Chapter Two

2. Description and classification of soils

Contents of chapter 2
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 16
2.2 Particle Size Analysis ...................................................................................................................................... 17
2.2.1 Procedure for grain size determination .................................................................................................. 17
2.2.1.1 Coarse grained soils: ........................................................................................................................ 17
2.2.2.2 Fine grained soil: .............................................................................................................................. 19
2.2.2 Atterberg Limits ...................................................................................................................................... 20
2.3 Classification of soil ....................................................................................................................................... 22
2.3.1 Unified Soil Classification system (USCS) ................................................................................................ 22
Coarse-grained Materials ................................................................................................................. 22
2.3.1.2 Fine grained materials (finer no.200 > 50%) .................................................................................... 23
2.3.2 AASHTO Classification System ................................................................................................................ 30
2.4 Additional Problems................................................................................................................................... 34

2.1 Introduction
Soils are all different, depending on their origins, compositions, locations, geological histories, and
many other factors. Two soils may be quite different, even though they were obtained from nearby
boreholes on the same construction site. And thus, in-situ and laboratory tests on soil specimens are
critically important to obtain their index parameters and engineering characteristics. However, it is
more convenient for engineers when soils are categorized into several groups with similar engineering
behaviors. Engineers can understand approximate engineering characteristics of those grouped soils
without actual laboratory or field tests. This process is called soil classification, and it helps engineers
in the preliminary design stage of geotechnical engineering problems. Most soil classification
standards use soil indices such as Atterberg limits (liquid limit, plastic limit), soil gradation
information (D10, D50, Cu, Cc), etc. In current geotechnical engineering practice, three standards are
widely used in the United States and UK which are the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS),
AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials) methods and
British Standard (BS), respectively, as shown in Table 2.1.

Ahmed M. Hasan, PhD, Geotechnical Specialist, College of Engineering – Salahaddin University 16

 Table 2.1 Unified soil classification System (USCS) [American Society for Testing and Materials
[ASTM] and British Standard (BS) as two examples.

USCS British standard (BS)

Very coarse soils Boulders >200 mm >200 mm
Cobble 200 - 76 mm 200 - 60 mm
Coarse soils Gravels G 76 – 4.75 mm 60 – 2.0 mm
Sands S 4.75 – 0.075 mm 2 – 0.06 mm
Fine soils Silts M 0.075 – 0.002 mm 0.06 – 0.002 mm
Clay C < 0.002 mm < 0.002 mm
colloidal

USCS and ASSHTO for classification are selected in this course.

2.2 Particle Size Analysis

Commonly the soils for civil engineering are defined according their particle size; there are various
Systems for classification the size of particles as shown in Table 2.1

2.2.1 Procedure for grain size determination

 Different procedures are required for grain size analysis of fine and coarse-grained material.
 Detailed procedures are described in the ASTM includes methods of testing soil for
engineering purposes.

2.2.1.1 Coarse grained soils:

Sieve analysis is used to determine the distribution of the very coarse and coarse grain sizes. The
soil is passed through a series of sieves (Table 2.2) with the mesh size reducing progressively (see
Figure 2.1), and the proportions by weight of the soil retained on each sieve are measured.
Sieving can be performed either wet or dry. Because of the tendency for fine particles to clump
together, wet sieving is often required with fine-grained soils. If the percent finer on sieve
No.2005% the test must be completed by hydrometer and then the analysis is called
combined sieve analysis.

Table 2.2 : U.S. standard

sieves
Sieve no. Opening size (mm)
3 6.35
4 4.75
10 2.00
20 0.84
40 0.425
60 0.25
80 0.18
100 0.15
120 0.125
170 0.09
200 0.075

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 Figure 2.1 A typical soil sample including coarse and fine grained particles

Note:
 the above sieves no. are suggested, but it is necessary to involve sieve No.4, No.10,
No.40, No.200 in set of sieves.
 The particle size(mm) vs. % finer(%passing) is plotted on a semi-log paper to find
percentage of each G,S,M, and C in total soil to be used for classification of soil .Typical
results of sieve analysis test are shown in Figure. 2.2.

