Chapter III: CONSISTENCY of SOIL – Atterberg Limits

Intended Learning Outcome:

✓ Understand the concept of soil consistency and its importance in geotechnical engineering.
✓ Explain the significance and determination of Atterberg Limits, including Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, Plasticity Index,
Liquidity Index, Consistency Index, Shrinkage Limit, Shrinkage Ratio, Specific Gravity of Solids, Flow Index, and
Toughness Index.
✓ Apply knowledge of soil consistency to soil classification and engineering design.

Chapter Overview:
Understanding Soil Classification: Unveiling the Earth's Diversity
Soil, the very foundation of our terrestrial world, comes in a staggering array of types and compositions. To make
sense of this diversity and to better engineer structures and foundations, a systematic approach to soil classification is
essential. This process, governed by recognized standards, involves a series of tests that reveal crucial soil properties.

Standardized Testing: ASTM and ISSMGE

In the world of soil analysis, adherence to standardized testing procedures is paramount. The American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) has laid down comprehensive testing protocols that ensure consistency and reliability in
assessing soil characteristics. These protocols encompass a range of tests, each designed to unveil specific aspects of soil
behavior
Additionally, the International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE) provides guidance
on soil classification. ISSMGE recommends a globally recognized system that facilitates communication among geotechnical
engineers worldwide. This system, known as the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), offers a standardized language to
describe and categorize soils, transcending linguistic and geographical barriers.
Discussion:
III. Soil Tests
Soil testing is a crucial process in geotechnical engineering and environmental science, providing essential insights into
the properties and behavior of the earth's crust. It involves a series of specialized tests and analyses to evaluate the physical,
chemical, and mechanical characteristics of soil samples obtained from various sites. The tests are the sieve analysis, the
hydrometer analysis, and the Atterberg limits.

III.1 Sieve Analysis

This test sieves soil samples through a series of mesh sizes to determine the distribution of particle sizes within
the soil. The results are expressed as a gradation curve, which helps in identifying whether the soil is predominantly
composed of fine particles like clay or coarser particles like sand.

SIEVE NO. DIAMETER SIEVE DIAMETER

4 (mm)
4.75 NO.
50 (mm)
0.30
6 3.35 60 0.25
8 2.36 80 0.18
10 2.0 100 0.15
16 1.18 140 0.106
20 0.85 170 0.088
30 0.60 200 0.075
40 0.425 270 0.053

Figure 3.1 Mechanical Shaker and set of sieves Table 3.1 U.S. Standard Sieve Sizes
III.2 Hydrometer Analysis
The hydrometer method was originally proposed in 1926 by Prof. Bouyoucos of Michigan Agricultural College,
and later modified by Casagrande (1931). This method depends upon variations in the density of a soil suspension
contained in a 1000 mL graduated cylinder. The density of the suspension is measured with a hydrometer at determined
time intervals; then the coarsest diameter of particles in suspension at a given time and the percentage of particles
finer than that coarsest (suspended) diameter are computed. (Source: p36, Geotechnical Engineering Principles and
Practices of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering V.N.S. Murthy, CRC Press, 2002].

Figure 3.2 Hydrometer

III.3 Atterberg Limits

In 1911, a Swedish scientist named Albert Mauritz Atterberg developed a method to describe the consistency
of fine-grained soils with varying moisture contents. At very low moisture content, soil behaves more like a brittle solid.
When the moisture content is very high, the soil and water may flow like a liquid. He showed that if the water content
of a thick suspension of clay is gradually reduced, the clay water mixture undergoes changes from a liquid state through
a plastic state and finally into a solid state. The different states through which the soil sample passes with the decrease
in the moisture content are depicted in Fig. 3.3. The water contents corresponding to the transition from one state to
another are termed as Atterberg Limits and the tests required of determining the limits are called the Atterberg Limit
Tests. The testing procedures of Atterberg were subsequently improved by A. Casagrande (1932).
The transition state from the liquid state to a plastic state is called the liquid limit, LL. At this stage all soils
possess a certain small shear strength. This arbitrarily chosen shear strength is probably the smallest value that is
feasible to measure in a standardized procedure. The transition from the plastic state to the semisolid state is termed
the plastic limit, PL. At this state the soil rolled into threads of about 3 mm diameter just crumbles. Further decrease of
the water contents of the same will lead finally to the point where the sample can decrease in volume no further. At
this point the sample begins to dry at the surface, saturation is no longer complete, and further decrease in water in
the voids occurs without change in the void volume. The color of the soil begins to change from dark to light. This water
content is called the shrinkage limit, SL. The limits expressed above are all expressed by their percentages of water
contents. The range of water content between the liquid and plastic limits, which is an important measure of plastic
behavior, is called the plasticity index.

