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SOIL MECHANICS

MUHAMMAD HARIS
SIDDIQUI

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Unit # 1 Significances

Formation of Soil
Soil is formed when the force of water, wind and changes in weather break the
rock into very small pieces. Soil consists of two main parts - small rock pieces and
rotted plant and animal pieces. The plants and animals become part of the soil,
when they die and their bodies rot, eventually giving rise to humus. Humus is dark
brown in colour and fertile.

Composition of Soil
If we take garden soil in a transparent bottle, pour water in it, shake the bottle after
closing the lid, and let it sit for some time; we could see different layers of soil.

Types of Soil
 Clayey Soil - This soil contains clay. It consists of very small particles that
are sticky and smooth to touch. It holds water.
 Sandy Soil - This soil contains sand. It consists of large particles having lots
of space between them. This soil feels rough, loose and cannot hold water.
The main difference between soil and sand is that soil is the loose and
topmost layer of earth whereas sand is the loose material that consists of
rocks or mineral grains.
 Silt Soil - This soil has a texture of talcum powder in absence of moisture
and a bit slimy texture in its presence. The particles of this soil are very fine,
and therefore susceptible to erosion.
 Loamy Soil - This soil contains a mixture of clay, sand and silt. This soil
has the best ability to retain moisture and nutrients and is considered best for
farming.

Soil and Crops

S.No
Type of Soil Crops Grown
.
1. Clay Wheat, Gram, Paddy, Cotton
2. Loamy Wheat, Gram, Lentils, Other Pulses

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Importance of Soil
 It is important for growing plants.
 The minerals present in soil have unique properties such as different colours.
These colours can be used to make pigments for dyes, paints and make-up.
 Clayey soil is used in pottery.
 Some minerals are mined from Earth to make products like sunscreens and
jewellery.
 The exotic minerals in some soils are used to make mud spas and mud baths.
 All Civil Engineering structures are built on ground, which is nothing else
but soil.

 Soil plays a major role in determining the depth of the foundation required to
keep a building safe.
 Different kinds of soil will require different type of foundations. Depending
on the properties of soil a Civil Engineer(Geotechnical Engineer) decides
what should be the type of foundation to be used and the depth of the same.
 Soil contains water and water sometimes causes troubles in construction of
foundation, this can be known by studying the soul conditions.
 The soil bearing capacity(SBC), Dry density of the soil, etc plays a major
role in design of any kind of foundation. Hence study of soil plays a very
important role in Civil Engineering projects.
 On the most basic level, infrastructure designed by civil engineers (e.g.
roads, buildings, dams, bridges) is supported by earthen materials.
Unless it floats on water or is shot into space, it most likely is supported
by rock or soil.
 Civil engineers provide site design, which involves grading. Grading is
basically moving soil around and can be very expensive. Ideally the
engineer can make a site “balance” meaning there is no net import or
export of soil, which is often even more expensive than moving soil
around within a site.
 Some civil engineering infrastructure is actually constructed of soil,
including earthen dams, levees and embankments.
 Civil infrastructure may be designed using a variety of materials: steel,
concrete, wood, masonry, etc. The owner, engineer and architect have
some freedom to choose materials based on a balance of performance,
cost, and aesthetics. Soil fundamentally differs from other materials in
that, due to financial constraints, the on-site soil is not chosen but is
dictated by the site’s geology.

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Types of Rocks and Their Formation

Earth is approximately 4.5 billion years old and most of the rocks found on Earth
are 100 million years old. Now, let's understand the type of rocks and their process
of formation.

 Igneous Rocks - These rocks are formed when the molten magma cools
down. These rocks are hard and strong.

 Sedimentary Rocks - These rocks are formed when small particles of rock
settle at the bottom of a lake or sea and over time the particles become
‘cemented’ together. These are soft rocks and are found in layers.

3. Metamorphic Rocks - The intense heat and pressure present inside earth
changes the igneous and sedimentary rocks into metamorphic rocks
overtime.

Uses of Rocks
 Coal - It is used in power plants to generate electricity.
 Limestone - It is used to manufacture cement, paper and glass.
 Shale - It is a component of bricks and cement.
 Granite - It is used in architectural construction and monuments.

Soil Physical Properties

Permeability and Infiltration

Permeability is the ability of soils to transmit water and air through its layers.
Infiltration is the rate at which water can move through a soil and its layers.

