Advanced Fluid Mechanics

Course Code: ThE 6105

By

Dr. Dawit G.
 Introduction
• Teaching and learning methods
– Lectures
– Tutorial
• Student assessments
– Assignment 1 and 2 15%
– Quize 1 5%
– Mid- exam 25%
– Quize 2 5%
– Final assessment 50%
 Introduction
• Course content
– Introduction (Definition) and properties of
fluid
– Fluid Continuum
– Lagrangian and Eulerian Description
– Velocity and Stress field
– Fluid Kinematic
– Fluid statics
• Required books
– Frank M. White, “Fluid Mechanics”,
McGraw-Hill, international edition, sixth
Edition,2010.
 Chapter One

Basic Concept
and
Fundamentals of Fluid
 1.1 Introduction
 This chapter will begin with several concepts, definition,
terminologies and approaches which should be understood by
the students before continuing reading the rest of this module.
 Then, it introduces the student with typical properties of fluid
and their dimensions which are then being used extensively in
the next chapters and units like pressure, velocity, density and
viscosity.
 Some of these can be used to classify type and characteristic of
fluid, such as whether a fluid is incompressible or not or whether
the fluid is Newtonian or non-Newtonian.
 Fluid Concept
• Fluid mechanics is a division in applied mechanics related to the
behaviour of liquid or gas which is either in rest or in motion.
• The study related to a fluid in rest or stationary is referred to fluid
static, otherwise it is referred to as fluid dynamic.
• Fluid can be defined as a substance which can deform continuously
when being subjected to shear stress at any magnitude. In other
words, it can flow continuously as a result of shearing action. This
includes any liquid or gas.
 Contd…
• Thus, with exception to solids, any other matters can be
categorised as fluid. In microscopic point of view, this concept
corresponds to loose (liquid) or very loose (gas) bonding
between molecules of liquid or gas, respectively.
• Examples of typical fluid used in engineering applications are
water, oil and air.
• An analogy of how to understand different bonding in solids and
fluids is depicted in Fig. 1.1.
 Contd…
Free surface

k k

(a) Solid (b) Liquid (c) Gas

Figure 1.1 Comparison Between Solids, Liquids and Gases

• For solid, imagine that the molecules can be fictitiously linked to each other
with springs.
 In fluid, the molecules can move freely but are constrained through a
traction force called cohesion. This force is interchangeable from one
molecule to another.
 For gases, cohesion is very weak which enables the gas to disintegrate and
move away from its container.
 1.2 Fluid Model

• Continuum model: fluids are a collection of fluid particles

that interact with each other and surroundings; each
particle contains a sufficient number of molecules such
that fluid properties (e.g., velocity) can be defined.
• Molecular model: the motions of individual fluid
molecules are accounted for; not a practical model unless
fluid density is very small or flow over very small objects
are considered.
 1.2.1 Fluid Descriptions

• There are two types of approaches to analyse the fluid motion:

1.Lagrangian approach : properties of individual fluid particles are
defined as a function of time as they move through the fluid. This
approach is more suitable and widely used for particle and solid
mechanics.
2.Eulerian approach : properties are defined at fixed points in space
as the fluid flows past these points; this is the most common
description and yields the field representation of fluid flow.
– Analysis is performed by defining a control volume to represent
fluid domain which allows the fluid to flow across the volume. This
approach is more appropriate in fluid mechanics.
Fluid kinematics – describes the motion of fluid elements such as translation,
transformation, rotation , etc. via geometrical analysis
Lagrangian approach – describes the fluid element’s motion with time by traveling
along with the fluid element, function of time.
Velocity field
r (t )  x(t )i  y (t ) j  z (t )k
dr (t ) dx dy dz
V (t )   i  j  k  ui  vj  wk
dt dt dt dt

Eulerian approach – describes the fluid’s motion at a fixed location, function of

time and space.
u  f1 ( x, y, z, t )
v  f 2 ( x, y, z, t )
w  f 3 ( x, y , z , t )
 Consider smoke going up a chimney

E u l e r a p p r o a c h Attach thermometer to the top of chimney, at point 0.

