers operate for

long periods of time under the same conditions, and they are
classified as steady-flow devices. (Note that the flow field near the
rotating blades of a turbomachine is of course unsteady, but we
consider the overall flow field rather than the details at some
localities when we classify)
 Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions
• In Lagrangian description of fluid motion we follow a mass of fixed
identity. This is analogues to the system analysis in thermodynamics

• In this approach, fluid particles are identified by their position r0 (or x0, y0,
z0,) at any time to and describe their trajectories. The trajectory of the line
along which an individual particle moves over some time period is called
a path line.
.
• Generally speaking, this approach is difficult for the analysis of flowing
fluids, but still finds some applications. E.g. rarefied gas dynamics
calculations, development of flow measurement systems.

• In the Eulerian approach, we define a control volume, through which fluid

flows in and out. Instead of following a fixed mass, we pay attention to
the particles at the location of interest and the time of interest

• In this approach, we define field variables, which are functions of time

and space within the control volume. 7
• The complete state of motion is described by a succession of
instantaneous states of flow. Thus if φ is a flow property, then φ (x, y, z,
t) or   r , t  is the value of φ at r , the position occupied by the particle
and at the instant of time t.

• At a later time the fluid particle occupying the position (x, y, z) will be
different. If the flow is steady then “φ” is independent of t and is a
function of x, y and z alone.

• . The governing equations in this lecture are therefore written using only
the Eulerian approach.

• Substantial or total derivative of any property acts as bridge between

Lagrangian and Eulerian approaches

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 Substantial derivative

• In order to compute the time rate of change of any property of a

moving fluid element, therefore, the local rate of change of the
property and also the change of its position have to be used. That
is

D d     
   u  v  w    V
Dt dt t x y z t
.
valid for any coordinate system

• The derivative D/Dt is called by several names such as substantial

derivative, material derivative, particle derivative or total derivative.

• The first term  t , is called the local derivative which indicates the
unsteady time variation of a fluid property at a point.
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•   V is called convective derivative of the particle. This physically
means the time rate of change due to the movement of the fluid
element from one location to another in the flow field where the
flow properties are changing.

• The acceleration of the fluid particle that happens to occupy the

location (x, y, z) at that time t is expressed using the substantial
derivative. The acceleration of a fluid particle is expressed as field
variables
. DV V V V V V
a  x, y , z , t      V  u v w
Dt t t x y z
• Note that the acceleration a is called total acceleration, comprising
of local acceleration (partial derivative w.r.t. time) and convective
acceleration (caused due to the fluid motion itself). (x, y, z) is the
inertial frame of reference.
• local derivative is only nonzero for unsteady flows. Advective term
can be nonzero for steady flows which is defined in Eulerian frame
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of reference.
 Reynolds transport theorem
• The relationship between the time rates of change of an extensive
property for a system and for a control volume is expressed by the
Reynolds transport theorem (RTT)

• This provides the link between the system and control volume
approaches, which can be expressed as

dBsys d
dt
 
dt CV
 bdv    bV  ndA
CS

• where B represents any extensive property (such as mass, energy,

or momentum), and b = B/m represents the corresponding intensive
property.

• The Reynolds transport theorem deals with finite-size control

volumes and the material derivative concerns with infinitesimal fluid
particles
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 Streamline and streamtube
• Streamline is an imaginary curve in the flow such that the tangent at
each point on the curve coincides with the direction of the velocity at
that point.

• Streamlines are useful as indicators of the instantaneous direction of

fluid motion throughout the flow field.

• When the flow is steady, the streamline coincides with the path line
. of any fluid particle. The equation of a streamline is

Equation for a stream line

• However, in unsteady motion, the flow pattern varies with time.

Therefore, the streamlines and path lines differ with each other.

• The turbomachinery flows, in general, are unsteady.

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• A streamtube is generated by a group of
individual streamlines passing through a
closed curve
A streamtube consists of a
bundle of individual
streamlines
• A fluid within a streamtube must remain there and cannot cross the
.boundary of streamtube (the virtual solid surface ).

• A particle can have no motion perpendicular to the streamline.

• The space that the fluid occupies in a turbomachine can be considered

as a stream tube. Even the flow between the blades of the turbomachines
may be treated approximately in this manner.

• This approach gives an average behaviour of fluid flow and is known as a

quasi-one dimensional treatment.
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 Conservation of mass (integral form)
• The analysis of flow in turbomachines requires the application of
Newton’s second law of motion along with the equations of continuity
(conservation of mass).