Structure
The arrangement of soil particles and is affected by aggregates, aggregate stability,
organic matter levels, calcium levels versus sodium and magnesium, air to water
ratio and temperature.

Texture

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The particle size distribution and relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in the
mineral component of soils.

Aggregation and Aggregate Stability

Soil aggregation is described as how well soil particles are bonded together.
Aggregate Stability is the measured ability of a soil to hold together and maintain
structure despite disruptive forces.

Bulk Density
The mass of mineral and organic soil particles divided by its total volume. It is
affected by organic matter levels, texture and structure.

Compaction
The level at which soil particles are compressed together resulting in reduced pore
space between them.

Temperature
Soil temperature is defined as the temperature measured at a specific soil depth.

Crusting
Soil crusting is the formation of a hard, compact layer at the soil surface that has
reduced porosity and high penetration resistance. This crusting is associated with
reduced water infiltration, restricted seedling emergence, and increased erosion.

Soil Water Content

The water content (w), also known as natural water content or natural moisture
content, is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of the solids in a given
mass of soil. This ratio is usually expressed as percentage. When voids are
completely filled with air, water content is equal to zero (dry soil).
w(%) = (MW / MS) * 100

Soil Void Ratio

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Void ratio of a soil sample is defined as the ratio of the space occupied by the
voids i.e. volume of voids to the space occupied by solids i.e. volume of solids.

e = Vv / Vs

Soil Porosity
The porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the soil,
i.e.
n = Vv V × 100%.
The e and the n are inter-related as follows:
e=n/1−n
n = (e / 1 + e) × 100%.

Degree of Saturation

The degree of saturation (Sr) is the ratio of the volume of water to the total volume
of void space. It is also expressed as a percentage, i.e.
Sr = (Vw / Vv) × 100%.
The degree of saturation can range between the limits of zero for a completely dry
soil and 1 (or 100%) for a fully saturated soil.

Unit weight of soil

The unit weight of a soil mass is defined as its weight per unit volume.

Bulk unit weight.

The bulk weight or moist unit weight is the total weight W of a soil mass per unit
of its total volume V.

Γ=WV

Dry unit weight.

The dry unit weight is the weight of solids per unit of its total volume (prior to
drying) of the soil mass:

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Γd = W Vd

Unit weight of solids.

The unit weight of soil solids is the weight of soil solids Wd per unit volume of
solids (Vs):

Γs = Wd Vs

Thus, when the dry weight is reckoned with reference to the total original volume
V, it is called the dry unit weight and when it is reckoned with reference to the
volume of solids, we get unit weight of soil solids. Since the volume Vs of the
solids does not alter, unit weight of solids is a constant for a given soil, where as
dry unit weight is not a constant, being dependent upon the initial volume V of the
soil mass.

Saturated unit weight.

When the soil mass is saturated, its bulk unit weight is called the saturated unit
weight. Thus, saturated unit weight is the ratio of the total weight of a saturated
soil sample to its total volume. (v)

Submerged unit weight.

The submerged unit weight g¢ is the submerged weight of soil solids (Wd)sub per
unit of total volume V of the soil mass:

γ′ = (Wd)sub V

When the soil mass is submerged, the weight of soil solids is reduced due to
buoyancy. The submerged weight (Wd)sub is, therefore, equal to the weight of soil
solids in air minus the weight of water displaced by solids. Hence, the submerged
unit weight or the buoyant unit weight is also expressed as:

Γ ′= γsat – γw

where, gw is the unit weight of water.

For calculation purposes in SI units, gw may be taken as 9.81 kN/m3.

Unit Weight Determination - Core Cutter Method

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In this method, a cylindrical core cutter with a dolly of known dimensions as

shown in fig. is used. A dolly is placed over the cutter to prevent damage to the
edges of the cutter. Cyclinder is embedded into the ground for its full height and
is taken out. The surplus soil at both ends is trimmed and the weight of the
cylinder is found out. From the known dimension of the cutter, volume and the
moisture content of the soil is determined.

Weight of cutter = W1
Weight of soil + cutter = W2
Wt. of soil = W2-W1
Volume of cutter = V
Now,
Bulk density ϒ= (W2-W1) / V
Dry density ϒd = ϒ / (1+w)

Apparatus for core cutter method

 Cylindrical core cutter (ht= 2·74 cm, dia= 10 cm),

 Steel dolly (2·5· cm high and 10 cm internal dia).
 Steel rammer,
 Balance -2 Nos of accuracy O .01 g and 1 g,
 Others-Palette Knife, Straight edge, Spade.

