FM-II

Basics of fluid Mechanics

1–1 ■ INTRODUCTION
Mechanics: The oldest physical
science that deals with both stationary
and moving bodies under the influence
of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that
deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with
bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that
deals with the behavior of fluids at rest
(fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics), and the interaction of fluids
with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is Fluid mechanics deals
also referred to as fluid dynamics by
considering fluids at rest as a special with liquids and gases in
case of motion with zero velocity. motion or at rest.
2
Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that can be
approximated as incompressible (such as liquids, especially
water, and gases at low speeds).

Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which deals with

liquid flows in pipes and open channels.

Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that undergo

significant density changes, such as the flow of gases through
nozzles at high speeds.

Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over

bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low
speeds.
Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal with
naturally occurring flows.
3
What is a Fluid?
Fluid: A substance in the liquid
or gas phase.
A solid can resist an applied
shear stress by deforming.
A fluid deforms continuously
under the influence of a shear
stress, no matter how small.
In solids, stress is proportional
to strain, but in fluids, stress is
proportional to strain rate.
When a constant shear force is Deformation of a rubber block
applied, a solid eventually stops placed between two parallel plates
deforming at some fixed strain under the influence of a shear
angle, whereas a fluid never force. The shear stress shown is
stops deforming and that on the rubber—an equal but
approaches a constant rate of opposite shear stress acts on the
strain. upper plate.
4
Stress: Force per unit area.
Normal stress: The normal
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in a
fluid at rest.
Zero shear stress: A fluid at rest is
at a state of zero shear stress.
When the walls are removed or a
liquid container is tilted, a shear
develops as the liquid moves to
re-establish a horizontal free The normal stress and shear stress at
surface. the surface of a fluid element. For
fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero
and pressure is the only normal stress.
5
Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid dynamics is used extensively

in the design of artificial hearts.
Shown here is the Penn State
Electric Total Artificial Heart. 6
7
8
 ■ CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are regions
(typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.

The flow of an originally

uniform fluid stream
over a flat plate, and
the regions of viscous
flow (next to the plate
on both sides) and
inviscid flow (away from
the plate).
9
Internal versus External Flow
External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such
as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is completely
bounded by solid surfaces.

• Water flow in a pipe is

internal flow, and
airflow over a ball is
external flow .
• The flow of liquids in a
duct is called open-
channel flow if the duct
is only partially filled
with the liquid and
there is a free surface.
External flow over a tennis ball, and the
turbulent wake region behind.
10
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Incompressible flow: If the
density of flowing fluid remains
nearly constant throughout (e.g.,
liquid flow).
Compressible flow: If the density
of fluid changes during flow (e.g.,
high-speed gas flow)
When analyzing rockets, spacecraft,
and other systems that involve high-
speed gas flows, the flow speed is
often expressed by Mach number

Schlieren image of the spherical shock

wave produced by a bursting ballon
Ma = 1 Sonic flow at the Penn State Gas Dynamics Lab.
Ma < 1 Subsonic flow Several secondary shocks are seen in
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow the air surrounding the ballon.
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow
11
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow: The highly
ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth
layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as
oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high
velocities and is
characterized by velocity
fluctuations. The flow of low-
viscosity fluids such as air at
high velocities is typically
turbulent.
Transitional flow: A flow
that alternates between
being laminar and turbulent. Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows
over a flat plate. 12
Natural (or Unforced)
versus Forced Flow
Forced flow: A fluid is forced
to flow over a surface or in a
pipe by external means such
as a pump or a fan.
Natural flow: Fluid motion is
due to natural means such as
the buoyancy effect, which
manifests itself as the rise of
warmer (and thus lighter) fluid
and the fall of cooler (and thus
denser) fluid.
In this schlieren image of a girl in a
swimming suit, the rise of lighter, warmer air
adjacent to her body indicates that humans
and warm-blooded animals are surrounded
by thermal plumes of rising warm air.
13
Steady versus Unsteady Flow

• The term steady implies no change at a point with time.

• The opposite of steady is unsteady.

