CLO 2

Classification of Soils

2.1 Introduction
Soils and rocks cover extensive portions of the earth’s surface. The use of soils and
rocks in construction dates back thousands of years but even today, the engineer has
little, if any, control over their properties.

One of the first tasks of any geotechnical project must therefore be to determine the
extent and properties of the materials at the site. This requires the engineer to
undertake an engineering investigation of the site, often referred to as “site
investigation”. Tests may be carried out in-situ or soil samples may be recovered from
the site then sent back to the laboratories to determine the mechanical properties of
the underlying soil strata. The form of in-situ or laboratory tests will depend on the type
and the scale of the project. The simplest of these tests are usually the soil
classification tests, which are useful in providing a rough guide to the sort of
engineering properties that can be expected in the soil strata.

The hydro-mechanical properties of a soil (e.g its strength, stiffness, permeability)

depend principally on the nature of the grain (i.e. what they are composed of) and the
state of the soil (i.e. how the grains are arranged). Soil classification is more than soil
description. Description is simply an account of what you see and how the soil
responds to simple tests. A classification scheme is for separating soils into broad
groups each with broadly similar behaviour. There are a number of classification
schemes for different purposes, such as: agricultural classifications based on how
soils support crops, geological classifications based on the age of the deposit or the
nature of the grains, and civil engineering soil classifications based mainly on the
hydro-mechanical behaviour of the soils.

We are primarily interested in the civil engineering classifications – one based largely
on the hydro-mechanical behaviour of the soils.
2.2 Soil Particle Sizes, Shapes and Gradings

2.2.1 Particle size

Many soil descriptions and classifications are based on the size of the soil particles.
This is the simplest criterion for soil description. The range of particle sizes in soils is
very large, ranging from clay grains that are smaller than 2 m (0.002 mm) to boulders
that are larger than 200 mm. The dividing line between the categories is somewhat
arbitrary, and as is common to arbitrary definitions, several systems are in current use.
Table 2.1 below shows the particle-size classifications in accordance with different
systems: the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), the US Department of
Agriculture (USDA), AASTHO (American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials), Unified Soil Classification System (USCS – developed by
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and U.S. Bureau of Reclamation). In Australia, the size
classification system is based on Australian Standard 1289.

Table 2.1 Size classifications according to different systems (WSU Lecture Notes,
2018)

Soil particles are classified according to the grain size in the main groupings as shown
in Table 2.1, and each is generally composed of the following mineralogy:

Gravels are pieces of rocks with occasional particles of quartz, feldspar, and other
minerals.

Sand particles are made of mostly quartz and feldspar. Other mineral grains may also
be present at times.

Silts are microscopic soil fractions that consist of very fine quartz grains and some
flake shaped particles that are fragments of micaceous minerals. They can be visually
differentiated from clays because they exhibit the property of dilatancy. If a moist
sample is taken in the hand water will appear on the surface. If it is then squeezed,
the water will disappear. Silts can also be identified by their gritty feel.
Clays are mostly flake-shaped microscopic and sub-microscopic particles of mica,
clay minerals, and other minerals. They exhibit plasticity and may be readily
remoulded when moist.

It is evident that natural soils most frequently consist of particles from more than one
size group. In such a case, the soil is named after the principal constituent. For
example, a soil that is predominantly clay but also contains some silt is called a silty
clay.

2.2.2 Particle Shape

Soil particle shapes also differ considerably. Clay grains are usually very thin plates
while the larger particles in a soil, namely silt, sand and gravel, may be rounded or
angular in shape, reflecting the origin and geologic history of the material. Two indexes
are useful in quantitative description of shape. They are the roundness and sphericity.
The roundness of a particle is defined as,

∑𝑁 𝑟𝑖
𝑖=1( ⁄𝑅 ) /𝑁 (2.1)

where ri is the radius of a corner, R the radius of the maximum circle inscribed by the
particle (see Fig 2.1), and N the number of corners in the particle. Thus, roundness
measures the sharpness of the corners. Sphericity, which is an index of how closely
the particle approaches a sphere, is defined as Dd/Dc, where Dd is the diameter of a
circle with an area equal to that of the particle projection it rests on its flat side, and Dc
is the diameter of the smallest circumscribing circle.