Ahmed M. Hasan, PhD, Geotechnical Specialist, College of Engineering – Salahaddin University 18

 Figure 2.2 : Typical sieve analyses and boundaries of USCS

2.2.2.2 Fine grained soil:

To determine the grain size distribution of material passing the sieve No. 200(0.075 mm) the
hydrometer method is commonly used (due to unavailability of sieves smaller than no. 200). The soil
is mixed with water and a dispersing agent, stirred vigorously, and allowed to settle to the bottom of a
measuring cylinder. As the soil particles settle out of suspension the specific gravity of the mixture
reduces. As in Figure. 2.3 a hydrometer is used to record the variation of specific gravity with time.
By making use of Stoke’s Law, which relates the velocity of a free falling sphere to its diameter,
the test data is reduced to provide particle diameters and the % by weight of the sample finer than a
particular particle size by:

where , = soil particle velocity( L/t) , s = unit weight of soil,

w = unit weight of water, µ= viscosity of water, D = diameter of soil particles

Soil particles

Hydrometer

Cylinder
(1000 ml)

Figure 2.3 Hydrometer test

Ahmed M. Hasan, PhD, Geotechnical Specialist, College of Engineering – Salahaddin University 19

2.2.2 Atterberg Limits

For fine grained soils in addition to hydrometer test the following test are performed Liquid limit,
L.L , Plastic Limit P.L and Shrinkage Limit S.L (see Figure 2.4).
These tests are only used for the fine-grained (silt and clay) fraction of a soil (% passing a 425
m sieve100). By adding water to a fine dry soil in a solid state will be gradually changed to a semi-
solid state then to a plastic state and finally to a liquid state. As the soil dries its strength and stiffness
will increase. The water content at boundaries of these states is called Atterberg limits (see Figure
below).

 (SL) The Shrinkage Limit - This is the moisture content that the soil would have had if it were
fully saturated at the point at which no further shrinkage occurs on drying.

Figure 1.8 Atterberg Limits

PI = LL - PL

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Figure 2.4 Atterberg limits

In the shrinkage test the soil is left to dry and the soil is therefore not saturated when the shrinkage
limit is reached. To estimate SL it is necessary to measure the total volume, V, and the weight of
the solids, ws. Then

where w is the unit weight of water, and Gs is the specific gravity

 (PL) Plastic Limit: it is the minimum water content at which the soil will deform plastically
 (LL) Liquid Limit: it is the minimum water content at which the soil will flow under a small
disturbing force.
More details of procedure for these limits are available in the practical part (laboratory tests).
The following indexes are also determined which are necessary for classification:
 (P.I) Plasticity Index: it is derived simply from LL and PL
P.I = LL - PL


 (LI) Liquidity Index - This is defined as

The Atterberg Limits and relationships derived from them are simple measures of the water absorbing
ability of soils containing clay minerals. For example, if clay has a very high LI and LL it is
capable of absorbing large amounts of water (it would be unsuitable for subgrade of a pavement). LL
and PL are also related to soil strength.
Remember that only the fraction finer than 425 m is tested in the Atterberg Tests. If this fraction
is only small (that is, the soil contains significant amounts of sand or gravel) it might be expected
that the soil would have better properties. While this is true to some extent it is important to realize
that the soil behaviour is controlled by the finest 10 - 25 % of the particles

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2.3 Classification of soil
There are popular soil classification systems such as Unified Soil Classification system (USCS),
American Association of state Highway and transport Officials AASHTO, Indian soil classification
system ISCS and Australian Soil Classification system ASCS

The most common systems are USCS and ASSHTO Classification systems.

2.3.1 Unified Soil Classification system (USCS)

This is standard system used worldwide for most major construction projects, and is known as the
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). This is based on an original system devised by
Cassagrande. Soils are identified by symbols determined from sieve analysis and Atterberg Limit
tests.

Soils are defined by group symbols consisting of prefix and suffix .The prefixes indicate to major
soil type and the suffixes indicate to minor as below:

Soil type Prefix Subgroup Suffix

Gravel G well graded W
Sand S poorly graded P
Silt M silty M
Clay C clayey C
Organic O L.L<50% L (Low plasticity)
Peat Pt L.L >50% H (High plasticity)

Coarse-grained Materials
If more than half of a soil is retained on the 75 m (sieve No.200), the soil is classified as coarse-
grained soil (G or S).The following steps are then followed to determine the appropriate 2
letter symbols
1. Determine the prefix (1st letter of the symbol)
 If more than half of the coarse fraction is sand then use prefix S
 If more than half of the coarse fraction is gravel then use prefix G
2. Determine the suffix (2nd letter of symbol)
 This depends on the uniformity coefficient Cu and the coefficient of curvature Cc obtained
from the sieve curve (see Figure 2.2), and on the percentage of fines, and the type of fines chart (see
Figure 2.7).