Figure 3.3 Atterberg Limits Figure 3.4 Casagrande’s Device

III.3.1 LIQUID LIMIT, LL
For the liquid limit test, a soil paste is placed in the
cup. A groove is cut at the center of the soil pat using the standard
grooving tool. Then, crank the device at a rate of 2 rev/sec until there is
a clear visible closure of 1/2” in the soil pat placed in the cup. The
moisture content after 25 blows that cause the closure is defined as the
liquid limit.

III.3.2 PLASTIC LIMIT, PL Figure 3.5 Liquid Limit Test

The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content, in percent, at which the soil, when rolled into threads of 3.2 mm in
diameter, crumbles. The plastic limit is the lower limit of the plastic stage of soil. The test is simple and is performed by
repeated rolling’s of an ellipsoidal size soil mass by hand on a ground glass plat.

III.3.3 PLASTICITY INDEX, PI

It is a measure of the plasticity of a soil. It is also the difference between the liquid limit and plastic limit of a soil.

PI Description
PI = LL − PL 0 Non-plastic
1-5 Slightly Plastic
5 -10 Low Plastic
10 - 20 Medium Plastic
20 - 40 High Plastic
>40 Very High Plastic
III.3. 4 LIQUIDITY INDEX, LI
The Atterberg limits are found for remolded soil samples. These limits as such do not indicate the consistency of
undisturbed soils. The index that is used to indicate the consistency of undisturbed soils is called the liquidity index.
High strength, brittle
 − PL LI < 0 SEMI-SOLID STATE (sudden) fracture is
LI =
PI expected
Intermediate strength, soil
Where; 0 < LI < 1 PLASTIC STATE deforms like a plastic
LL = Liquid Limit (%) material
ω = Water content (%) Low strength, soil deforms
LI > 1 LIQUID STATE
PL = Plasticity limit (%) like a viscous fluid
PI = Plasticity index (%) Table 3.1 Liquidity Index description
III.3. 5 CONSISTENCY INDEX, CI
Describe the degree and kind of cohesion and adhesion between the soil particles as related to the resistance
of the soil to deform or rupture.

LL −  CI LI Consistency
CI =
PL 1.00 to 0.75 0.00 to 0.25 Stiff
0.075 to 0.50 0.25 to 0.50 Medium - Soft
Where; 0.50 to 0.25 0.50 to 0.75 Soft
LL = Liquid Limit (%) 0.25 to 0.00 0.75 to 1.00 Very Soft
ω = Water content (%) Table 3.2 Consistency of clay classification
PL = Plasticity limit (%)
III.3.6 Shrinkage Limit, SL
It is the moisture content at which the volume of soil stops to change.

 m − m s  mw  mT − ms  w (VT − Vs )
SL =  T −
 m  or SL = −
 m s  s 
 ms ms

Where;
mT = mass of wet (saturated) soil
m s = mass of dry soil
VT = volume of wet soil
V s = volume of dry soil
 w = mass density of water.
III.3.7 Shrinkage Ratio, SR
It is the ratio of a volume change to the moisture content change above the shrinkage limit.

ms
SR =
 wV s
Where;
m s = mass of dry soil
V s = volume of dry soil
 w = mass density of water.
III.3.8 Specific Gravity of Solids
It is the ratio of the weight of a unit volume of a solid to the weight of an equal volume of water.