Procedure of Core Cutter method

1. Find the volume of core cutter by measuring its internal dimensions.
2. Find the weight of the core cutter (without dolly).
3. Place the dolly over the cutter and drive the cutter into the soil with the
help of rammer
4. Take out the cutter containing soil.
5. Remove the dolly and trim off the excess soil above the edges of the cutter.
6. Take the weight of cutter filled with soil.

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7. Take some representative sample for water content determination by the oven.
8. Repeat the test at two/three locations and find the average density.

Unit # 2 Soil Classification

Importance of Soil Classification:

1. A soil classification system is essentially to faciliate communication

between different groups of engineers, widely separated.
2. The classification system does not eliminate the need for detailed soil
investigation and testing.
3. The classifiaction based on grain size or texture.
4. Attterberg was the first to suggest properties other than which can be used
for classification.
5. At that time, these were proposed for agricultural purpose but were later
accepted in soil engeneering.
6. Testing of the soil, as mentioned before, helps in laying the foundation of
the building. And if the soil is untested, the foundation laid can get defects
and damages which consequently change the strength and stability of the
building.

7. Soil testing also determines the depth and length of the pillars that will be
inserted into the soil to lay the building’s foundation.

8. The results of soil testing are used to determine the likelihood of foundation
problems and the best construction methods to use.

9. The water table level of the soil can be determined through soil testing.

10.The level of the water table, measured by soil testing, indicates potential
issues with the level of humidity inside the foundation and the foundation of
the building.

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11.The mineral and chemical composition of the soil can influence the
construction material chosen.

12.If soil analysis shows that the soil contains Sulphur, Sulphur-resistant
cement is used to protect the building’s foundation.

13.The importance of soil testing in determining the reactivity of the soil cannot
be overstated.

14.Soil reactivity refers to how the soil reacts to certain conditions on-site, such
as whether it expands, contracts, or moves.

15.Soil testing is extremely crucial when multi-story apartments or buildings

are being constructed.

16.This ensures that fatal accidents or collapse doesn’t happen.

ATTERBERG LIMIT TEST
The Atterberg limit refers to the liquid limit and plastic limit of soil. These two
limits are used internationally for soil identification, classification, and strength
correlations. When clay minerals are present in fine-grained soil, the soil can be
remolded in the presence of some moisture without crumbling. This cohesiveness
is caused by the adsorbed water surrounding the clay particles. At a very low
moisture content, soil behaves more like a solid; at a very high moisture content,
the soil and water may flow like a liquid. Hence on an arbitrary basis, depending
on the moisture content, the behavior of soil can be divided into the four basic
states shown in Figure 2-1: solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid.

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Figure 2.1: Qualitative positions of Atterberg limits on a moisture content scale

The percent of moisture content at which the transition from solid to semi-solid
state takes place is defined as the shrinkage limit (SL). The moisture content at the
point of transition from semi-solid to plastic state is the plastic limit (PL), and from
plastic to liquid state is the liquid limit (LL). These parameters are also known as
Atterberg limits. The liquid and plastic limits of a soil and its water content can be
used to express its relative consistency or liquidity index. The plasticity index and
the percentage finer than 2- μm particle size can be used to determine its activity
number.

The liquid limit of a soil containing substantial amounts of organic matter

decreases dramatically when the soil is oven-dried before testing. A comparison of
the liquid limit of a sample before and after oven-drying can, therefore, be used as
a qualitative measure of the organic matter content of a soil.

LIQUID LIMIT TEST

 Determine the mass of each of the three moisture cans (W1).

 Calibrate the drop of the cup, using the end of the grooving tool not meant for
cutting, so that there is consistency in the height of the drop.
 Put about 250 g of air-dried soil through a # 40 sieve into an evaporating dish and
with a plastic squeeze bottle, add enough water to form a uniform paste.
 Place the soil in the Casagrande’s cup and use a spatula to smooth the surface so
that the maximum depth is about 8mm.
 Using the grooving tool, cut a groove at the center line of the soil cup.

