Engr. Daphane Anne A.

Agbayani
 is defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic
matter (Solid particle) along with liquid and gas that occupy the empty/ void spaces between
the solid particles.

- is the branch of Civil Engineering that deals with the study of soil and the
behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of loading.

- is the application of the principles of soil mechanics to practical problems.

is defined as the science and the practice of the part of Civil

Engineering that involves natural materials found close to the surface of the earth; it includes
the application of the fundamental principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics.
1. To perform soil investigation and to develop methods for soil sampling.

2. To classify soil properties in the light of soil engineering product.

3. To apply the result and soil investigation and sampling, so as to use soil as
construction material economicaly.

4. Role of soil in the foundation design.

 is used as a construction material in various civil engineering projects and it supports
structural foundation.

Thus, civil engineers must study the properties of soil: such as

1. its origin/soil composition/weight – volume relationships,
2. grain-size distribution/plasticity or consistency of soil /soil classification,
3. permeability/hydraulic conductivity and seepage/flow nets,
4. stresses in soil mass,
5. compressibility/consolidation,
6. shear strength,
7. lateral earth pressure,
8. soil-bearing capacity,
9. slope stability
 Soil: Definition

• Solid earth material that has been altered by

physical, chemical and organic processes so
that it can support rooted plant life.

• Engineering definition: Anything that can be

removed without blasting
 Factors of Soil Formation

• Climate

• Organisms

• Parental Material

• Topography

• Time
 Factors of Soil Formation

Climate

• Temperature and
precipitation

• Indirect controls (e.g.,

types of plants)

• Weathering rates

The greater the rainfall

amount, the more rapid
the rate of both
weathering and erosion.
 Factors of Soil Formation

Organisms
• Types of native vegetation

• Weathering is dependent of plant growth

• Plant and animal activity produces humic acids that

are powerful weathering agents. [acids derived from
chemical breakdown of organic matter]

• Plants can physically as well as chemically break

down rocks.

• Plants stabilize soil profiles, Animals (including

humans) tend to increase erosion.
 Factors of Soil Formation

Parent Material
• Chemistry
• Mineralogy
• Grain size
 Factors of Soil Formation
Topography:
• Ground slope
• Elevation
• Aspect (north vs. south facing slopes)
 Factors of Soil Formation

Downslope transport of soil

is a function of slope:

Erosion rate = f(S)

Steeper slopes erode faster.

The steeper the surface

slope, the more likely any
eroded material is to be
transported out of the
system.
 Factors of Soil Formation
Soils on hillslopes reach an equilibrium thickness, often
about 1m.

Soils on flat surfaces, such as floodplains or plateaus,

tend to thicken through time due to weathering rates
being greater than sediment transport rates.
 Factors of Soil Formation

Time for development and destruction of soil

profiles

Typical chemical reaction rates are slow 

the longer a rock unit has been exposed,
the more likely it is to be weathered

And, the longer soil waits before transport,

the thicker it can become…
 Transformations

Decomposition of organic matter

Breakdown to form soluble compounds that
can be absorbed leached away
Depends on input quantity, location (roots,
leaves), environment (temp & precip)
Humification to form complex organic matter

Weathering of rocks
Physical weathering / fragmentation of rock
Freeze-thaw; drying-wetting; fire
Chemical weathering
primary  secondary minerals
Parent material (bedrock) undergoes weathering to become regolith
(soil + saprolite).
Soil is a mixture of mineral and organic matter lacking any inherited
rock structure.

Soil
Saprolite is weathered rock that retains remnant rock structure.

Saprolite
Saprolite
 Soil Horizons and Profiles

Soil Horizons
over time, soil layers differentiate into distinct
‘horizons’
not deposited, but zones of chemical action
• Chemical reactions and formation of secondary
minerals (clays).
• Leaching by infiltrating water (elluviation)
• Deposition and accumulation of material leached
from higher levels in the soil (illuviation)

Soil Profile
Suite of horizons at a given locality
Typical soil profile
Cookport soil, A Horizon
Pennsylvania

B Horizon

C Horizon
 Soil types (more simply) – Aridisols

Physical weathering breaks rocks into small mineral particles.