1
Gs =
 1 
 − SL 
 SR 

Where;
SR = shrinkage ratio
SL = shrinkage limit
III.3.9 Flow Index, FI
The moisture content corresponding to 25 blows from the flow curve is taken as the liquid limit of the soil. This
is the practical definition of this limit with specific reference to the liquid limit apparatus and the standard procedure
recommended. Experience indicates that such as curve is actually a straight line.
The equation to this line will be;

N 
w1 − w2 = FI  log 10  1 
 N2 
Where;
w1 = water content corresponding to number of blows N 1
w2 = water content corresponding to number of blows N 2
N 1 = number of blows corresponding to w1
N 2 = number of blows corresponding to w2

III.3.10 Toughness Index, TI

It represents the shear strength of soil at its plastic limit. It is defined as the ratio of Plasticity Index and Flow
index.

PI
TI =
FI
Examples:
Example 3.1
The following results were obtained from a liquid limit test on clay using the Casagrande device. The natural water
content of this clay is 38% and the plastic limit is 21%.
a) Compute the liquid limit No. of Blows Water Content
b) Compute the plasticity index (N) (%)
c) Compute the liquidity index 16 44.5
d) Compute the consistency index 22 38.2
28 34.6
Given: 36 32.1
 = 38%
PL = 21%
Solution:
a) Liquid limit
Note: The moisture content corresponding to 25 blows is taken as the liquid limit of the soil.
w1 − w2
FI = Alternate Solution: By interpolation;
 N1 
log 10   LL − 38.2 25 − 22
 N2  =
34.6 − 38.2 28 − 22
38.2 − 34.6
FI =
 22 
log 10   LL = 36.4%
 28 
FI = −34.372
N 
w1 − w2 = FI  log 10  1 
 N2 
 25 
LL − 34.6 = −34.372  log 10  
 28 
LL = 36.3%
b) Plasticity index
PI = LL − PL d) Consistency index
PI = 36.3% − 21%
PI = 15.3% LL − 
CI =
c) Liquidity index PL
 − PL 36.3 − 38
LI =
PI CI =
21
38 − 21
LI = CI = −0.081 ⁂very soft clay
15.3
LI = 1.12 ⁂very soft clay

Example 3.2
The following are the results of a shrinkage limit test;
Initial volume of soil in saturated state = 25.4 cc
Final volume of soil in dry state = 16.3 cc
Initial mass of a soil in saturated state = 46 g
Final mass of soil in dry sate = 31.2 g
a) Determine the dry density of the soil in g/cc
b) Determine the shrinkage limit of the soil
c) Determine the shrinkage ratio
d) Determine the specific gravity of the soil
e) Determine the void ratio
 Given:
VT = 25.4cm 3 mT = 46 g
V s = 16.3cm 3
m s = 31.2 g

Solution:
a) Dry density
ms 31.2 g  dry = 1.228 g / cm 3
 dry =  dry = 3
VT 25.4cm
b) Shrinkage limit
mT − m s  w (VT − V s )
SL = −
ms ms

SL =
(46 − 31.2)g − 1g / cm 3 (25.4 − 16.3)cm 3
31.2 g 31.2 g

SL = 18.27%

c) Shrinkage ratio
ms
SR =
 wV s
31.2 g
SL =
(
1g / cm 3 16.3cm 3 )
SR = 1.91

d) Specific gravity
1
Gs =
 1 
 − SL 
 SR 
1
Gs =
 1 
 − 0.1827 
 1.91 

G s = 2.93
e) Void ratio
Gs  w
 dry =
1+ e
1g / cm 3 (2.93)
1.228 g / cm 3 =
1+ e
e = 1.39
Example 3.3
One of the standard methods of measuring specific gravity of solids uses a pycnometer. The pycnometer is first filled
with water then it is refilled with a known mass of dry soil plus water so that the volume is the same as before. Using this
method on a certain soil sample, the following data were obtained:
Mass of dry soil = 81.80 g
Mass of pycnometer + water = 327.12 g
The mass of soil and water was filled so that the volume is the same as before:
Mass of pycnometer + dry soil + water = 373.8 g
Volume of pycnometer = 250 mL

a) Compute the specific gravity of this soil.

b) Compute the degree of saturation if the void ratio is 0.51 and water content is 11.20%
c) Compute the saturated unit weight of soil.
d) Compute the air void ratio.
Given:
V p = 250cm3 ms = 81.80g m p + m w = 327.12 g
 = 11.2% m p + ms + mw = 373.18g

