Chapter Two

Physical characteristics of soils

2.1 Introduction
Soils, derived from the weathering of rocks.
One of the primary tasks of a geotechnical
engineer is to collect, classify and investigate
the physical properties of soils. In this chapter
we will deal with descriptions of soils, tests to
determine the physical properties of soils,
and soil classification systems.
2.2 Soil Formation
Soils are formed from the physical and chemical weathering of rocks. Physical
weathering involves reduction of size without any change in the original
composition of parent rock. The main agents responsible for this process are
exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing and thawing.
Chemical weathering causes both reduction in size and chemical alteration of
the original parent rock. The main agents responsible for chemical weathering
are hydration, carbonation and oxidation. Often, physical and chemical
weathering takes place in recital. Depends on its formation soil classified into:-
 Soils that remain at the site of weathering are called residual soils.
 Alluvial soils, also called fluvial soils, are soils that were transported by
rivers and streams.
 Glacial soils are soils that were transported by glaciers (large body of ice
moving slowly down a slope).
 Marine soils are soils deposited in a marine environment.
 Loess is a windblown, uniform, fine-grained soil.
2.3 Composition of Soil
Soil is composed of solids, liquids and gases. The solid
phase may be mineral, organic matter, or both.
The spaces between the solids (soil particles) are
called voids and are filled with liquids or gases or
both. Water is the predominant liquid and air is the
predominant gas.
The soil water is commonly called pore water and
plays a very important role in the behavior of soils
under load.
If all the voids are filled with water, the soil is
saturated. Otherwise, the soil is unsaturated.
If the voids are filled with air the soil is said to be dry.
Fig. Soil Phases.
2.3.1 Phase Relationship
The physical properties of soils are affected by the relative proportions of each of
these phases.

V  V s  V w  V a  V s  Vv
Where , v=total volume
Vs = volume of solids
Vw =volume of water
Va =volume of air
Vv =volume of void

Where, W=total weight of the soil

ws =weight of the soil
ws =weight of the soil
The following definitions have been established to describe the
proportion of each constituent in soil.
1. Water content (w) is the ratio, often expressed by percentage, of the
weight of water to the weight of solids.

2. Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of void to volume of solid.

3. Specific Volume (V’) is the volume of soil per unit volume of solids.

4. Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume.
Porosity is usually expressed as a percentage.
 Thus ,
5. Specific gravity (Gs) is the ratio of the weight of the soil solids to the
weight of water of equal volume:

Where = 9.81 KN/m3 is the unit weight of water. The specific gravity
of soils ranges from approximately 2.6 to 2.8. For most problems, Gs can
be assumed, with little error, to be equal to 2.7.
6. Degree of saturation (S) is the ratio, often expressed as a percentage,
of the volume of water to the volume of voids.

If S = 1 or 100%, the soil is saturated. If S = 0, the soil is dry. It is

practically impossible to obtain a soil with S = 0.
7. Unit weight is the weight of a soil per unit volume. We will use the
term bulk unit weight, , to denote the unit weight of a soil.

Special Cases
(a) Saturated unit weight (S = 1):

(b) Dry unit weight (S = 0)

(c) Effective or buoyant unit weight is the weight of a saturated soil,
surrounded by water, per unit weight of soil:

8. Relative Density (Dr) is an index that quantifies the degree of packing

between the loosest and densest possible state of coarse-grained soils
as determined by experiments.
Where is the maximum void ratio (loosest
condition), is the minimum void ratio
(densest condition), and e is the current void
ratio.
The relative density correlates very well with the
strength of coarse-grained soils, denser soils
being stronger than looser soils.
2.4 Soil Types
Cont’
• Common descriptive terms such as gravels, sands,
silts and clays are used to identify specific textures
in soils.
• Texture refers to the appearance or feel of a soil.
• Sands and gravels are grouped together as coarse-
grained soils.
• Clay and silts are fine-grained soils.
• Coarse-grained soils feel gritty and hard.
• Fine-grained soils feel smooth.
Cout’
• The coarseness of soils is determined from
knowing the distribution of particle sizes, which is
the primary means of classifying coarse-grained
soils.
• To characterize fine-grained soils, we need further
information on the types of minerals present and
their contents.
• The response of fine-grained soils to loads, known
as the mechanical behavior, depends on the type of
predominant minerals present.
2.4.1 Clay Minerals