• The net rate of change of mass within the control volume is equal to
the rate at which mass flows into the control volume minus the rate
at which mass flows out of the control volume.

min  mout  dmCV dt (kg / s )

 mnet
• Lets us take a control volume of arbitrary shape
as shown in the figure

• The mass of a differential volume dv within the

control volume is dm   dv

• Total mass within the control volume mCV  CV  dv

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 Conservation of mass (integral form)
• Rate of change of mass within control volume
dmCV d
   dv
dt dt CV
• Mass flow rate through a differential area dA on the control surface is
 m   V  n  dA
V Flow velocity at dA relative to a fixed coordinate system
n Outward unit vector normal to dA

• The net flow rate into or out of the control volume through the entire
control surface is


mnet    m    V  n dA
CS CS

• Integral form of
conservation of
d
dt CV

 dv    V  n dA  0
CS

mass 15
 Conservation of mass (differential form)
• The Gauss’s divergence theorem allows us to transform a volume
integral of the divergence of a vector into an area integral over the
surface that defines the volume.

• For any vector G    Gdv   G  ndA

v
A

• Conservation of mass for a control volume


CV t dv  CS V  ndA  0
• Using Gauss’s divergence theorem

  

 
CV t dv  CV   V dv  0 CV  t   
 V  dv  0 (1)

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 Conservation of mass (differential form)
• Regardless of control volume shape and size equation (1) (in yellow
colour) is only possible, if the term within the square bracket is zero


Hence
t
 
   V  0

• This is the general differential equation for conservation of mass for

unsteady compressible flow, better known as the continuity equation.

• This equation can also be written in terms of material derivative as

follows D
   V  0
Dt

 
• For steady compressible flow   V  0

• For incompressible flow  V  0 17

Linear momentum equation (integral form)
• The application of Newton’s second law is appropriate for studying the
forces generated as a result of velocity changes of fluid streams

• In fluid mechanics, Newton’s second law is usually referred to

as the linear momentum equation

• In a general way, Newton’s second law for a system subjected to a

net force can be expressed as

F 
d
dt
 d
mV   Vdv
dt sys
• Setting b  V and B  mV , the Reynolds transport theorem for
linear momentum can be expressed as

 
d mV
dt
sys

d

dt CV
 
Vdv   V V  n dA (2)
CS

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Linear momentum equation (integral form)
• The left hand side of equation (2) is equal to F
• The general form of the linear momentum equation that applies to
a control volume is expressed as
d

 dt  Vdv   V V  n dA
F  
CV CS
• The forces acting on a control volume consist of body forces that
act throughout the entire body of the control volume (e.g. gravity)
and surface forces that act on the control surface (e.g. pressure
and viscous forces).
• The differential body force dFgravity acting on the small fluid element
acts in the negative z-direction is simply its weight,

dFgravity   gdv

• Total body force acting on the control volume is

F body    gdv
CV 19
Linear momentum equation (integral form)
• Surface force acting on a differential surface element
dFsurface   ij  ndA
 ij surface stress tensor at a point in the flow (includes viscous
and pressure forces)
• Total surface force acting on a control surface

F surface    ij  ndA
CS

• Total force F  F body   Fsurface    gdv    ij  ndA

CV CS

• The general form of the linear momentum equation that applies

to a control volume

CV
 gdv    ij  ndA 
CS
d

dt CV

Vdv   V V  n dA
CS 20
Linear momentum equation (integral form)

d
 
CV  gdv  CS  ij  ndA  dt CV Vdv  CS V V  n dA

The time rate of The net flow rate of

The sum of all
change of the linear linear momentum
external forces
momentum of the out of the control
acting on the
fluid of the control surface by mass
control volume
volume flow

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Linear momentum equation (differential form)
• Using the Gauss’s divergence theorem, we can write

 V V  n  dA      VV  dv
CS CV

• Similarly we can write


CS
ij  ndA    
CV
ij dv

• Then we can rewrite

CV
 gdv    ij  ndA 
CS
d

dt CV
 
Vdv   V V  n dA
CS

• as
 
CV  t V  
   VV   g    
ij dv  0

(3) 22
Linear momentum equation (differential form)
• Regardless of the control volume shape and size, equation (3) (in
yellow colour) is only possible, if the term within the square bracket
is zero

t
   
V    VV   g     ij  0


t
   
V    VV   g     ij

• This is a general differential equation for conservation of linear

momentum, known as Cauchy’s equation

• By assuming Newtonian and compressible fluid under isothermal

flow condition and expressing stress tensor in terms of velocity
field and pressure field, Cauchy’s equation transforms into Navier-
Stokes equation
DV
  P   g   2V
Dt 23
 Boundary layer separation
• Boundary layer: a very thin region of flow near
a solid wall where viscous forces and
rotationality cannot be ignored.

• If the flow occurs in the direction of static pressure rise (adverse pressure
gradient), the boundary layer becomes thicker and reverses if this static
pressure gradient is strong enough. This is known as boundary layer
separation. This leads to chaotic flow, large drag and high energy losses

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 Boundary layer separation
(cont.)
• The separation of boundary layer and the point of separation depend on
- the geometry
- roughness of the surface
- nature of the flow (turbulent or laminar)

• The laminar boundary layer gets separated earlier than the turbulent
boundary layer

• Favourable pressure gradient helps the attachment of boundary layer to

the surface.

• In all turbomachines boundary layer separation should be avoided

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