Solution:
a) Specific gravity of soil

Specific gravity of soil;

mass of soil b) Degree of saturation if the
GS = void ratio is 0.51 and water
mass of water displaced by soil
content is 11.20%
 m
GS = s = s
w mw G s  = eS
2.33( 0.112) = 0.51S
( ) (
mw = ( ms ) −  m p + ms + mw − m p + mw 
 ) S = 51%
81.80g
GS =
81.80g − 373.80g − 327.12g 

G s = 2.33 d) Air void ratio;

e zav = n(1 − S )
e
c) Saturated unit weight of soil; n=
1+ e
 (G + e )
 sat = w s n=
0.51
1+ e 1 + 0.51
1g / cm 3 ( 2.33 + 0.51)
 sat = n = 0.34
1 + 0.51
ezav = 0.34 (1 − 0.51)
 sat = 1.88g / cm 3
e zav = 0.17
Example 3.4
A shrinkage limit test on a clay soil gave the following data. Assuming a total volume dry of soil is equal to its total
volume at the shrinkage limit.
Mass of shrinkage dish and saturated soil = 38.78 g
Mass of shrinkage dish and oven dry soil = 30.46 g
Mass of shrinkage dish = 10.65 g
Volume of shrinkage dish = 16.29 cm3
Total volume of oven dry soil = 10.00cm3
a) Compute the shrinkage limit
b) Compute the degree of shrinkage

Given:
VT = 16.29cm 3 m1 = 38.78 g mT = m1 − md = (38.78 − 10.65)g = 28.13 g
Vs = 10.00cm 3
m2 = 30.46 g ms = m2 − md = (30.46 − 10.65)g = 19.81g

md = 10.65 g

Solution:
a) Shrinkage limit of the soil sample;
mT − ms  w (VT − Vs )
SL = −
ms ms

SL =
(28.13 − 19.81)g − 1g / cm3 (16.29 − 10.00)cm3
19.81g 19.81g
SL = 0.1025

SL = 10.25%
a) Degree of shrinkage of the soil sample;

Sd =
(VT − Vs ) x100
VT

SL =
(16.29 − 10.00)cm3 x100
16.29cm 3

SL = 38.61%
Practice Problems:
Problem 2.1
In a specific gravity test with pycnometer, the following observed readings are available:
Weight of the empty pycnometer = 7.50 N
Weight of pycnometer + dry soil = 17.30 N
Weight of pycnometer + dry soil + water filling the remaining volume = 22.45 N
Weight of pycnometer + water = 16.30 N
Determine the specific gravity of the soil solids, ignoring the effect of temperature.
Ans: 2.685

Problem 2.2
A clay sample has void ratio of 0.50 in the dry condition. The grain specific gravity has been determined as 2.72. What
will be the shrinkage limit of this clay?
Ans: 18.4%