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 Crank the device at a rate of 2 revolutions per second until there is a clear visible
closure of 1/2” or 12.7 mm in the soil pat placed in the cup. Count the number of
blows (N) that caused the closure. (Make the paste so that N begins with a value
higher than 35.)
 If N= 15 to 40, collect the sample from the closed part of the cup using a spatula
and determine the water content weighing the can + moist soil (W2). If the soil is
too dry, N will be higher and will reduce as water is added.
 Do not add soil to the sample to make it dry. Instead, expose the mix to a fan or dry
it by continuously mixing it with the spatula.
 Perform a minimum of three trials with values of N-15 to 40, cleaning the cap after
each trial.
 Determine the corresponding w% after 24 hours (W3) and plot the N vs w%, which
is called the “flow curve”.

PLASTIC LIMIT TEST

 Mix approximately 20 g of dry soil with water from the plastic squeeze bottle.
 Determine the weight of the empty moisture can, (W1).
 Prepare several small, ellipsoidal-shaped masses of soil and place them in the
plastic limit device. Place two fresh sheets of filter paper on either face of the
plates.
 Roll the upper half of the device which has a calibrated opening of 3.18 mm with
the lower half plate.
 If the soil crumbles forming a thread approximately the size of the opening
between the plates (around 3 mm diameter), collect the crumbled sample, and
weigh it in the moisture can (W2) to determine the water content. Otherwise, repeat
the test with the same soil, but dry it by rolling it between your palms.
 Determine the weight of the dry soil + moisture can, (W3).
 The water content obtained is the plastic limit.

SHRINKAGE LIMIT TEST

 A reduction in the amount of moisture past the plastic limit does not decrease the
volume of the soil.
 The sample changes from semi-solid to solid state at the shrinkage limit (boundary
water content). Beyond this point the sample begins to dry up.
 The figure below depicts the phenomena of volume change.
 Plot point A, using the values of LL and PI determined experimentally, and extend
it to meet O.

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 The intercept of the line AO on the X- axis gives the shrinkage limit.

What is particle size distribution?

With particle size distribution, we can measure the proportion of soils in each size

range. Soil samples can be separated into different fractions or intervals, where

each fraction represents a range of particle size.

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The results of analysing particle size distribution are usually plotted on a chart,

where conventionally the vertical axis is the cumulative percentage (by weight)

that is finer than a specific size, and the horizontal axis is the particle size plotted

on a log scale.

What is the particle size distribution curve?

Analysing particle size distribution results in a curved plot, which is referred to as

the particle size distribution curve, or sometimes the grading curve. This is used to

show the full range of particle sizes in the fraction, from the smallest soil particle

size to the largest.

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A soil comprising only uniform size particles would have a grading curve that is a

vertical line located at the appropriate particle size. Most soils consist of a range of

different particle sizes and the particle size distribution curve will slope upwards

from left to right indicating the particle size distribution.

The importance of soil particle size distribution

When a soil comprises a range of particle sizes, the smaller particles partially fill

the voids between the larger particles. This can be compacted into a dense material

with close particle-to-particle contact and high interparticle friction, creating a soil

with high strength and good engineering properties. Well graded soil material is

one that has a wide particle distribution with no significant size gaps. The particle

size distribution curve will rise smoothly upwards from left to right in a flattened

‘S’ shape. Well graded material will compact to a dense state.

How do we measure particle size distribution?

To measure particle size distribution, the soil sample is separated into particle size

fractions by passing the material through a series of sieves of different opening

size. The sample is first washed over a 75 micron sieve to remove the fine

particles. The remaining material is then dried and the process is repeated as it is

passed through the different size sieves.

The fraction retained on each sieve is weighed to establish the proportion in each
size range. The finer material in the wash can be subjected to a sedimentation
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analysis to establish the particle size proportions of silt and clay

Soil classification by particle size

Soils can be classified by reference to particle size, and in the UK, BS5970 defines

the particle size range for a series of principal soil types:

 Clay – less than 0.002mm

 Silt – 0.002mm to 0.63mm
 Sand – 0.063mm to 2mm
 Gravel –2mm to 63mm
 Cobbles - 63mm to 200mm
 Boulders – greater than 200mm

What are the Types of Soil Classification Systems?