Figure 2.1 Particle roundness and Sphericity (WSU Lecture Notes, 2018)
Figure 2.1 shows the roundness and sphericity of two particle shapes. The indices
roundness and sphericity range from 0 to 1. The particle on the left clearly has higher
roundness and sphericity than the particle on the right. A perfectly spherical particle
will have both a roundness and sphericity value of 1.

2.2.3 Grading

An adequate description of the particle-size characteristics requires the determination

of the percentages of the soil that fall into the different size ranges. Different size
procedures are required for fine- and coarse-grained material. Soils can be described
according to the extent of variety in the particle sizes. Soils that have particles with
variety of sizes is often described as Well Graded soils, while other soil that comprises
particle with limited range of sizes are described as Poorly Graded soils.

2.2.3.1 Sieve Analysis

The particle size distribution is determined by means of a sieve analysis if the particles
are sufficiently large. A series of sieves having opening of different sizes are stacked
together with the largest openings at the top and the smallest at the bottom. A soil
sample is placed in the top sieve and the sieves are shaken either mechanically or by
hand with the soil passing the finest pan caught in a pan at the bottom. There is a
range of Australian Standard sieve sizes varying from 75 mm to 75 m. A selection of
sieve sizes can be used but the finest is always 75 m for soil (which is the No 200
sieve according to ASTM classification). An example of the results from a sieve
analysis is given in Table 2.2, and the grading curve is presented in a semi-log plot in
Fig 2.2.
 Table 2.2 Results of a sieve analysis (WSU Lecture Notes, 2018)

The amount retained on a particular sieve represents the fraction that is larger than
the sieve size on which it is retained by smaller than that of the preceding sieve.
Sieving can be performed either wet or dry. Because of the tendency for the particles
to clump together wet sieving is often required for fine grained soils.

Figure 2.2 Semi-log plot of particle size distribution of the soil in Table 2.2 (WSU
Lecture Notes, 2018)

2.2.3.2 Grading Curve Plots, usually presented on a semi-log paper (see e.g. Fig 2.1),
of the particle sizes versus the percentages of the sample by weight, which is finer
than that grain size. The shape and position of the curve are used to identify the
characteristics of the soil. Two properties often used to assist with the classification of
the coarse-grained soils are the coefficient of uniformity defined as:
 𝐷60
𝐶𝑢 = (2.2)
𝐷10

and the coefficient of curvature defined as,

2
𝐷30
𝐶c = (𝐷 (2.3)
60 ×𝐷10 )

where D60 denotes the diameter for which 60% of the soil by weight has a smaller
diameter. Cu = 1 represents a soil in which all particles are of the same size (i.e. poorly
graded but well sorted). On the other hand, large values of Cu (e.g. in some glacial till
Cu can reach 30), the soil is well graded but poorly sorted. Cc is the second moment
of grain size distribution, and a soil is thought to be well graded if 1< Cc < 3, with Cu >
4 for gravels and > 6 for sand.

2.2.3.3 Hydrometer Analysis

Hydrometer analysis is used to determine the grain size distribution of fine-grained

soils (< 75 m). The principle of hydrometer analysis is based on Stoke’s law. The soil
is mixed with water and a dispersing agent, stirred vigorously, and allowed to settle to
the bottom of a measuring cylinder. As the soil particles settle out of the suspension,
the specific gravity of the mixture reduces. The variation of the specific gravity with
time is recorded using a hydrometer. The soil particles settle to the bottom at velocities
in relation to their sizes – the larger particles settle first. After a time t, only particles
finer than a certain size still remain in suspension. According to Stoke’s law, the
velocity of a spherical particle falling through water (through distance L during time t)
is given by,

𝐿 𝛾𝑠 −𝛾𝑤
𝜈= = 𝐷2 (2.4)
𝑡 18𝜂

in which  denotes the viscosity of water, D the diameter, s and w the unit weights
of the solid particles and water respectively, and L the distance travelled. From this we
get,

18𝜂 𝐿
𝐷=√ √ (2.5)
𝛾𝑠 −𝛾𝑤 𝑡
Thus, above a depth L of the suspension and after a time t, all particles have a
diameter smaller than D as given by the above equation. All larger particles would
have dropped to depths greater than L.

The apparatus used in the hydrometer test are shown in Figure 2.2. The hydrometer
test is conducted in a sedimentation cylinder with 50 g of oven-dried sample. Sodium
hexametaphosphate is generally used as the dispersing agent. A detailed description
of this test is given in AS 1289.3.6.1, and an abridged version may be found in your
laboratory notes – Soil Classification of Coarse-grained Soil.