• Minerals are crystalline materials and make up

the solid constituent of a soil.
• The mineral particles of fine-grained soils are
platy.
• Most minerals of interest to geotechnical
engineering are composed of oxygen and silicon.
• Silicates are a group of minerals with a
structural unit called the silica tetrahedron.
Cout’
• A central silica cation (positively charged ions) is
surrounded by four oxygen anion (negatively
charged ions) one at each corner of the
tetrahedron .
• Silica tetrahedrons combine to form sheets,
called silica sheets, which are thin layers of silica
tetrahedrons in which three oxygen ions are
shared between adjacent tetrahedrons.
Cout’
Cout’
• Silicate sheets may contain other structural units
such as alumina sheets.
• Alumina sheets are formed by combination of
alumina minerals, which consists of aluminum
ion surrounded by six oxygen hydroxyl atoms in
an octahedron.
• The main groups of crystalline minerals that
make up clays are the minerals: kaolinite common in clay
, illite, and montmorillonite.
Cout’
2.4.2 Soil Fabric
• Soil particles are assumed rigid.
• During deposition, the mineral particles are
arranged into structural frameworks that we call soil
fabric. Each particle is in random contact with several
particles.
• Two common types of soil fabric, flocculated and
dispersed, are formed during soil deposition.
• Flocculated structure formed under a saltwater
environment, results when many particles tend to
orient parallel to each other.
Cout’
• A flocculated structure, formed under a freshwater
environment, results when many particles tend to
orient perpendicular to each other.
• A dispersed structure is the result when a majority of
the particles orient parallel to each other.
2.4.3 Comparison of Coarse and Fine-Grained Soils for Engineering Use

Coarse-grained soils :-
Have good load bearing capacities and good drainage
qualities, and their strength and volume change
characteristics are not significantly affected by change in
moisture conditions.
They are practically incompressible when dense, but
significant volume change can occur when they are loose.
 There engineering properties are controlled mainly by the
grain size of the particles and their structural
arrangement.
Fine-grained soils:-
Have poor load bearing capacities compared with coarse-
grained soils.
They are practically impermeable, and change strength and
volume with variations in moisture conditions.
There engineering properties are controlled by
mineralogical factors rather than grain size.
Finally ,thin layers of fine-grained soils, even within thick
deposits of coarse-grained soils, have been responsible
for many geotechnical failures and therefore you need to
pay special attention to fine-grained soils.
2.5 Determination of Particle Sizes of Soils

2.5.1 Particle Size of Coarse-Grained Soils.

• The distribution of particle size or average grain
diameter of coarse-grained soils – gravels and sands
– is obtained by screening a known weight of the soil
through a stack of sieves of progressively finer mesh
size.
• The particle diameter in the screening process, often
called sieve analysis, is the maximum particle
dimension to pass through the square hole of a
particular mesh.
Cont’
Cont’
• LetWi be the weight of the soil retained on the ith
sieve from the top of the nest of sieves and W be the
total soil weight.
The percent weight retained is(%R):

The percent finer is(%F):

Cont’
• A graph of percent of particles finer than a given sieve (not the
percent retained) as the ordinate versus the logarithm of the
particle sizes is called a particle size distribution curve (s) or,
simply, the gradation curve (s).
 2.5.2 Particle Size of Fine-Grained Soils

• The common laboratory method to determine the size

distribution of fine-grained soils is the hydrometer test.
• The hydrometer test involves mixing a small amount of soil
(fine grained) into suspension (a liquid in which small pieces of
solid are contained, but not dissolved ) and observing how the
suspension settles in time.
• Larger particles will settle quickly followed by smaller particles.
• When the hydrometer is lowered into the suspension, it will
sink into the suspension until the buoyant force is sufficient to
balance the weight of the hydrometer.
cont’
Cont’
• The calibration of hydrometer is affected by
temperature and specific gravity of the suspended solids.
You must then apply a correlation factor to your
hydrometer reading based on the test temperatures.
• Typically, a hydrometer test is conducted by taking a small
quantity of a dry fine-grained soil (approximately 10 grams)
and thoroughly mixing it with distilled water to form a
paste.
• The paste is placed in a 1 liter glass cylinder and distilled
water is added to bring the level to the 1 liter mark.
Cont’
• The glass cylinder is then repeatedly shaken and
inverted before being placed in a constant
temperature bath.
• A hydrometer is placed in the glass cylinder and a
clock is simultaneously started.
• At different times, the hydrometer is read. The
diameter D of the particle at time tD is calculated from
Stokes’s law as:
Cont’
• Where
o is the viscosity of water,
o z is the depth,
o is the unit weight of water, and
o Gs is the specific gravity.
2.5.3 Characterization of Soils Based on Particle Size
•The grading curve is used for textural classification of soils.
•Coarse-grained soils are subdivided into gravels and sands
while fine-grained soils are divided into silts and clays.
•Real soils consist of a mixture of particle sizes. The selection
of a soil for a particular use may depend on the assortment
of particles it contains.
• Two coefficients have been defined to provide guidance on
distinguishing soils based on the distribution of the particles.
Cont’
One of these is a numerical measure of uniformity,
called the uniformity coefficient, UC, defined as:-