• The term uniform implies no change with location over a specified

region.

• The term periodic refers to the kind of unsteady flow in which the
flow oscillates about a steady mean.

• Many devices such as turbines, compressors, boilers, condensers,

and heat exchangers operate for long periods of time under the
same conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow devices.

14
Comparison of (a) instantaneous snapshot of an unsteady
flow, and (b) long exposure picture of the same flow.
15
■ DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density Specific gravity: The ratio
of the density of a
substance to the density of
some standard substance at
a specified temperature
Specific volume
(usually water at 4°C).

Specific weight: The

weight of a unit volume
of a substance.

Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.

16
17
18
19
Speed of Sound and Mach Number
Speed of sound (sonic speed): The speed at which an infinitesimally
small pressure wave travels through a medium.

Control volume moving with the

small pressure wave along a duct.

For an ideal gas

For any fluid
Propagation of a small
pressure wave along a duct. 20
The speed of sound in air
increases with temperature. At
typical outside temperatures, c is
about 340 m/s. In round numbers,
therefore, the sound of thunder
from a lightning strike travels about
1 km in 3 seconds. If you see the
lightning and then hear the thunder
less than 3 seconds later, you
know that the lightning is close,
and it is time to go indoors!

21
 Mach number Ma: The ratio of the
actual speed of the fluid (or an object
in still fluid) to the speed of sound in
the same fluid at the same state.

The Mach number depends on the

speed of sound, which depends
on the state of the fluid.

The speed of sound

changes with temperature
and varies with the fluid.
The Mach number can be different
at different temperatures even if
the flight speed is the same. 22
23
Capillary effect: The rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the
liquid.
Capillaries: Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels.
The capillary effect is partially responsible for the rise of water to the top of tall trees.
Meniscus: The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary tube.

The strength of the capillary effect is Capillary Effect

quantified by the contact (or wetting)
angle, defined as the angle that the
tangent to the liquid surface makes with
the solid surface at the point of contact.

The meniscus of colored water in a

4-mm-inner-diameter glass tube.
Note that the edge of the meniscus
The contact angle for wetting and
meets the wall of the capillary tube
nonwetting fluids. 24
at a very small contact angle.
 The capillary rise of water and the The forces acting on a liquid column
capillary fall of mercury in a small- that has risen in a tube due to the
diameter glass tube. capillary effect.

Sigma is surface tension

 Capillary rise is inversely proportional to the R is the radius
radius of the tube and density of the liquid.

Surface tension could be defined as the property of the surface of a liquid that allows

it to resist an external force, due to the cohesive nature of the water molecules.
25
R=d/2
R=

26
Conservation of Mass
The conservation of mass relation for a closed system undergoing a
change is expressed as msys = constant or dmsys/dt = 0, which is the
statement that the mass of the system remains constant during a
process.

Mass balance for a control volume (CV) in rate form:

the total rates of mass flow into

and out of the control volume

the rate of change of mass within the

control volume boundaries.

Continuity equation: In fluid mechanics, the conservation of

mass relation written for a differential control volume is usually
called the continuity equation.
27
The Linear Momentum Equation
Linear momentum: The product of the mass and the velocity of a
body is called the linear momentum or just the momentum of the
body.
The momentum of a rigid body of mass m moving with a velocity
V is mV.
Newton’s second law: The acceleration of a body is proportional
to the net force acting on it and is inversely proportional to its
mass, and that the rate of change of the momentum of a body is
equal to the net force acting on the body.
Conservation of momentum principle: The momentum of a
system remains constant only when the net force acting on it is
zero, and thus the momentum of such systems is conserved.
Linear momentum equation: In fluid mechanics, Newton’s
second law is usually referred to as the linear momentum
equation.