 Soil types – Oxisols
Chemical weathering dissolves and changes minerals
at the Earth’s surface.
 Soil types – Mollisols
Decomposing organic material from plants and
animals mixes with accumulated soil minerals.
 Soils which are formed by weathering of rocks may remain in position at
the place of region. Residual soil does not move away from its parent rock. Usually contain
small amounts of clay minerals, and include primary minerals.

These may get transported from the place

of origin by various agencies such as wind, water, ice, gravity,
etc. The parent material is different from the underlying
bedrock.
 WRITE IN A CLEAN SHEET OF PAPER. HAND WRITTEN!
DEADLINE TODAY! UNTIL 1:30 PM
1.1 (a) Differentiate between ‘residual’ and ‘transported’ soils. In what way does this knowledge
help in soil engineering practice?
(b) Write brief but critical notes on ‘texture’ and ‘structure’ of soils.
(c) Explain the following materials:
(i) Peat (ii) Hard pan, (iii) Loess, (iv) Shale, (v) Fill, (vi) Bentonite, (vii) Kaolinite, (viii) Marl,
(ix) Caliche.
1.2 Distinguish between ‘Black Cotton Soil’ and Laterite’ from an engineering point of view.
1.3 Briefly descibe the processes of soil formation.
1.4 (a) Explain the meanings of ‘texture’ and ‘structure’ of a soil.
(b) What is meant by ‘black cotton soil’? Indicate the geological and climatic conditions that tend
to produce this type of soil.
1.5 (a) Relate different formations of soils to the geological aspects.
(b) Descibe different types of texture and structure of soils.
(c) Bring out the typical characteristics of the following materials:
(i) Peat, (ii) Organic soil, (iii) Loess, (iv) Kaolinite, (v) Bentonite, (vi) Shale, (vii) Black cotton soil.
1.6 Distinguish between
(i) Texture and Structure of soil.
(ii) Silt and Clay.
(iii) Aeoline and Sedimentary deposits.
 can be defined as a natural aggregates of minerals that are connected by strong bonding and attractive
forces. Rock is often considered as consolidated materials
is formed by the solidification of molten magma ejected between or deep within the earth’s crust
by either fissures or volcanic eruptions.

The Rock Cycle

– describes the sequence by which new materials are formed
as magma cools.
 are uncemented sediments or deposits of solid particles that have resulted from the
disintegration of rocks; it is a particulate material because it consists of accumulate particles;

Voids/Pore Spaces

Rocks
 Soil is a three-phase material because of the existence of voids.
Solid – Soil Solids
Liquid –Water
Gas - Air

Notations:
W – Total weight of the soil
M – Total mass of the soil
Wa – Weight of air ≈ 0
Ma – Mass of air ≈ 0
Ww – Weight of water
Mw – Mass of water
Ws – Weight of soil solids
Ms – Mass of soil solids
V – Total volume of the soil
Va – Volume of Air
Vw – Volume of Water
Vs – Volume of Soil Solids

W = mg
Note: That Weight (W) here can be replaced by Mass (M) neglecting Acceleration due to gravity (g).
As mentioned earlier, soils are three-phase systems consisting of soil solids, water and gas.

Based on the separation of the three phases, the volume relationships can then be defined.

W = Wa + Ww + Ws

W = Ww + Ws

M = Ma + Mw + Ms
M = Mw + Ms

V = Va + Vw + Vs
Vv = Va + Vw
∴ V = Vv + Vs ;
Where Vv – Volume of Voids
 Wx = VxGxgw
Mx = VxGxrw
Where Wx = Weight of the material
Mx = Mass of the material
Vx = Volume of the material
Gx = Specific Gravity of the material
gw = Unit Weight of water = 9.81kN/cu. m. = 9810N/cu. m.
rw = Density of water = 1000kg/cu. m. = 1 g/cu. cm.
In Soil Mechanics,
Ws = VsGsgw
Ms = VsGsrw

Ww = VwGwgw
Mw = VwGwrw
But, Gw = 1
∴ Ww = Vwgw
Mw = Vwrw
1. Void Ratio, e
- The ratio of the Volume of Voids (Vv) to the Volume of Solids (Vs)
Vv
e=
Vs
2. Porosity, n
- The ratio of the Volume of Voids (Vv) to the Total Volume (Vv)
Vv
n=
V
(conventionally expressed as a percentage)