Where, D60 is the diameter of the soil particles for

which 60% of the particles are finer, and
D10 is the diameter of the soil particles for which
10% of the particles are finer. Both of these diameters
are obtained from the grading curve.
Cont’
 The other coefficient is the coefficient of curvature,
CC (other terms used are the coefficient of gradation
and the coefficient of concavity), defined as:

Where, D30 is the diameter of the soil particles for

which 30% of the particles are finer.
o A soil that has a UC < 4 contains particles of uniform
sizes (approximately one size).
Cont’
o The minimum value of UC is 1 and corresponds to an
assemblage of particles of the same size.
o The gradation curve for a uniform soil is almost vertical.
o Higher values of (UC > 4) indicate a wider assortment of
particle sizes, is described as a well-graded soil and has a
flat curve.
o The CC is between 1 and 3 for well-graded soils.
o The absence of certain grain sizes, termed gap-graded, is
diagnosed by a CC outside of the range 1 to 3 and a sudden
change of slope in the particle size distribution cure.
Cont’
• The effective size(D10 )is particularly important in
regulating the flow of water through soils. The higher
the D10 value, the coarser the soil and the better the
drainage characteristics.
• The diameter of the finer particle sizes, in particular
D15, has been used to develop criteria for soil filters.
Cont’
And

Where F denotes filter and BS is the base soil.

• The average diameter of a soil is given as D50.
Some use of particle size analysis in engineering:-
⁻ To select aggregates for concrete.
⁻ To select soils for the construction of dams and highways.
⁻ To select soils as filters, and material for grouting and
chemical injection.
2.6 Physical States and Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils

• The physical and mechanical behavior of fine-grained

soils is linked to four distinct states – solid, semisolid,
plastic, and liquid – in order of increasing water content.
 The boundary at point B is called the liquid limit; it is
denoted by wLL.
 The water content at which the soil changes from a
plastic to a semisolid state is known as the plastic limit,
denoted by wPL.
Cont’
Cont’
 The range of the water contents over which the soil
deforms plastically is known as the plasticity index, IP:

 The water content at which the soil changes from the

semisolid to a solid is called the shrinkage limit, denoted
by wSL. The shrinkage limit is useful for the determination
of the swelling and shrinkage capacity of soils.
 A measure of soil strength using the Atterberg limits is
known as the liquidity index (IL) and is expressed as:
Cont’

Values of IL Description of soil strength

IL < 0 Semisolid state – high strength, brittle (sudden) fracture is
expected.
0 < IL < 1 Plastic state – intermediate strength, soil deformation like
a plastic material.
IL > 1 Liquid state – low strength, soil deforms l ike a viscous
fluid.

Description of soil strength based on liquidity index

Cont’

• Skempton (1953) showed that for soils with a particular

mineralogy, the plasticity index is linearly related to the
amount of the clay fraction. He coined a term called
activity (A) to describe the importance of the clay
fractions on the plasticity index. The equation for A is.

• You should recall that the clay fraction is the amount of

particles less than 2μm.
Cont’

A Description
< 0.75 Inactive
0.75 – 1.25 Normal
> 1.25 Active
Determination of Liquid, Plastic, and Shrinkage Limits
• Casagrande Cup Method
• Plastic Limit Test
• Fall Cone Method to Determine Liquid and
Plastic Limits
• Shrinkage Limit
Casagrande Cup Method
Plastic Limit Test
Fall Cone Method to Determine Liquid and Plastic Limits
Shrinkage Limit
2.7 Soil Classification Schemes
• A classification scheme provides a method of
identifying soils in a particular group that would
likely exhibit similar characteristics. Soil classification
is used to specify a certain soil type that is best
suitable for a given application.
• There are two type of soil classification schemes.
A. Unified Soil Classification System(USCS)
The USCS uses symbols for particular size groups.
•These symbols and their representations are:
G – gravel, S – Sand,
M – Silt, C – Clay.
•These are combined with other symbols expressing gradation
characteristics;
W -for well-graded and
P - for poorly graded – and
plasticity characteristics
H -for high and
L -for low, and a symbol O for the presence of Organic material.
•A typical classification of CL means a clay soil with low plasticity
and, while
•SP means a poorly graded sand.
Unified soil classification flowchart for coarse-grained soil.
0.075mm
Unified soil classification flowchart for fine-grained soil.
Cont’
• Experimental results from soils tested from different
parts of the world were plotted on a graph of
plasticity index (ordinate) versus liquid limit
(abscissa). It was found that clays, silts, and organic
soils lie in distinct regions of the graph. A line defined
by the equation, ,called the “A-
line,” delineates the boundaries between clays
(above the line) and silts and organic soils (below the
line).
Cont’