When the hydrometer is placed in the soil suspension in time t, measured from the
start of sedimentation, it measures the specific gravity in the vicinity of the bulb at a
depth L. The specific gravity is a function of the amount of soil particles present per
unit volume of suspension at that depth. By knowing the amount of suspension, L, and
t, we can calculate the percentage of soil by weight finer than a given diameter. Note
that L is the depth measured from the surface of the water to the centre of the gravity
of the hydrometer bulb at which the density of the suspension is measured. The
Hydrometer Analysis Table below is used to table and compute the results from this
test.

Figure 2.3 Measuring cylinder and hydrometer

HYDROMETER ANALYSIS TABLE (template)

Analyst name:
Test date: Sample description:
Mass in suspension M0 (g) =
Specific unit weight, Gs =
Dispersing agent correction Ca =
Meniscus correction Cm =

𝑅ℎ′ = 𝑅ℎ + 𝐶𝑚 , where Rh is the hydrometer reading

𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅ℎ′ + 𝐶𝑡 + 𝐶𝑎 , where temperature correction may be done using chart
Factor F1 relates to distance of falling particles (see chart)
Factor F2 relates to viscosity of fluid, soil density, fluid density (see table)
Factor F3 relates to time (see table)

𝐷 = 𝐹1 × 𝐹2 × 𝐹3 (𝜇𝑚) (2.6)

0.623 𝐺𝑠
𝑝= 𝑅𝑐 × 100(%) (2.7)
𝑀𝑜 𝐺𝑠 −1

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑛

𝐾 =𝑝× (2.8)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑠
Figure 2.4 Sieve analysis chart (WSU Lecture Notes, 2018)
2.3 Atterberg Limits

Because of the wide variation of particle sizes in most soils, the particle size
distribution does not reveal much about their engineering properties. In general, the
particle size distribution is sufficient to classify the coarse-grained soils, but for fine-
grained soils this is not adequate. Additional classification tests have been developed
that provide more useful indications of their engineering properties. One such set of
tests is the Atterberg Limits Tests involving measuring the moisture content of the soil
as the soil properties changes from one state to another. These tests are used only
for fine-grained fraction of a soil (e.g. the clay and silt fractions). The Atterberg Limits
Tests are covered in Australian Standards AS 1289: Methods of Testing Soils for
Engineering Purposes.

Beginning at a very low water content, a clay soil is first a solid and then becomes
plastic as the water content increases. The word plastic refers to the ability of the soil
to be moulded into various shapes without breaking up. Referring to Figure 2.7, the
various states of a soil are: solid, semisolid, plastic and liquid, reflecting the stiffness
or consistency of the soil. The Atterberg Limits are defined as the water contents at
which soil consistency changes from one state to another. Soil consistency is defined
as the relative ease with which the soil can be deformed (e.g. in terms of soft, firm or
hard) and it depends on the moisture content and soil minerals. The limits shown in
Figure 2.6 below are called shrinkage, plastic and liquid limits.

Figure 2.7: Atterberg Limits and possible soil states. Consistency decreases from left
to right.

The definitions of the various limits are given below:

1. (SL) Shrinkage Limit is defined as the water content at which no further shrinkage
of the soil will occur on further drying.
2. (PL) Plastic Limit is the minimum water content at which the soil will deform
plastically, normally below 40.

3. (LL) Liquid Limit is the minimum water content at which the soil will flow under a
small disturbing force, normally below 100.

4. (PI) Plasticity Index is defined as: PI = LL – PL

𝑤−𝑃𝐿 𝑤−𝑃𝐿
5. (LI) Liquidity Index is defined as: 𝐿𝐼 = =
𝐿𝐿−𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐼

2.3.1 Liquid Limit Tests

Two alternative tests have been used to determine the liquid limit of a soil.

2.3.1.1 Casagrande Liquid Limit Test

The test device used in the Casagrande test is shown in Figure 2.8 below. This device
consists of a brass cup and hard rubber base. The brass cup can be dropped onto the
base by a cam operated by a crank. In order to perform the liquid limit test, a soil paste
is placed in the cup. A groove is cut at the centre of the soil pat with the standard
grooving tool. Then by use of the crank-operated cam, the cup is lifted and dropped
from a height of 10 mm. The relationship between log N (where N is the number of
blows to achieve a closure of 12.7 mm (0.5 inches)) along the bottom of the groove
and the moisture content is approximately a straight line. The moisture content (in
percent), required to close a distance of 12.7 mm along the bottom of the groove after
25 blows is defined as the liquid limit.