3. Degree of Saturation, S
- The ratio of the Volume of Water (Vw) to the Volume of Voids (Vv)
Vw
S=
Vv
(conventionally expressed as a percentage)
Relationship between the void ratio, e and porosity, n

n=

e=
1. Moisture Content, w
- The ratio of the Weight of Water (Ww) to the Weight of Soil solids (Ws)
Ww Mw
w= =
Ws Ms
(expressed as a percentage)

2. Unit weight
- Weight per Unit Volume

2.1 Moist Unit Weight, g

- Total Weight per Unit Volume

W Ws+Ww (1+w) W (1+w) (Gs+Se)gw

g= = = Gsgw = s =
V V (1+e) Vs(1+e) (1+e)

Se = ωGs
2.2 Dry Unit Weight, gd
- The ratio of the Weight of the Soil Solids (Ws) to the Total volume (V)
s
gd = = =
s w

2.3 Saturated Unit Weight, gsat

- The Void Spaces are filled with Water
s w
gsat =
3. Density
- Mass per Unit Volume

3.1 Moist Density, r

M
r= = w

3.2 Dry Density, rd

𝜌
rd = = s w

3.3 Saturated Density, rsat

s w
r sat =
4. Relative Density, Dr
- In granular soils, the degree of compaction in the field can be
measured according to the relative density which can be defined as:

Dr (%) =

Dr (%) =
1. The moist mass of a 0.028m 3 of soil is 55.4kg. If the moisture content is 12% and the
specific gravity of the soil solids is 2.72, find the following:
a) Moist Unit Weight (kN/m3)
b) Dry Unit Weight (kN/m3)
c) Void Ratio
d) Porosity
e) Degree of Saturation
f) Volume occupied by water

Solution:
W
a) g=
Given: V
m 1kN
V = 0.028m3 W = 55.4kg (9.81 ) ( )
1000N
M = 55.4kg W = 0.543 kN
w = 12% 0.543kN
g=
Gs = 2.72 0.028m3
g = 19.392 kN/m3
 ? Dry Unit Weight (kN/m3) Vv
W d) n= ? Porosity
b) gd = s V
Solution: V 0.028m3− 0.0182m3
𝑊 0.543kN n=
Given: Ws = == 0.028m3
1+w 1 + 0.12 n = 0.35 or 35%
V = 0.028m3 Ws = 0.485kN
M = 55.4kg 0.485kN
gd = ? Degree of Saturation
w = 12% 0.028m3 e) S=
Vw
gd = 17.32 kN/m3 Vv
Gs = 2.72
Se = wGs
or
? Void Ratio g 0.12 (2.72)
gd = S= x 100
Vv 1+w 0.538
c) e= 19.392 kN/m3
Vs S = 60.67%
gd =
Ws = 0.485kN 1+0.12
Ws = VsGsgw gd = 17.314 kN/m3
0.485 kN
Vs = f) Ww = Vwgw
2.72 (9.81 kN/m3)
W = Ww + Ws
Vs = 0.0182m3
Ww = (0.543 – 0.485) kN
0.028m3− 0.0182m3 Ww = 0.058kN
e= 0.0182m3
e = 0.538 0.058 kN
Vw =
9.81 kN/m3
Vw = 5.91 x 10-3 m3
2. The dry density of a sand with a porosity of 0.387 is 1600kg/m3.
Find Gs and the void ratio of the soil
Solution:
Given:
n = 0.387
rd = 1600kg/m3

a) e = b) rd = s w

e= 1600kg/m3 = s

e = 0.631
s = 2.61
3. For a saturated soil given:
w = 40%
s = 2.71
Determine the saturated unit weight and the dry unit
weight in kN/m3

Solution:

a) For saturated Soil

S=1 s w
b) gd = =
Se = wGs
e = 0.40 (2.71)
e = 1.084
gd = 12.76 kN/m3

s w
gsat =

gsat =

gsat = 17.86 kN/m3

Thank You for Listening   