28
Conservation of Energy
The conservation of energy principle (the energy balance): The
net energy transfer to or from a system during a process be equal to
the change in the energy content of the system.
Energy can be transferred to or from a closed system by heat or work.
Control volumes also involve energy transfer via mass flow.

the total rates of energy transfer into

and out of the control volume

the rate of change of energy

within the control volume boundaries

In fluid mechanics, we usually limit our consideration to

mechanical forms of energy only.
29
5–2 ■ CONSERVATION OF MASS
Conservation of mass: Mass, like energy, is a conserved
property, and it cannot be created or destroyed during a process.
Closed systems: The mass of the system remain constant during
a process.
Control volumes: Mass can cross the boundaries, and so we
must keep track of the amount of mass entering and leaving the
control volume.

Mass is conserved even during chemical

reactions.
Mass m and energy E can be converted to each other:

c is the speed of light in a vacuum, c = 2.9979108 m/s

The mass change due to energy change is negligible.
30
 Mass and Volume Flow Rates
Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing
through a cross section per unit time.

The differential mass flow rate

A fluid flows into or out of a control volume,
usually through pipes or ducts. The differential
mass flow rate of fluid flowing across a small area
element dAc in a cross section of the pipe is
proportional to dAc itself, the fluid density r, and
the component of the flow velocity normal to dAc,
which we denote as Vn, and is expressed

For flow through an annulus of inner

radius r1 and outer radius r2, for example, Figure A: The normal velocity
point functions have exact differentials V for a surface is the
n
component of velocity
perpendicular to the surface.
32
Path functions have inexact differentials

(total mass flow rate through the annulus)

The mass flow rate through the entire cross-sectional area of a pipe or
duct is obtained by integration:

The volume flow rate is the

The average velocity Vavg is defined volume of fluid flowing through
as the average speed through a a cross section per unit time.
cross section.
We would like instead to express mass flow rate in terms of average values
over a cross section of the pipe. In a general compressible flow, both r and Vn
vary across the pipe.
In many practical applications, however, the density is essentially uniform
over the pipe cross section,
Velocity, however, is never uniform over a cross section of a pipe because of
the no-slip condition at the walls. Rather, the velocity varies from zero at the
walls to some maximum value at or near the centerline of the pipe. We define
the average velocity Vavg as the average value of Vn across the entire cross
section of the pipe Fig : A.
Aaverage velocity
Volume flow rate

where Ac is the area of the cross section normal to the flow direction

34
the mass flow rate would be identical to that obtained by integrating
the actual velocity profile. Thus for incompressible flow or even for
compressible flow where r is uniform across Ac, Eq. 5–5 becomes

The volume of the fluid flowing through a cross section per unit time is
called the volume flow rate V
Conservation of Mass Principle
The conservation of mass principle for a control volume: The net mass transfer
to or from a control volume during a time interval t is equal to the net change
(increase or decrease) in the total mass within the control volume during t.

the total rates of mass

flow into and out of the
control volume
the rate of change of mass
within the control volume
boundaries.

Mass balance is applicable to

any control volume undergoing
any kind of process.

Conservation of mass principle

for an ordinary bathtub. 36
Consider a control volume of arbitrary shape, as shown in Fig. 5–7. The
mass of a differential volume dV within the control volume is dm ! r dV.
The total mass within the control volume at any instant in time t is determined
by integration to be

Now consider mass flow into or out of the control volume through a differential
area dA on the control surface of a fixed control volume. Let n! be the
outward unit vector of dA normal to dA and V be the flow velocity at dA relative
to a fixed coordinate system, as shown in Fig. 5–7.

The differential control volume dV and the differential

control surface dA used in the derivation of the
conservation of mass relation.
In general, the velocity may cross dA at an angle θ off the normal of dA, and the
mass flow rate is proportional to the normal component of velocity Vn =V cos θ
ranging from a maximum outflow of V
!

for θ=0 (flow is normal to dA) to a minimum of zero for θ= 90° (flow is tangent to
dA) to a maximum inflow of V!
for θ =180° (flow is normal to dA but in the opposite direction).

The net flow rate into or out of the control volume through the entire control
surface is obtained by integrating dm . over the entire control surface,

38
The time rate of change of mass within the control
volume plus the net mass flow rate through the control
surface is equal to zero.