As mentioned earlier, many soil classification systems have been created

depending on the intended use of the soil. Generally, soils are classified based on
the soil grain size distribution and plasticity. Some of the popular systems of soil
classifications are:

1. Textural Soil Classification

2. AASHTO Soil Classification System
3. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
4. Indian Standard Soil Classification System (ISSCS)

1.Textural Soil Classification

The textural soil classification system is developed by the U.S Department of

Agricultural System (USDA) and is widely used in the field of agriculture. This
classification system is more suitable for coarse-grained soil. According to this
system, boundaries between the various soil are given as follows-

Soil Fraction Diameter (mm)

Gravel > 2.00
Sand 2 - 0.05
Silt 0.05 - 0.002
Clay < 0.002
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A triangular classification chart has been developed using the grain size
distribution for sand, silt and clay. The percentages of sand, silt, and clay size
particles in the given soil sample are determined. Based on this relative percentage
of sand, silt, and clay, a point is located on the triangular chart. The designation
allotted to the area on which this point is located will be the classification of that
soil. Besides the grain size distribution, this soil classification system does not
reveal any other aspects of the soil.

AASHTO Soil Classification System

According to the AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Offical) soil classification system, the soil is classified into 7
inorganic groups, A -1 through A - 7, with 12 subgroups in all. It has an additional
group A - 8 for peat or muck. Soils within each group are further assessed using
the group index.

Group Index (GI)=0.2a+0.005ac+0.01bd

where,

a = that part of the percentage of soil particles passing the 75𝜇 greater than 35 and
not exceeding 75.

b = that part of the percentage of soil particles passing the 75𝜇 greater than 15 and
not exceeding 55.

c = that part of the liquid limit greater than 40 and not greater than 60.

d = that part of the plasticity index greater than 10 and not exceeding 30.

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

The USCS is a modified version of the soil classification system developed by A.

Casagrande. In this system, coarse-grained soil is classified based on grain size
distributions, whereas fine-grained soils are classified based on the plasticity of the
soil. Soils are categorized into 4 major groups:

 Coarse-grained soils
 Fine-grained soils
 Organic soils
 Peat

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Indian Standard Soil Classification System (ISSCS)

ISSCS is the same as USCS with one modification the fine-grained soils are
subdivided into 3 subgroups of low, medium, and high compressibility, whereas, in
USCS, fine-grained soils are subdivided into 2 subgroups of low and high
compressibility. 4 major groups and their symbol are given below:

1. Coarse-grained soils - Gravel (G) and Sand (S)

2. Fine-grained soils - Silt (M) and Clay (C)
3. Organic soils (O)
4. Peat (Pt)

Like USCS, coarse-grained soil is categorized based on grain size distribution in

this classification system, whereas fine-grained soil classification is based on
plasticity. According to ISSCS, the classification based on grain size distribution is
as shown below:

Boulder Cobble
Coarse-Grained Soil
(mm) (mm)
Gravel Sand
Coarse(mm) Fine(mm) Coarse(mm) Medium(mm) Fine(mm)
> 300 300 - 80 80 - 20 20 - 4.75 4.75 - 2

Classification of Coarse-Grained Soil (Based on ISSCS)

According to the IS soil classification system, coarse-grained soil is graded based

on particle size, gradation characteristics (Cu and Cc), and percentage fineness.
The soil in which 50% or more soil particles are retained on a 75-micron sieve
(0.075 mm) is classified as coarse-grained soil. Coarse-grained soils are further
subdivided according to 3 cases which are described below -

Case 1: %fineness < 5% by weight

The coarse-grained soils are classified as Gravel (G) if more than 50% of the
coarse fraction of the soil is retained on a 4.75 mm sieve; otherwise, it is classified
as Sand (S). They are further divided based on their gradation characteristics.

Gravel:Coarse fraction retained on 4.75 mm > 50%

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1. GW ⇒ Well-graded gravel
Cu ≥ 4 and 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3
2. GP ⇒ Poorly graded gravel
Cu < 4, or 1 > Cc, or Cc > 3

Sand:Coarse fraction retained on 4.75 mm < 50%

1. SW ⇒ Well-graded sand
Cu ≥ 6 and 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3
2. SP ⇒ Poorly graded sand
Cu < 6, or 1 > Cc, or Cc > 3

Case 2: 5% < %fineness < 12% by weight

In this case, dual symbols will be used as a borderline case. For example, GW -
GM. The first part of the dual symbol represents gradation characteristics (well-
graded/poorly-graded), and the second part of the dual symbol represents the type
of fines (silt or clay)