2.3.1.2 Cone Penetrometer Test

The apparatus consists basically of a stainless-steel cone 35 mm long with an apex

angle of 30 and a mass (including the shaft) of 80g (Figure 2.8). The cone is mounted
on a stand, which will allow it to be dropped and then held in position while its vertical
movement is measured.

Soil is placed in a brass cup. After placing the cup on the base of the stand, the cone
is lowered so that it just touches and marks the surface of the soil paste; the dial gauge
is then set and the reading noted. The cone is released to penetrate the soil paste for
exactly 5 seconds and re-locked in its new position. A second dial gauge reading is
now taken. The difference between the first and second dial readings gives the amount
of cone penetration (mm).

A graph is drawn of cone penetration/moisture content and the liquid limit of the soil is
taken as the water content corresponding to a penetration of 20 mm.

2.3.2 Plastic Limit Test

Two samples of soil are prepared. A sub-sample of soil is taken from the first sample
and rolled into a ball and then it is rolled in a glass sheet to form a thread of soil. The
rolling, using the palm and fingers with light pressure, is continued until the diameter
of the thread reaches 3 mm. In this event, the soil is re-formed into a ball; the action
of handling the soil has the effect of drying it; it is then re-rolled on the glass sheet (i.e.
at a lower water content). This procedure of rolling and re-rolling is continued until the
thread starts to crumble just as the diameter of 3 mm is reached; at this point the
thread fragments are placed in an air-tight container. The same process is carried out
for usually 3 other sub-samples, the crumbled threads of all 4 gathered together and
their combined water content found. The same procedure is followed with the other
sample. The average of two water contents is reported as the plastic limit.

Figure 2.8 Casagrande apparatus (left) and Cone penetrometer (right) used in the
liquid limit test
2.4 Systems of Classifications of Soils

Several systems are used for classifying soils. Two of the more commonly used in civil
engineering are mentioned below.

2.4.1 AASHTO Classification System

This system was developed in 1920 as the Public Road Administration Classification
System. After several revisions, it is now known as the AASTHO (American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials – ASTM D 3282) method.
Soils are classified according to sieve analysis and Atterberg Limits.

The necessary parameters are listed in the first column of Table 2.3. With these values
of the parameters, one enters the column labelled A-1-a and determines whether or
not the parameters meet the limiting values shown in that column. If they do, the
classification is A-1-a; if not one moves to the next column to the right and determines
whether or not the parameters meet the limiting values in the column. The procedure
is repeated until the parameters meet all the limiting values of the column. The soil
classification is given at the top of that particular column. In addition to its group name,
a soil is further classified by its group index GI, which is defined as,

GI = (F-35) [0.2+0.005(LL-40)] +0.01(F-15)(PI-10)

where,

F = the percentage of soil passing the No. 200 (75 m) sieve,

LL = the liquid limit

PI = the plasticity index

GI is rounded off to the nearest whole number and, if negative, set to equal to zero.
As seen from Figure 1.9, groups range from A1 to A8 and include subgroups (e.g. A-
1-b). These groupings reflect the suitability of the soil as a subgrade for pavements,
A1 being the best and A8 the worst.

A1. Well graded gravel or sand; may include fines (Excellent to good for
pavements)

A2. Sands and gravels with excess fines

A3. Fine sands. A4. Low compressibility silts

A5. High compressibility silts.

A6. Low to medium compressibility clays.

A7. High compressibility clays.

A8. Peat, organic soils.

The last 3 groups are fair to poor for pavements

Figure 2.9 AASHTO Soil Classification Chart (WSU Lecture Notes, 2018)
2.4.2 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

This system (also known as ASTM D 2487) was originally proposed by Casagrande
in 1942 and revised in 1952. It classifies soils into groups using symbols consisting of
a prefix and a suffix as shown in Table 2.4 below:

Table 2.4: USCS groupings (WSU Lecture Notes, 2018)

Soil classification can normally be done using the flow chart shown in Figure 2.4.

2.5.2.1 Coarse Grained Materials

If more than half the material is coarser than 75 m (No. 200 sieve), it is classified as
coarse.