The conservation
of mass equation
is obtained by
replacing B in the
A control surface should
Reynolds
always be selected normal to
transport theorem
the flow at all locations where
by mass m, and b
it crosses the fluid flow to
by 1 (m per unit
avoid complications, even
mass = m/m = 1). 39
though the result is the same.
 Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained within a
control volume does not change with time (mCV = constant).
Then the conservation of mass principle requires that the total amount of mass
entering a control volume equal the total amount of mass leaving it.

For steady-flow processes, we are interested

in the amount of mass flowing per unit time,
that is, the mass flow rate.
Multiple inlets
and exits
Single
stream

Many engineering devices such as nozzles,

diffusers, turbines, compressors, and
pumps involve a single stream (only one
inlet and one outlet).

Conservation of mass principle for a two-

inlet–one-outlet steady-flow system. 40
Special Case: Incompressible Flow
The conservation of mass relations can be simplified even further when
the fluid is incompressible, which is usually the case for liquids.

Steady,
incompressible

Steady,
incompressible
flow (single stream)

There is no such thing as a “conservation of volume”

principle.
However, for steady flow of liquids, the volume flow
rates, as well as the mass flow rates, remain
constant since liquids are essentially incompressible
substances.

During a steady-flow process, volume

flow rates are not necessarily conserved
although mass flow rates are.
41
 V’=Av
V=V’/A

Kg/m3*m3/sec

42
43
44
5–3 ■ MECHANICAL ENERGY AND EFFICIENCY
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical
device such as an ideal turbine.

Mechanical energy of a flowing fluid per unit mass:

Flow energy + kinetic energy + potential energy

Mechanical energy change:

45
Mechanical energy is illustrated by an ideal hydraulic turbine coupled with an
ideal generator. In the absence of irreversible losses, the maximum produced
power is proportional to (a) the change in water surface elevation from the
upstream to the downstream reservoir or (b) (close-up view) the drop in water
pressure from just upstream to just downstream of the turbine.
46
The available mechanical energy of water at the
bottom of a container is equal to the avaiable
mechanical energy at any depth including the free
surface of the container.
47
Shaft work: The transfer of mechanical energy is usually accomplished by a
rotating shaft, and thus mechanical work is often referred to as shaft work.
A pump or a fan receives shaft work (usually from an electric motor) and transfers
it to the fluid as mechanical energy (less frictional losses).
A turbine converts the mechanical energy of a fluid to shaft work.

Mechanical efficiency
of a device or process
The effectiveness of the conversion process between the mechanical work
supplied or extracted and the mechanical energy of the fluid is expressed by the
pump efficiency and turbine efficiency,

48
The mechanical efficiency
of a fan is the ratio of the
kinetic energy of air at the
fan exit to the mechanical
power input.

49
 Motor
efficiency

Generator
efficiency

Pump-Motor
overall efficiency

Turbine-Generator overall efficiency:

The overall efficiency of a turbine–

generator is the product of the
efficiency of the turbine and the
efficiency of the generator, and
represents the fraction of the
mechanical energy of the fluid
converted to electric energy. 50
51
52
 Bernoulli equation
• The Bernoulli equation is an
approximate relation between
pressure, velocity, and elevation, and is
valid in regions of steady,
incompressible flow where net
frictional forces are negligible (Fig. 5–
22). Despite its simplicity, it has proven
to be a very powerful tool in fluid
mechanics.
Limitation of Bernoulli Equation
• No shaft work The Bernoulli equation was derived from a force
balance on a particle moving along a streamline. Therefore, the
Bernoulli equation is not applicable in a flow section that involves a
pump, turbine, fan, or any other machine or impeller since such
devices disrupt the streamlines and carry out energy interactions
with the fluid particles.
• Incompressible flow One of the approximations used in the
derivation of the Bernoulli equation is that density is constant and
thus the flow is incompressible. This condition is satisfied by liquids
and also by gases at Mach numbers less than about 0.3 since
compressibility effects and thus density variations of gases are
negligible at such relatively low velocities.
63
64