Record T as a function of time. As different smoke particles pass through O ,
the temperature changes. Gives T (x 0 , y0, z 0 , t) . More thermometers to get T
(x, y, z, t) .

L a g r a n g e a p p ro a c h Thermometers are attached to a particle, A. End up

with T A = TA(t) . Can have many particles and track T for all of them. If we
also know, position of each particle of function of time, can translate Lagrange
information into Euler information.
 The Velocity Field
• Consider an array of sensors that can simultaneously
measure the magnitude and direction of fluid velocity at
many fixed points within the flow as a function of time; in
the limit of measuring velocity at all points within the
flow, we would have sufficient information to define the
velocity vector field:

V  u( x, y, z, t )ˆi  v( x, y, z, t )ˆj 
w( x, y , z, t )kˆ
 The Velocity Field
• u, v, and w are the x, y, and z components of the velocity
vector. The magnitude of the velocity, or speed, is denoted
by V as 
V  V  u 2  v 2  w2

• Velocity field may be one- (u), two- (u,v) or

three- (u,v,w) dimensional
• Steady vs. unsteady flows:
V
0 (steady)
t

V
0 (unsteady)
t
 Flow Definitions
 Steady state flow — A flow is said to be in steady state if its
properties is only a function of position (x,y,z) but not time.
   x,y,z), V = V x,y,z)
• Uniform flow — A flow is said to be uniform if its velocity and all
velocity components is only a function of time t:
V = V t)
• Isotropic fluid — A fluid is said to be isotropic if its density is not a
function of position (x,y,z) but may vary with time t:
   t)
Uniform flow patterns. (a) Open-channel flow. (b) Flow in a pipe.

Flow patterns for non-uniform flow. (a) Converging flow. (b) Vortex flow.
 Flow Patterns
• The three ways to represent fluid flow:
1. Streamlines — A streamline is formed by tangents of the velocity field of
the flow. Local velocity vector is tangent to this line at every point along
the line and a given time.
The tangent of the streamline → the direction of the velocity at that
specific point. Very effective to describe the geometry of flow (useful for
Eulerian approach). It does NOT indicate the magnitude of the velocity.
2. Pathlines — Defines the path that a given particle of fluid has taken in a
given time. Useful for Lagrangian approach. A pathline can be formed
from fluid particles of different colour originated from the same points,
such as a line formed after the introduction of ink into a shallow water
flow.
3. Streaklines — Lines represents the points that all particles have passed
prior to a given instance. A streakline represents a locus made by a
miniature particles or tracers that passes at a same point.
18
Contd…..
Contd…..

Pathlines
 Acceleration Field
• Acceleration is the time rate of change of velocity:

 dV du ˆ dv ˆ dw ˆ
a  i j k
dt dt dt dt

• Using the Eulerian description, we note that the total

derivative of each velocity component will consist of four
terms, e.g.
du u u u u
 u v w
dt t x y z
 Contd…
• Collecting derivative terms from all velocity components,
    
DV V V V V
 u v w
Dt t x y z

 
V  
  V  V
t

D( )
 The operator Dt is termed the material, or substantial,
derivative; it represents the rate at which a variable (V in
this case) changes with time for a given fluid particle
moving through the flow field.
 Contd…

V
• The term t is called the local acceleration; it
represents the unsteadiness of the fluid velocity and is
zero for steady flows.

  
V V V
• The terms u x, v , w are called convective
y z
accelerations; they represent the fact that the velocity
of the fluid particle may vary due to the motion of the
particle from one point in space to another.
• It can occur for both steady and unsteady flows.
Some Math
Del Operator:

Laplacian Operator:

Gradient:
More Math
Vector Gradient:

Divergence:

Directional Derivative:
 Exercise

 The following velocity field is given for a fluid in motion.

V  2 x 2ti  3xy2 j  2 xzk

Acceleration in the x, y, z directions at a point (1,2,2) and time =1 (in m/s2)?