Problem 2.3
The Atterberg limits of a clay soil are: Liquid limit = 75%; Plastic limit = 45%; and Shrinkage limit = 25%. If a sample of
this soil has a volume of 30 cm3 at the liquid limit and a volume 16.6 cm3 at the shrinkage limit, determine the specific
gravity of solids, shrinkage ratio, and volumetric shrinkage.?
Ans: SG = 2.71, SR = 1.61, Vs = 80.5%
 PROBLEM SET 3.1
1) A saturated soil has the following characteristics:
Initial volume = 18.7 cm3
Final volume = 11.6 cm3
Mass of wet soil = 34 g
Mass of dry soil = 22.3 g
a) Determine the shrinkage limit of the soil.
b) Determine the shrinkage ratio.
c) Determine the specific gravity of the solids.
Ans: a) 20.63 % b) 1.92 c) 3.18
2) A soil sample was determined in the laboratory to have a liquid limit of 38% and a plastic limit of 22%. If the water
content is 29%, determine the following:
a. Plasticity index
b. Liquidity index
c. What is the characteristic of soil?
Ans: a) 16% b) 0.44 c) plastic state
3) A saturated soil has the following characteristics.
Initial volume = 24.6 cm3
Final volume = 15.9 cm3
Mass of wet soil = 44 g
Mass of dry soil = 30.1 g
Ans: a) 17.28% b) 1.89 c) 2.81
4) A soil has a liquid limit of 60% and plastic limit of 32%. A moisture content test performed on an undisturbed sample of
this soil yielded the following results:
Mass of soil + can before placing in oven = 82.5 g
Mass of soil + can after removal from oven = 62.2 g
Mass of can = 15.4 g
a) Compute the plasticity index
b) Compute the moisture content.
c) Compute the liquidity index.
d) Compute the consistency index.
Ans: a) 28% b) 43.4% c) 0.407 d) 0.519
5) The following results were obtained from a liquid limit test and plastic limit test. The plastic limit is 21%.
A. Liquid Limit B. Water Content grams
No. of Blows (N) Water Content (%) Weight of wet soil + container, g 22.1
39 28 Weight of dry soil + container, g 18.7
30 31 Weight of container 9.8
23 34
14 38
a) Compute the liquid limit
b) Compute the natural water content.
c) Compute the liquidity index.
Ans: a) 33.06% b) 38.20% c) 1.58
6) During the determination of the shrinkage limit of a sandy soil, the following laboratory data was obtained.
Wet weight of soil + dish = 87.85 g
Dry weight of soil + dish = 76.91 g
Weight of dish = 52.70 g
Volumetric determination of soil pat:
Weight of dish + Mercury = 87.85 g
Weight of dish = 244.62 g
Density of solid soil = 2,650 kg/m3
a) Compute the shrinkage limit of the soil.
b) Compute the shrinkage ratio.
c) Compute the specific gravity of soil.
7) In a specific gravity test the following data were recorded.
Mass of pycnometer jar = 530 g
Mass of pycnometer jar when full of clean water = 1560 g
Mass of pycnometer containing soil only = 980 g
Mass of pycnometer jar containing soil and topped with water = 1840 g
a) Compute the specific gravity of the soil particles.
b) Compute the dry unit weight if the void is 0.40.
c) Compute the degree of saturation if the moisture content is 12%.
8) A soil sample is mixed with distilled water and being poured into a calibrated pycnometer. The weight and temperature
were observed and recorded as shown below. Then the entire mixture of soil and water was poured into a large
evaporating dish of known eight by rinsing the pycnometer carefully to insure collection of all the soil. The soil is then
dried into the oven and after it cools down, it is then weighed. The result is shown below.
Weight of pycnometer + water + soil = 707.42 g
Weight of pycnometer + water = 674.42 g
Specific gravity of distilled water = 0.998
Weight of evaporating dish + dry soil = 492.62 g
Weight of evaporating dish = 439.02 g
 a) Compute the specific gravity of soil.
b) Compute the saturated unit weight of soil if it has a void ratio of 0.60.
c) Compute the degree of saturation for moisture content of 22.4%.

9) A clay has the following Atterberg Limits; liquid limit = 60%, plastic limit = 40%, shrinkage limit = 25%. The clay shrinks
from 15 cubic meters to 9.57 cubic meters when the moisture content is decreased from the liquid limit to the shrinkage
limit.
a. What is the specific gravity?
b. What is the plasticity index?
c. What is the liquidity index if the moisture content is 52%?
d. From a hydrometer analysis to determine particle sizes, it is found that 45% of the sample consists of particles
smaller than 0.002 mm. From this information indicate the activity classification of the clay.
Ans: a) 2.72 b) 20 c) 0.60 d) 0.44

10) From the result of the liquid limit and plastic limit test as given in the tabulated results, determine the following.
PLASTIC LIMIT TEST
Test No. Wt. of Container + Wet soil Wt. of Container + Dry soil Wt. of Container
1 22.12 g 20.42 g 13.07 g
2 21.84 g 20.19 g 13.18 g
LIQUID LIMIT TEST
Test No. No. of Wt. of Container + Wet Wt. of Container + Dry soil Wt. of Container
Blows soil
1 29 22.24 g 19.44 g 12.74 g
2 21 21.19 g 18.78 g 13.24 g
3 17 21.27 g 18.75 g 13.06 g
4 13 26.12 g 22.10 g 13.29 g
a) Plasticity index
b) Flow index using the flow curve chart
c) Toughness index