1. If more than half of the coarse fraction is smaller than 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve, the
soil is classified as sand. Use prefix S.

2. If more than half of the coarse fraction is larger than 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve, the
soil is classified as a gravel. Use prefix G.

3. A suffix is added according to the grading of the size distribution of the material.
This is done by calculating the uniformity coefficient Cu, and the coefficient of
curvature Cc from the grading curve of the material:

𝐷60 2
𝐷30
Cu = Cu = (𝐷60 ×𝐷10 )
𝐷10

Sands: add suffix W if Cu > 6 and 1< Cc < 3.

P if the above not met

Gravels: add suffix W if Cu > 4 and 1< Cc < 3.

P if the above not met

Also look at fines, i.e. if the % fines passing 75 m.

If fines < 5% use W or P suffix

5% to 12%, use dual symbols

> 12%, use M or C suffix (M for silt, C for clay)

Examples: GW Well graded gravel,

GW-GC Well graded gravel, sand mixture with clay binder

2.4.2.2 Fine Grained Materials

The fine-grained materials are classified in accordance to the Atterburg Limits using
the Plasticity Chart, which shows that classification symbols. The liquid limit and the
plasticity index are used for this purpose:

Low plasticity clays have a LL < 50

Organic soils are designated OH or OL.

Peat is designated Pt.

Examples: CH High Plasticity Clay

CL Low Plasticity Clay

CL-ML Inorganic, plot in hatched zone of Plasticity Chart

2.5 Use of Soil Classification

The appended table on “Typical properties of compacted soil based on results of

USCS classification” gives a general indication of engineering properties such as
permeability, compressibility and strength of various soil groups in USCS. It also gives
an indication of the relative desirability of each group for use in earth dams, canal
sections, foundations and runways. Table 2.11 lists some typical values of engineering
properties for compacted soils, which may be used for preliminary analysis. However,
for final analysis, the engineering properties must be determined by appropriate
laboratory or field tests.

Soil classification is a valuable tool which provides the soil engineer with some
empirical guidance through the results of field experience. However, as pointed out by
Lambe and Whitman (1979), solving flow, compression and stability problems merely
on the basis of soil classification can lead to disastrous results. Empirical correlation
between index properties and fundamental soil behaviour has many large deviations.
Figure 2.10 Flowchart of the USCS (WSU Lecture Notes, 2018)
Figure 2.11 Typical engineering properties based on soil classification (WSU Lecture Notes, 2018)
Example 2.1

Determine the moisture content of a soil given the following:

(i) mass of container, empty (mc) 21.32 g

(ii) mass of container + wet soil sample (mc+ms+mw) 83.76g
(iii) Mass of container + dry soil sample (mc+ms) 65.49g

Solution

(i) mass of solids, ms = (mc+ms) - (mc) = 65.49g – 21.32g = 44.17g

(ii) mass of water, mw = (mc+ms+mw) - (mc+ms) = 83.76g – 65.49g = 18.27g

moisture content w = mw / ms = 18.27g/44.17g = 41.36%

Example 2.2 The results of a sieve analysis of a soil sample are as follows:

Sieve size Mass (g) % Retained % Passing

4.25 mm 0
2.36 mm 2.6
1.18 mm 12.5
600 µm 57.7
425 µm 62.0
300 µm 34.2
212 µm 18.7
150 µm 12.7
75 µm 13.1
Pan 3.9
Total 217.4

Plot the particle size distribution curve and give a classification for the soil.
Example 2.2 (Solution)

Sieve size Mass (g) % Retained = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠

× 100 % Passing
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

4.25 mm 0 0 100
2.36 mm 2.6 1.2 98.8
1.18 mm 12.5 5.7 93.1
600 µm 57.7 26.6 66.5
425 µm 62.0 28.6 37.9
300 µm 34.2 15.7 22.2
212 µm 18.7 8.6 13.6
150 µm 12.7 5.8 7.8
75 µm 13.1 6.0 1.8
Pan 3.9 1.8
Total 217.4 100

𝐷60 0.53 2
𝐷30 0.352
𝐶𝑢 = = = 3.31 < 6 𝐶𝑐 = = (0.16×0.53) = 1.44 > 1 < 3
𝐷10 0.16 𝐷10 𝐷60
The soil may be classified as poorly graded sands, gravelly sands, little or no fines
and the sub-group classifications symbol will be SP