The coarse- grained soil is

GW, GP
or if % pass No. 200  5%
SW, SP

GW-GM, GP-GM, GW-GC, GP-GC

or 5% < %pass No. 200  12
SW-SM, SP-SM, SW-SC, SP-SC

GM, GC
or %pass No. 200 >12
SM, SC
Ahmed M. Hasan, PhD, Geotechnical Specialist, College of Engineering – Salahaddin University 22
 If W or P are required for the suffix then uniformity coefficient Cu and curvature coefficient Cc must
be evaluated by:

where
D60= particle diameter vs. to finer 60%, D30= particle diameter vs. to finer 30%
D10= particle diameter vs. to finer 10% , (see Figure 2.2)

If prefix is G then suffix is W if Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 and 3

otherwise use P

If prefix is S then suffix is W if Cu > 6 and Cc is between 1 and 3

otherwise use P

If M or C are required, they have to be determined from the procedure used for fine- grained
soils discussed below. Note that M stands for Silt and C for Clay. This is determined from whether
the soil lies above or below the A-line in the plasticity chart shown in Figure 2.5
(Cassagrande chart).

2.3.1.2 Fine grained materials (finer no.200 > 50%)

If half o r more than half of soil particles are passed sieve no.200, the soil is classified as fine-
grained soil (M or C).
These are classified according to the results from the Atterberg Limit Tests (L.L, P.L and P.I).
Values of the Plasticity Index and Liquid Limit (L.L, P.L and P.I) are used to determine a point in
the plasticity chart shown in Figure 2.5. The classification symbol is determined from the region of the
chart in which the point lies.
CH : High plasticity clay MH: High plasticity silt OL: Low plasticity organic soil
CL: Low plasticity clay ML: Low plasticity silt OH: High plasticity organic soil
Pt: Peat

Figure 2.5 Plasticity chart

Ahmed M. Hasan, PhD, Geotechnical Specialist, College of Engineering – Salahaddin University 23
The flow chart is shown in Figure 2.6 can be used for classification of coarse grained soils and the flow
charts are shown in Figure 2.7 and Figure 2.8 can be used for classification of inorganic and organic fine-
grained soils according to U.S system.

Figure 2.6 Flowchart for classifying coarse-grained soils more than 50% retained on No. 200 sieve

Ahmed M. Hasan, PhD, Geotechnical Specialist, College of Engineering – Salahaddin University 24

 Flowchart 2.8 Flowchart 2.8

Figure 2.7 Flowchart for classifying inorganic fine-grained soils (50% or more fines passed No. 200).

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Figure 2.8 Flowchart for classifying organic fine-grained soils (50% or more fines passed No. 200).

Example 2.1:
Figure 1 shows grain size distribution curves for soils A,B, C, and D. Based on the available
information of Figure 1, find the percentage of gravel, sand, silt and clay of the soils.

Solution:

Soil Gravel % Sand% Silt% Clay%

A
B
C
D

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Example 2.2:
A dark brown soil has 100% passing the No. 200 sieve. The natural liquid limit (LL) for the soil is
39%, the oven-dried liquid limit is 25%, and the plastic limit is 28%. Classify this soil according to
the USCS (Group symbol and group name).

Solution:

Example 2.3:

Classify (Group symbol and group name) the following soil by the Unified Soil Classification
System.
Sieve no. 4 10 40 200
Percent passing 82% 71% 64% 41%
Liquid limit 31%, Plasticity index 12%.
Note: Write all the important steps to classify the soil.

Solution:

Ahmed M. Hasan, PhD, Geotechnical Specialist, College of Engineering – Salahaddin University 27

Table 2.3 Engineering Chart (Wagner’s chart, 1957)

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Table 2.3 Engineering Chart
(Wagner’s chart, 1957)

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2.3.2 AASHTO Classification System

the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) classification
system is another common system to classify soils for Subgrades and Granular Type Roads (ASTM
designation D-3282; AASHTO method M145).
The AASHTO classification in present use is given in Table 2.4. According to this system, soil is
classified into seven major groups: A-1 through A-7. Soils classified under groups A-1, A-2, and A-3
are granular materials of which 35% or less of the particles pass through the No. 200 sieve. Soils of
which more than 35% pass through the No. 200 sieve are classified under groups A-4, A-5, A-6, and
A-7. These soils are mostly silt and clay-type materials. This classification system is based on the
following criteria:

1. Grain size
a. Gravel: fraction passing the 75-mm (3-in.) sieve and retained on the No. 10 (2-mm) U.S. sieve
b. Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2-mm) U.S. sieve and retained on the No. 200 (0.075-mm) U.S.
sieve
c. Silt and clay: fraction passing the No. 200 U.S. sieve
2. Plasticity: The term silty is applied when the fine fractions of the soil have a plasticity index of 10
or less. The term clayey is applied when the fine fractions have a plasticity index of 11 or more.
3. If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75 mm) are encountered, they are excluded from the
portion of the soil sample from which classification is made. However, the percentage of such
material is recorded.