Gravel:Coarse fraction retained on 4.75 mm > 50%

1. GW-GC ⇒ Well-graded gravel containing clay as fine

Cu ≥ 4 and 1 < Cc < 3 and clay fraction > silt fraction
2. GP-GC ⇒ Poorly graded gravel containing clay as fine
Cu < 4 or 1 > Cc or Cc > 3 and clay fraction> silt fraction
3. GW-GM ⇒ Well-graded gravel containing silt as fine
Cu ≥ 4 and 1 < Cc < 3 and clay fraction < silt fraction
4. GP-GM ⇒ Poorly graded gravel containing silt as fine
Cu < 4, or 1 > Cc, or Cc > 3 and clay fraction < silt fraction

Sand:Coarse fraction retained on 4.75 mm < 50%

1. SW-SC ⇒ Well-graded sand containing clay as fine

Cu ≥ 6 and 1 < Cc < 3 and clay fraction > silt fraction
2. SP-SC ⇒ Poorly graded sand containing clay as fine
Cu < 6 or 1 > Cc or Cc > 3 and clay fraction> silt fraction
3. SW-SM ⇒ Well-graded sand containing silt as fine
Cu ≥ 6 and 1 < Cc< 3 and clay fraction < silt fraction
4. SP-SM ⇒ Poorly graded sand containing silt as fine
Cu < 6, or 1 > Cc, or Cc> 3 and clay fraction < silt fraction

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Case 3: %fineness > 12% by weight

In this case, coarse-grained soil is classified based on its grain size and plasticity
chart. The subgroups for this case are as follows:

Gravel:Coarse fraction retained on 4.75 mm > 50%

1. GC ⇒ Clayey gravel
Ip > 7% (clay fraction > silt fraction)
2. GM ⇒ Silty gravel
Ip < 4% (silt fraction > clay fraction)

Sand:Coarse fraction retained on 4.75 mm < 50%

1. SC ⇒ Clayey sand
Ip > 7% (clay fraction > silt fraction)
2. SM ⇒ Silty sand
Ip < 4% (silt fraction > clay fraction)

One thing to remember in this case is if the plasticity index is between 4% -7%,
then dual symbols will be used. (GC-GM or SC-SM)

Classification of Fine-Grained Soil (Based on ISSCS)

According to the IS, soil classification system, fine-grained soils are those in which
more than 50% of soil grains pass through a 75-micron sieve (0.075). Fine-grained
soils are categorized using the plasticity chart and compressibility (wL). Liquid
limit (wL) and plastic limit (wP) are determined for soil, and the plasticity index is
calculated (IP = wL- wP). Based on this IP and wL, the soil is on the plasticity chart.
The plasticity chart is shown in the diagram below:

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The A-line is a boundary that represents the relationship between IP and wL. The
equation of A-line is given as

IP = 0.73(wL- 20)

If the soil lies above A-line (IP of soil > IP of A-line), then it is clay(C), and if the
soil lies below A-line (IP of soil < IP of A-line), then it is either silt (M) or organic
soil (O). Another boundary line, the U-line, represents the upper limit beyond
which no soil should exist. If the soil goes above this boundary, the test to
determine wL and wP is performed again. The equation for U-line is given as

IP = 0.9(wL - 8)

Based on the soil classification, the fine-grained soils are further classified based
on their compressibility according to the following cases:

Case 1: wL< 35%

The soil has low compressibility and is classified as low plastic soil. The low
plastic soil can be denoted as CL (low plastic inorganic clay), ML (low plastic silt)
or OL (low plastic organic clay)

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Case 2: 35% < wL< 50%

The soil has intermediate compressibility and is classified as medium plastic soil.
The medium plastic soil can be denoted as CI (medium plastic inorganic clay), MI
(medium plastic silt) and OI (medium plastic organic clay)

Case 3: wL> 50%

The soil has high compressibility and is classified as highly plastic soil. The highly
plastic soil can be denoted as CH (high plastic inorganic clay), MH (high plastic
silt) and OH (high plastic organic clay).

Organic and inorganic soils are plotted in the same area on the plasticity chart.
Organic soils are distinguished from inorganic soils by odour and colour or liquid
limit test on oven dry samples. If the wL of the oven dry sample is less than 3/4th
of the in-situ soil sample, then the soil is organic, otherwise inorganic. Highly
organic clay, like peat, is classified as Pt.