Plasticity chart
Cont’
• A second line, the U-line expressed as IP = 0.9(wLL – 8),
defines the upper limit of the correlation between
plasticity index and liquid limit. If the results of you
soil tests fall above the U-line, you should be
suspicious of your results and repeat your tests.
B. Highway Research Board (HBR) classification of soils.
• This is called American Association of State Highway
Officials (AASHTO) classifications of Revised Public
Roads Administration (PRA) soil classification system.
• Soils are divided into seven groups A-1 to A-7.
Cont
• A-1, A-2, and A-3 soils are granular soils, percentage fines
passing 0.074mm sieve being less than 35 percent.
• A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7, soils are fine grained or silt-clay soils,
passing 0.074 mm sieve being greater than 35 percent.
• A-1 soils are well graded mixture of stone fragments, gravel
coarse sand, fine sand and non-plastic or slightly plastic soil
binder. The soils of this group are subdivided into two sub-
groups,
A-1-a consisting predominantly of stone fragments or gravel
and
A-1-b consisting predominantly of coarse sand.
Cont
• A-2 group of soils include a wide range of granular soils
ranging from A-1 to A-3 groups, consisting of granular
soils and up to 35% fines of A-4, A-5, A-6 or A-7 groups.
Based on the fines content, the soils of A-2 groups are
subdivided into subgroups A-2-4, A-2-5, A-2-6 and A-2-7.
• A-3 soils consist mainly, uniformly graded medium or fine
sand similar to beach sand or desert blown sand. Stream
deposited mixtures of poorly graded fine sand with some
coarse sand and gravel are also included in this group.
Cont
• A-4 soils are generally silty soils, non-plastic or moderately plastic in
nature with liquid limit and plasticity index values less than 40 and 10
respectively.
• A-5 soils are also silty soils with plasticity index less than 10%, but with
liquid limit values exceeding 40%. These include: highly elastic or
compressible soils.
• A-6 group of soils are plastic clays, having high values of plasticity
index exceeding 10% and low values of liquid limit below 40%; they
have high volume change properties with variation in moisture content.
• A-7 soils are also clayey soils as A-6 soils, but with high values of both
liquid limit and plasticity index, (LL greater than 40% and PI greater
than 10%). These soils have low permeability and high volume change
properties with changes in moisture content.
2.8.1 Group Index of Soil

• In order to classify the fine grained soils within one

group and for judging their suitability as sub-grade
material, an indexing system has been introduced
in HBR classification which is termed as Group
Index (GI).
• Group Index is function of percentage material
passing 200 mesh sieve (0.074mm), liquid limit and
plasticity index of soil and is given by the equation:
• GI=0.2a+0.005ac+0.01bd
Cont
Where
• a=the portion of material passing 0.074mm sieve, greater than
35 and not exceeding 75% (expressed as a whole number from
0 to 40).
• b=that portion of material passing 0.074mm sieve greater than
15 and not exceeding 35% (expressed as a whole number from
0 to 40).
• c=that value of liquid limit in excess of 40 and less than
60(expressed as a whole number from 0 to 20)
• d=that value of plasticity index exceeding 10 and not more
than 30 (expressed as a whole number from 0 to 20)
Cont
• Minimum possible value of group index is zero and the maximum
possible value is 20, when the values of soil fraction passing 0.074mm
sieve, liquid limit and plasticity index are respectively higher than 75,
60 and 30 %. Higher the value of group index, poorer is the soil sub-
grade material.
• The sub-groups A-2-6 and A-2-7 soils of A-2 group have GI values 0 to
4, A-4 group of soil have GI values up to 8;
• A-5 soil up to 12, A-6 soil up to 16 and A-7 soil up to 20.
• The group index value is indicated as suffix to the soil group within
brackets, such as A-6(4) or A-6(16).
2.8.2 Engineering Use Chart

• Geotechnical engineers have prepared charts

based on experience to assist you in selecting a
soil for a particular construction purpose