Basics of thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the study

of energy and its relation to the properties of matter

• System: A definite quantity of matter or a region in space upon

which attention is focussed in the analysis of a problem.

• The mass or region outside the

system is called the surroundings.

• The surfaces which separates the

system from the surroundings are called
the boundaries (zero thickness, contains
no mass or occupy no volume)
1
2
3
• Any characteristic of a system is called a property.

• Intensive properties are those whose values are

independent of the mass of a system. e.g. temperature,
pressure, and density.

• Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the

size of the system. e.g. mass, volume

• Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific

properties. e.g. specific volume, specific total energy (e
=E/m).

• Most widely used properties

- Pressure (P), Volume (V), Temperature (T), Entropy (s),
Enthalpy (h), Internal energy (u)
4
• The state of a system is defined by the values of all its properties.

• Any operation in which one or more properties of a system change is

called a change of state.

• A system is said to go through a process if it goes through a series of

changes in state.

• The succession of states passed

through during a change of state is
called the path of the process

• If a process proceeds in such a

manner that the system remains
infinitesimally close to an equilibrium
state at all times, it is called a quasi-
equilibrium process.
• A system is said to have undergone a
cycle if the initial state has been
regained after a series of processes 5
 Types of Processes
• We allow one of the properties to remain a constant during a
process.
o Isentropic process - entropy constant
o Isobaric process - pressure constant
o Isochoric process - volume constant
o Isenthalpic process - enthalpy constant
o Adiabatic process - no heat addition or removal
• A process is said to be reversible if the system and its
surroundings are restored to their respective initial states by
reversing the direction of the process.

• Processes that are not reversible are called irreversible

6
processes. All practical processes are irreversible
 Work and heat
• If the magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects are neglected, the
total energy of a closed system per unit mass is

Internal energy Kinetic energy Potential

of a system energy

Sign conventions
 Work done BY the system is +ve
 Work done ON the system is –ve
 Heat given TO the system is +ve
 Heat rejected BY the system is -ve

• Both heat and work are path functions and they depend on the type of process
and therefore, are not properties of a system.

• Boundary work of a process is equal to the area under P and V diagram.

7
• Work done in a non-flow process

For a polytropic process ( PV n  constant)

2 2  PV
2
PV
Wnfp   PdV  1 1

1
1 n

• Work done in a flow process

For an adiabatic process ( PV   constant)

2

W fp    VdP   PV 2 2
1 1  PV
1
 1
8
 First law of thermodynamics
• It states the energy conservation principle, ‘energy can neither be
created nor be destroyed but one form of the energy can be
converted to other’.

• When a closed system undergoes a cycle the cyclic integral of

heat is equal to the cyclic integral of work.

• For a process

U - internal energy
δQ-δW=dE E=U+KE+PE
KE - the kinetic energy
PE -the potential energy
• For a stationary closed system E = U

• First law of thermodynamics while applied to a process for a closed

9
system gives rise to a property called internal energy U.
 Open systems
• Virtually all the practical systems involve flow of mass across the
boundary separating the system and the surroundings. E.g. turbine,
compressors

• The quantity ‘Pv’ is called the “flow work”. This is not thermodynamic
work and can’t rise any weight, but necessary to maintain the flow. v is
specific volume

• In the analysis of processes occurring in turbomachines, we frequently

encounter the combination of properties u + Pv.

• For the sake of simplicity and convenience, this combination is defined

as a new property, enthalpy (h)

h = u + Pv (KJ/kg)

• According to the first thermodynamics law, for the open system, heat
supplied splits into enthalpy change and work done by the system. 10
 First law of thermodynamics for
open systems

• During a steady-flow process ECV = constant

• Energy balance dictates that the amount of

energy entering a control volume in all forms
(by heat, work, and mass) must be equal to
the amount of energy leaving it.

θ is total energy per unit mass 11

 First law of thermodynamics for
open systems
 V2   V2 
Qin  Win   m  u  Pv   gz   Qout  Wout   m  u  Pv   gz 
in  2  out  2 

• For single-stream devices.