 We have a nozzle in which the velocity of a passing fluid can be defined as

u0
u
x
1
2L
where u0 is the entrance velocity (10m/s),
L is the nozzle length (0.5m)
the exit velocity is 20 m/s

Acceleration at the middle of the nozzle? (assume that the velocity is uniform across each section)
 Stress Field
•In general, each fluid particle experiences surface forces (i.e. pressure, friction)
and body forces (i.e. gravitation). The surface forces are generated by their
contacts with other fluid particles and solid medium, leading to stresses. The
body forces are experienced throughout the particle and the gravitational body
force per unit volume is quantified as ρg, where ρ is the density and g is the
gravitational acceleration.
•The concept of stress describes the way in which the surface forces acting on the
fluid and solid boundaries are transmitted into the medium. In a solid, the stresses are
induced within the body. In the case of fluids, when a body moves through a fluid,
stresses are developed within the fluid. Consider the contact force generated between
fluid particles when the surface of a fluid particle in contact with other Figure 2.5.3a.

(a) Concept of stress

(b) Normal and shear stress;
(c) Force and stress components in orthogonal coordinates;
•Referring to an infinitesimal element of size Δx, Δy and Δz as shown in Fig. 2.5.3-d, there
are six planes on which stresses act. The planes are named and denoted as positive or
negative according to the direction of outward normal to the plane. A stress component is
‘positive, when the direction of stress component and plane on which it acts are both
positive or both negative. All the stresses shown in Fig. 2.5.3-d, are all positive.

(d) Notation of stress.

 Fluid Statics
Forces in a STATIC fluid (at rest)
• W is the weight = mg of this volume.
• FTOP is the force on the top of the
FTOP volume exerted by the fluid above it
pushing down.
• FBOTTOM is the force on the volume
H due to the fluid below it pushing up.
• For this volume not to move (Static
FBOTTOM W
fluid) we must have that
FBOTTOM = FTOP + mg
 Variation of pressure with depth
FBOTTOM - FTOP = mg = (density x Vol) x g
FBOTTOM - FTOP =  A H g rho

Since pressure is Force / area, Force = P x A

PBottom A – PTop A =  A H g, or

PBottom – PTop =  H g

The pressure at bottom is greater

than the pressure at the top.
 Why does P increase with depth?

this layer of fluid must the block on the bottom

support all the fluid supports all the blocks
above it above it
Pressure in a fluid increases
with depth h
The pressure at the surface is
atmospheric pressure, 105 N/m2
Po = Patm

Pressure at depth h
h
P(h) = Po + gh
P(h)
 = density (kg/m3)
= 1000 kg/m3 for water
 How much does P increase
• At the surface of a body of water 100,000 Pa
the pressure is 1 atm = 100,000 Pa h
• As we go down into the water,
at what depth does the pressure
double, from 1 atm to 2 atm or 200,000 Pa
• Want  g h = 100,000 Pa
1000 kg/m3 x 10 x h = 100,000
• So h = 10 meters or about 30 feet
Pressure is always perpendicular
to the surface of an object
Pressure increases
with depth, so the
speed of water leaking
from the bottom hole is
larger than that from the
higher ones.
 Pascal’s Principle
• If you apply pressure
to an enclosed fluid,
that pressure is
transmitted equally to
all parts of the fluid
• If I exert extra
pressure on the fluid
with a piston, the
pressure in the fluid
increases everywhere
by that amount
 Pascal’s Vases

• The fluid levels are the same in all each

tube irrespective of their shape
A hydraulic car lift
• Pressure is F / A
• At the same depth the
pressures are the same
• so F1 /A1 = F2 /A2, or
 A2 
F2  F1  
 A1 
• with a little force you can
lift a heavy object!
• the jack
 Buoyant Force
submerged object
that has a mass
density ρO
PTopA F=PA

h The density of the

water is ρW
PBottomA W
 Buoyant force
• The water pushes down on the top of the
object, and pushes up on the bottom of the
object.
• The difference between the upward force
and the downward force is the buoyant
force FB.
• since the pressure is larger on the
bottom the buoyant force is UP
 Archimedes principle
• the pressure difference is ρW g h, so the
buoyant force is
• FB = P x A = ρW g h A
• = ρW g (volume of object)
• = ρW (volume of object) g h