To classify a soil according to Table 2.4, one must apply the test data from left to right. By process of
elimination, the first group from the left into which the test data fit is the correct classification.
To evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade material, one must also incorporate a number
called the group index (GI) with the groups and subgroups of the soil. This index is written in
parentheses after the group or subgroup designation. The group index is given by the equation

GI = (F200 - 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL - 40)] + 0.01(F200 - 15)(PI - 10) (2.8)

where F200 = percentage passing through the No. 200 sieve

PI = plasticity index
LL = liquid limit

The first term of Equation 2.8 that is, (F200 - 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL - 40)] is the partial group index
determined from the liquid limit. The second term that is, 0.01(F200 - 15)(PI - 10) is the partial group
index determined from the plasticity index. Following are some rules for determining the group index:

1. If Eq. (2.8) yields a negative value for GI, it is taken as 0.

2. The group index calculated from Eq. (2.8) is rounded off to the nearest whole number (for example,
GI = 3.4 is rounded off to 3; GI = 3.5 is rounded off to 4).
3. There is no upper limit for the group index.
4. The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 is always 0.

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 5. When calculating the group index for soils
25 ?NbXeC
DElong to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use the partial group index for PI, or

GI = 0.01 (F200 - 15) (PI - 10)] (2.9)

In general, the quality of performance of a soil as a subgrade material is inversely proportional to the
group index.

Table 2.4 Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials

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Example 2.4
Classify the soils B and C in Example 2.1 according to AASHTO including GI computation and also
discuss the suitability of the soils B and C as subgrade material.
Note: sieve no. = 2mm and sieve no. 40= 0.425mm

Solution

Ahmed M. Hasan, PhD, Geotechnical Specialist, College of Engineering – Salahaddin University 32

Example 2.5:

Particle size analysis was performed on two soils. The results of the analysis are presented in the table
below. Classify Soil A (H.W.) and Soil B according to AASHTO.

Sieve No. Atterberg Limits

Soil type 4 10 40 100 200 Liquid Plastic limit
limit % %
Soil A (% finer) 40 30 22 20 15 35 22
Soil B (% finer) 69 54 46 41 36 39 27

Solution

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2.4 Additional Problems
P2.1: Soil samples collected from the field gave
The following laboratory test results:
Percentage passing No. 4 sieve 100%
Percentage passing No. 200 sieve 16%
Percentage less than 0.002mm sieve 4%
Liquid limit 65%
Plastic limit 30%
Classify the soil using the Unified Soil Classification System.
Answers:
GS:U.S classified as SC
GN:Clayey sand

P2.2: Classify the soil given below using the Unified Soil Classification System.
Percentage passing No. 4 sieve 100%
Percentage passing No. 200 sieve 80%
Percentage less than 0.002m 50%
Liquid limit 35%
Plastic limit 10%
Answers:
GS: U.S classified as CL
GN: Lean clay with sand

P2.3: The following results were obtained from sieve analyses of two soils A and B. Using
USCS
system of classification .For both soils :
1- Draw the particle size distribution curve. Sieve Open Soil Soil
2- Find fractions% of gravel, sand , silt , and clay No. mm A B
3- Classify the soils. 1" 25 100 100
4 4.75 90 100
10 2.00 70 100
20 0.85 40 100
40 0.425 30 95
100 0.15 15 80
200 0.075 10 75
---- 0.01 5 30
----- 0.002 3 20
----- 0.001 1 10
------ 0.0005 0 5
L.L 35% 40
P.L 30% 30

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 P2.4: Classify the soil given below using the Unified Soil Classification
System. Percentage passing No. 4 sieve 100%
Percentage passing No. 200 sieve 30%
Percentage less than 0.002m 5%
Liquid limit non plastic
Plastic limit non plastic
Answers:
GS: SM
GN:Silty sand

P2.5: Ninety-five percent of a soil passes through the No. 200 sieve and has a liquid limit of
60 and plasticity index of 40. Classify the soil by the AASHTO system.

Answer: A-7-6(42).
P2.6 Classify Soils A and B in the Figure below according to the AASHTO system. Which soil is
better for subgrade?

P2.7:
A particle size distribution curve of a soil is shown in Figure 1. Classify the soil according to (a) USCS (only
group symbol), and (b) AASHTO classification methods. LL = 46% and PL = 35% were obtained of the soil
specimen.
Note: sieve No. 10 (2.00 mm) , sieve No. 40 (0.425 mm)

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Additional Semi-log graphs for practice
% Finer

Particle size (mm)

% Finer

Particle size (mm)

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Additional Semi-log graphs for practice
% Finer

Particle size (mm)

% Finer

Particle size (mm)

Ahmed M. Hasan, PhD, Geotechnical Specialist, College of Engineering – Salahaddin University 37