Unit # 3 Permeability and Seepage

Darcy's law

 Darcy's law says that the discharge rate q is proportional to the gradient in
hydrauolic head and the hydraulic conductivity (q = Q/A = -K*dh/dl).
 what drives groundwater flow?
o water flows from high elevation to low elevation and from high
pressure to low pressure, gradients in potential energy drive
groundwater flow
o groundwater flows from high to low head
o how do you measure the head or potential? => drill an observation
well, the elevation of the water level in the well is a measure of the
potential energy at the opening of the well
 in 1856, a French hydraulic engineer named Henry Darcy published an
equation for flow through a porous medium that today bears his name
 Q = KA (h1-h2)/L or q = Q/A = -K dh/dl, h: hydraulic head, h = p/rg + z
 thought experiment: hydraulic head distribution in a lake
 q = Q/A is the specific discharge [L/T], dh/dl is the hydraulic gradient
 K is the hydraulic conductivity [L/T]

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 the law is very similar to Ohm's law for electrical curcuits I = 1/R * U
(current = voltage divided by resistance)
 the orginal Darcy experiment yielded these data
 the analogy between Darcy's law and Poiseulle's law suggests that K =
(const*d2)*rg/m
 the first term (const*d2) is k, the intrinsic permeability [L2], summarized the
properties of the porous medium, while rg/m describe the fluid
 hydraulic conductivities and permeabilities vary over many orders of
magnitude

Factors Effecting Permeability of Soils

Following are factors effecting permeability of soils.

1. Size of soil particle

2. Specific Surface Area of Soil Particle
3. Shape of soil particle
4. Void ratio
5. Soil structure
6. Degree of saturation
7. Water properties
8. Temperature
9. Adsorbed water
10.Organic Matter
1. Size of Soil Particle
Permeability varies according to size of soil particle. If the soil is coarse grained,
permeability is more and if it is fine grained, permeability is low. The relation
between coefficient of permeability (k) and particle size (D) can be shown from
equation (1) as follows.

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2. Specific Surface Area of Particles

Specific surface area of soil particles also effects the permeability. Higher the
specific surface area lower will be the permeability.

3. Shape of Soil Particle

Rounded Particles will have more permeability than angular shaped. It is due to
specific surface area of angular particles is more compared to rounded particles.

4. Void Ratio
In general, Permeability increases with void ratio. But it is not applicable to all
types of soils. For example, Clay has high void ratio than any other types of soil
but permeability for clays is very low. This is due to, the flow path through voids
in case of clays is extremely small such that water cannot permit through this path
easily.

The relation between coefficient of permeability and void ratio can be expressed
from equation (1) as

For Clay

Where, C = Shape of the flow path,

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e = Void ratio.

For coarse grained soil, “C” can be neglected. Hence

5. Soil Structure
Structure of any two similar soil masses at same void ratio need not be same. It
varies according to the level of compaction applied. If a soil contains flocculated
structure, the particles are in random orientation and permeability is more in this
case.

If the soil contains dispersed structure, the particles are in face to face orientation
hence, permeability is very low. The permeability of stratified soil deposits also
varies according to the flow direction. If the flow is parallel, permeability is more.
If it is perpendicular, permeability is less.

6. Degree of Saturation
Partially saturated soil contain air voids which are formed due to entrapped air or
gas released from the percolating fluid or water. This air will block the flow path

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thereby reduces the permeability. Fully saturated soil is more permeable than
partially saturated soil.

7. Water Properties
Various properties of water or fluid such as unit weight and viscosity also effects
the permeability. However, unit weight of water will not affect much since it does
not change much with temperature.

But when temperature is increased viscosity decreases rapidly. From equation (1),
permeability increase when viscosity decreases.

8. Temperature
Temperature also affects the permeability in soils. From equation (1), permeability
is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid. It is known that viscosity
varies inversely to the temperature. Hence, Permeability is directly related to
temperature.

Greater the temperature, higher will be the permeability. That is the reason,
seepage is more in summer seasons than in winter.

9. Adsorbed Water
Adsorbed water is the water layer formed around the soil particle especially in the
case of fine-grained soils. This reduces the size of the void space by about 10%.
Hence, permeability reduces.
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10. Organic matter

Presence of organic matter decreases the permeability. This is due to blockage of
voids by the organic matter.

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Seepage Pressure.

As the water flows through the soil the surface of the soil particles offers a
resistance to the flow, in turn water also pushes the soil particles and applies a drag
on them in the direction of its motion. This drag increases the inter-particle forces.
This force applied by the water on the soil particles is called the seepage force and
because of it pressure developed in the soil is termed as seepage pressure.

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