• = mass of displaced water x g

object
• FB = weight of displaced water
• This is Archimedes principle
 Archimedes principle
The buoyant force on an object in
a fluid equals the weight of the
fluid which it displaces.
–this works for objects in water
–helium balloons (density of He = 0.18 kg/m 3)
–hot air balloons  the density of
hot air is lower than the density of cool
air so the weight of the cool air that is
displaced is larger than the weight
of the balloon.
 Property
• Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
– Examples: pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
• Intensive properties are independent of the mass of the system.
Examples: temperature, pressure, and density.
• Extensive properties are those whose value depends on the size
of the system. Examples: Total mass, total volume, and total
momentum.
• Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties.
Examples include specific volume v = V/m and specific total
energy e=E/m.
 Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid
obey refer
Fluid Newton’s law Newtonian fluids
of viscosity
Example:
Newton’s’ law of viscosity is given by; Air
Water
du
 (1.1) Oil
Gasoline
dy Alcohol
 = shear stress Kerosene
 = viscosity of fluid Benzene
du/dy = shear rate, rate of strain or velocity gradient Glycerine

• The viscosity  is a function only of the condition of the fluid, particularly its temperature.
• The magnitude of the velocity gradient (du/dy) has no effect on the magnitude of .
 Contd….
Do not obey
refer
Fluid Newton’s law Non- Newtonian
of viscosity fluids

• The viscosity of the non-Newtonian fluid is dependent on the velocity

gradient as well as the condition of the fluid.

Newtonian Fluids
 a linear relationship between shear stress and the velocity gradient (rate of shear),
 the slope is constant
 the viscosity is constant

Non-Newtonian fluids
 slope of the curves for non-Newtonian fluids varies
 Contd….

If the gradient m is constant, the fluid is termed as Newtonian fluid.

Otherwise, it is known as non-Newtonian fluid. Fig. 1.5 shows several
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.
 Viscosity
• Viscosity, , is a measure of resistance to fluid flow as a result of
intermolecular cohesion. In other words, viscosity can be seen as
internal friction to fluid motion which can then lead to energy loss.

• Different fluids deform at different rates under the same shear stress.
The ease with which a fluid pours is an indication of its viscosity. Fluid
with a high viscosity such as syrup deforms more slowly than fluid
with a low viscosity such as water. The viscosity is also known as
dynamic viscosity.

 Units: N.s/m2 or kg/m/s

 Typical values: Water = 1.14x10-3 kg/m/s; Air = 1.78x10-5
kg/m/s
 Kinematic viscosity, 
Definition: is the ratio of the viscosity to the density;
  /
• will be found to be important in cases in which significant viscous and gravitational
forces exist.

Units: m2/s
Typical values:
Water = 1.14x10-6 m2/s; Air = 1.46x10-5 m2/s;
In general,

viscosity of liquids with temperature, whereas

viscosity of gases with in temperature.

 Specific Weight
Specific weight of a fluid, 
• Definition: weight of the fluid per unit volume.
• Arising from the existence of a gravitational force.
• The relationship  and g can be found using the following:

Since  = m/
therefore  = g
Units: N/m3
Typical values:

Water = 9814 N/m3; Air = 12.07 N/m3

 Specific Gravity

The specific gravity (or relative density) can be defined as:

Definition 1: A ratio of the density of a liquid to the density of
water at (4C, 1 atm), or

liquid  liquid
SG  
 water @ STP  water @ STP
 gas  gas
SG  
 air @ STP  air @ STP
Unit: dimensionless.
 Density
• Density of a fluid, ,
• Definition: mass per unit volume,
 slightly affected by changes in temperature and pressure.

 = mass/volume = m/
•
Units: kg/m3
•
• Typical values:
• Water = 1000 kg/m3; Air = 1.23 kg/m3
 Example 1.2
•A reservoir of oil has a mass of 825 kg. The reservoir has a
volume of 0.917 m3. Compute the density, specific weight, and
specific gravity of the oil.
Solution:

mass m 825
 oil     900kg / m3
• volume  0.917
weight mg
 oil    g  900x9.81  8829N / m 3
volume 
 oil 900
SGoil    0.9
 w @ STP 1000
Thank You