2 refers outlet
1 refers inlet.
• per unit mass basis.
V22  V12
q  w  h2  h1   g ( z2  z1 )
2 12
 Steady-flow energy equation for
compressible turbomachines

• In generally heat addition is zero q = 0

• Change in potential energy is negligible

• From the energy equation in pervious slide, the shaft work is

V12  V22
w  h1  h2 
2

• If the velocity at entry and exit are low or the difference

between them is small

Shaft work w  h1  h2
13
 Ideal gas
• Ideal gas is a gas which obeys a simple equation of state

PV = nRuT

P= Pressure; n= number of moles; V = volume; T = Temperature

Ru= Universal Gas Constant = 8314 J/kmol.K

• Where is appropriate?
- At low pressures and temperatures far from critical point
- At low densities

• For an ideals gas, specific heats are functions of temperature

alone.

• A perfect gas is an ideal gas whose specific heats remain constant

at all temperatures

14
 Specific heat of ideal gas
• Specific heat is the amount of heat that is required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of the gas by one degree

• Specific heat at constant volume

0
 q   u 
cv      q  du  Pdv
- change in
 T v  T v enthalpy over
small
• Specific heat at constant pressure temperature
h  c p T
h
 q   h 
cP       - change in
 T P  T P q  d (u  Pv) enthalpy over
cP small
• Ration of specific heats   temperature
cv
u  cv T
1 1
cP  cv  R cP  R cv  R
1   1 15
 Second law of thermodynamics
• There are two statements of second law of thermodynamics.

• Clausius statement: It is impossible to construct a system

which will operate in a cycle, transfers heat from the low
temperature reservoir (or object) to the high temperature
reservoir (or object) without any external effect or work
interaction with surrounding.
•
Kelvin Plank statement: It is impossible to construct a heat
engine which produces work in a cycle while interacting with
only one reservoir.

• Second law of thermodynamics while applied to a process give

rise to a property, called entropy.

16
 Additional points
• The second law of thermodynamics leads to an inequality called as
Clausius inequality, which is valid for general processes happening in any
system. 2
q
s2  s1  
1
T
• For a reversible process
q 
ds   
 T  rev
• Entropy is a state function. The entropy change of a system is determined
by its initial and final states only, irrespective of how the system has
changed its state.

• In analyzing irreversible processes, it is not necessary to make a direct

analysis of the actual process. One can substitute the actual process by a
reversible process connecting the final state to the initial state, and the
entropy change for the imaginary reversible process can be evaluated.
17
• Second law of thermodynamics grades the energies. According to this law work
is high grade energy and heat is low grade energy.

• This law directs that low grade energy can not be complety converted into high
grade energy.

• Furthermore, this law also states the possibility of having a process in reality.
According to the second law only those processes are possible in which
entropy of the universe increase or at least remains constant.

• This is called as entropy increase principle which also states that entropy of an
isolated system always increases or remain constant.

dsiso  0

• The area under a process curve on

a T-s diagram is related to the
amount of heat interaction.

18
 Stagnation properties
• Stagnation values of various flow parameters are used as reference
values in the analysis of compressible flow machines.

• Let us imagine a fluid flow is isentropically brought to zero velocity

(stagnation condition). All properties at stagnation state are
stagnation properties. static enthalpy

V2 Initial velocity
• Stagnation enthalpy h0  h 
2
R
• Stagnation temperature T0 a2
- for a perfect gas  1

V 2 V2 T0   1 
cPT0  cPT  T0  T   1V 2  
2 2c P T  2 RT 
19
‘a’ is speed of sound in gas at temperature T
T0   1  2 V
 1  M M (Mach number) =
a
T  2 
static temperature
• Stagnation pressure P0

P0  T0   1
 
P T 
static pressure
• Stagnation density  0

P0
0 
RT
1
0  T0   1
 
 T 
static density 20
 Property relations
• From the first law for a process δq=δw+du

• Substitute for δq=Tds and δw= Pdv

Tds = Pdv+du 0

• For a constant volume process Tds = du (Tds = Pdv+du)

• We have by definition h = u+ Pv

• Differentiating dh=du+Pdv+vdP

dh= Tds +vdP δq

• For a constant pressure process Tds = dh

• For a perfect gas du=cvdT and dh=cPdT

Substitute for du and dh (Equations are in previous

slide)

• for v=const Tds = cvdT (or) dT/ds|v=const= T / cv

(or) ds=cvdT/T
• On integration yields s2-s1= cvln(T2/T1)

• for p=const Tds = cPdT (or) dT/ds|P=const= T / cP

(or) ds=cpdT/T
• On integration yields s2-s1= cPln(T2/T1)

• Since cP > cv a constant pressure line on T-s

plane will be flatter than a constant volume line.