11) Following are the results from the liquid and plastic limit test for a soil. Use Plastic limit = 12.20%. Calculate the
Consistency Index.
No. of blows, N Moisture Content, %
16 36.5
20 33.1
28 27.0
12) The following tabulated data shows a laboratory result of a soil sample tested for its atterberg limits. The soil sample
has been tested using a pycnometer test and the result shows it has a specific gravity of 2.80.
PLASTIC LIMIT TEST
Test No. Wt. of Container + Wet soil Wt. of Container + Dry soil Wt. of Container
1 22.12 g 20.42 g 13.07 g
2 21.84 g 20.19 g 13.18 g
LIQUID LIMIT TEST
Test No. No. of Wt. of Container + Wet Wt. of Container + Dry soil Wt. of Container
Blows soil
1 29 22.24 g 19.44 g 12.74 g
2 21 21.19 g 18.78 g 13.24 g
3 17 21.27 g 18.75 g 13.06 g
4 13 26.12 g 22.10 g 13.29 g
SHRINKAGE LIMIT TEST
Weight of Weight of container Weight of Specific gravity of Specific of
Dry soil pat + Mercury Container water mercury (Hg)
19.66 g 257.32 g 109.35 g 0.9998 13.6
a) Compute the plastic limit
b) Compute the liquid limit
c) Compute the shrinkage limit
Ans: a) 23.34 % b) 42.60% c) 19.63%

13) The oven-dry mass of pat of clay is 10.8grams and the mass of mercury displaced on immersion is 84.2 grams. Taking
the specific gravity of solids as 2.72. Determine the:
a. Shrinkage limit
b. Shrinkage ratio
Ans: a) 20.4 % b) 1.745

14) The mass specific gravity of a fully saturated specimen of clay having a water content of 40% is 1.88. On oven-drying
the mass specific gravity drops to 1.74. Calculate the specific gravity of clay and its shrinkage limit.
Ans: 2.901, 23%

15) The plastic limit of a soil is 25% and its plasticity index is 8%. When the soil is dried from its state of plastic limit, the
volume change in 25% of its volume at plastic limit. Similarly, the corresponding volume change from liquid limit to dry
state is 34% of its volume at liquid limit. Determine the shrinkage limit and shrinkage ratio.
Ans: 10.4%, 2.27

16) The plastic limit of a soil is 24% and its plasticity index is 80%. When the soil is dried from its state of plastic limit, the
volume change in 26% of its volume at plastic limit. The corresponding volume change from liquid limit to dry state is
35% of its volume at liquid limit. Determine the shrinkage limit and shrinkage ratio.
Ans: 8.98%, 2.338
17) The values of liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit of a soil were as recorded consecutively as 60%, 30% and 20%.
If a sample of this soil at liquid limit has a volume of 40 cm3 and its volume measured at shrinkage limit was 23.5 cm3.
Determine the specific gravity of the solids. What is the shrinkage ratio and the volumetric shrinkage?
Ans: 2.705, 1.755, 70.21%

18) A soil deposit has a void ratio of 0.9. If the void ratio is reduced to 0.6 by compaction. Find the percentage volume of
loss due to compaction.
Ans: 15.79%

19) A saturated soil sample has a volume of 20 cm3 at its liquid limit. Given shrinkage limit as 42%, liquid limit as 17% and
specific gravity of solids 2.74. Find the minimum volume which the soil can attain.
Ans: 14.2 cm3

20) An oven-dry sample of volume of 220 cm3 has a mass of 400 grams. Determine its void ratio and shrinkage limit if the
specific gravity of soil particles is assumed as 2.76. If the sample is allowed to swell and get fully saturated on contact
with water, what will be the water content which will fully saturate the sample and also cause an increase in volume
equal to 10% of the original dry volume.
Ans: e=0.535, SL=19.4%, w=24.2%

21) A clay sample has a void ratio of 0.53 in dry state. What will be its shrinkage limit if G = 2.70?
Ans: SL = 19.6%