REVIEWER IN GEOLOGY
earth. It is made of interlocking pieces called Plates.
GEOLOGY
Geology (in Greek, Geo means Earth, Logos means
Science), The study of earth as whole, the origin,
structure, composition, and the nature of the processes.
BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
Crystallography: The study of the characters of
crystals. Crystal are bodies bounded by flat faces
(surfaces), arranged on a definite plane.
Mineralogy: The study of the characters of minerals.
A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous
substance.
Petrology: The study of rocks in all their aspects
including their textures, structures, origin and their
relationships to other rocks.
Geophysics: The section of the earth which include
the structure, physical conditions, and evolutionary
history of the earth.
Geochemistry: The study of chemical composition of
minerals and rocks of the earth.
Structural Geology: is the study of rock structures
such as folds that have resulted from movements and
deformation of the earth’s crust.
Stratigraphy: The study of the stratified rocks
especially their sequence in time, the character of the
rocks and correlation of beds at different localities.
Physical Geology: It deals with the geological
processes which bring about changes in the crust and
upon the surface of the earth.
Geomorphology: The description and interpretation of
landforms.
Paleontology: is the study of ancient life,
determination of environment, evolution of organisms
etc.
Hydrogeology: the study of the geological factors
relating to earth’s water.
Mining Geology: deals with the method of mining of
rocks and mineral deposits on earth’s surface and
subsurface.
STRUCTURE OF EARTH AND ITS
COMPOSITION
BARYSPHERE (core)-densest central part of the
earth
ASTHENOSPHERE (mantle)- it is composed of hot,
dense ultrabasic igneous rock in plastic state.
LITHOSPHERE (crust)- thinnest outer solid shell.
Plates: The surface of the earth is the crust of the
Crust: Early in the 20th century the reality of earth
crust was demonstrated by a scientist named
Mohorovicic.
Two types of crust:
Continental Crust: The continental crust consists of
two layers separated by a well-defined discontinuity
known as Conard discontinuity.
Oceanic Crust: The third layer is called the oceanic
layer about 4.1 to 5.8 km thick and certain
composition. This three-layered oceanic crust is
generally 5 to 8 km thick.
PLATE TECTONIC BOUNDARIES
CONVERGENT (destructive margin) -boundaries
along which the edge of one plate overrides the other.
DIVERGENT (constructive margin) -rift or
spreading zone.
TRANSFORM (conservative margin) -the
lithosphere plates slide past each other without any
creation or destruction.
WEATHERING - is defined as a process of decay,
disintegration, and decomposition under the influence
of certain physical and chemical agencies.
The process of weathering depends upon the following
three factors:  Nature of rocks  Length of time 
Climate.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING - The chemical
decomposition of the rock is called chemical
weathering which is nothing but chemical reaction
between gases of the atmosphere and minerals of the
rocks.
Some commonly occurring processes in chemical
weathering.
a. SOLUTION-Dissociation of minerals into ions,
b. OXIDATION- The combination of oxygen with a
mineral to form oxides and hydroxides.
c. REDUCTION- The release of oxygen from a
mineral to its surrounding environment
d. HYDRATION- Absorption of water molecules into
the mineral structure.
e. HYDROLISYS-Hydrogen ions in percolating water
replace mineral cations: no oxidation-reduction occurs.
f. LEACHING- The migration of ions produced by
the above processes.
g. CATION EXCHANGE- Absorption onto the
surface of negatively charged clay of positively
charged cations in solution, especially Ca, H, K, Mg.
MECHANICAL WEATHERING- the physical
property changes without changing its chemical
composition.
The processes of mechanical weathering
a. MECHANICAL UNLOADING-Vertical expansion
due to the reduction of vertical load by erosion.
b. MECHANICAL LOADING- Impact on rock, and
abrasion, by sand and silt size windborne particles in
deserts.
c. THERMAL LOADING- Expansion by the freezing
of water in pores
d. WETTING AND DRYING- Expansion and
contraction associated with the repeated absorption and
loss of water molecules from mineral surfaces and
structures.
e. CRYSTALLIZATION- Expansion of pores and
fissures by crystallization within them of minerals that
were originally in solution.
f. PNEUMATIC LOADING -The repeated loading
by waves of air trapped at the head of fractures
exposed in the wave zone of a sea cliff.
BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING - The weathering
process related to the activities if microorganism such
as bacteria as well as plants and animals are termed as
organic weathering.
Animals moving through cracks can break rocks.
Roots of plants.
SOILS - Soils are the products of disintegrated and
decomposed rocks.
Soils are unconsolidated fragments ranging in size 60
micron - 2mm.
FORMATION OF SOIL
Weathering - It is the natural process of disintegration
and decay of rocks,
Erosion - The process of the removal of weathered
product by wind, river or any other agents are called
erosions.
Transportation- It refers movement of eroded
particles from one place to another.
Deposition and sedimentation Deposition of particles
will take place whenever the velocity of transporting
agents like wind is arrested.
Sedimentation- is the process of deposition of
sediments.
Classification of Soil
Major classifications:
1. Cohesive Soil: Soil particles held under cohesion.
2. Non-Cohesive Soil: No cohesion involved b/n soil
particle.
3. Transported Soil: The soil particles are transported
from the point of origin and deposited somewhere
away from their source.
4. Residual Soil: They are also called in–situ-soils.
They are formed at there at their source points itself.
Based on their composition:
1. Clayey Soil–Rich in clay
2. Sandy Soil – Rich in sand
3. Gravelly Sand–Gravel mixed sandy soil
4. Clayey Sand – Clay rich sand
5. Sandy Clay– Sand rich in clay
6. Lateritic Soil – Rich in laterite
7. Black Cotton Soil– Black soil rich in most
Montmorillonite clay
8. Red Soil – Red in color rich in iron
9. Loamy Soil– Mixture of sand, silt and clay
Based on their places of origins:
1. Desert soil: Light brown soil contains nitrogen and
favorable for vegetation if there is water content.
2. Alluvial Soil: Formed along riverbed.
3. Coastal sand: Formed in coastal plains having
Saline in character due to the presents of chlorides.
4. Mountainous soil: Found in Himalayas.
5. Peat soil: Formed due to decaying of vegetable
matter, derived from Marshy land.
Agents of erosion – river, wind, moving ice and water
waves
Potholes - These are various shaped depressions of
different dimensions that are developed in the riverbed
by excessive localized erosion by the streams. The
potholes are generally cylindrical or bowl shaped.
River Valleys - A valley may be defined as a low land
surrounded on sides by inclined hill slopes and
mountain.
Georges and Canyons- The process of valley
deepening often gives rise to magnificent surface
features known as Georges and canyons.
• Georges are very deep and narrow valley with very
steep and high walls on either side.
• A canyon is a specific type of George where the
layers cut down by a river are essentially stratified and
horizontal in attitude.
Waterfalls - These are defined as magnificent jumps . SOURCES OF GROUNDWATER
made by stream or river water.
Connate water: It is the water which includes in the
Stream Terraces - These are bench like ledges or flat rock itself, at the time of rock formation when water
surfaces that occur on the sides of many rivers’ valley. gets trapped in rock strata.
Sediment Transport by Rivers Meteoric water: It is the water which is derived from
precipitation i.e. snow and rain.
• Suspended load: It is made up of fine sand, silt and
clay sediments that are light enough to be transported Juvenile water: It is also known as magmatic water as
in the stream water in a state of suspension. it originates in the earth’s interior and associates with
the magmatic activities below the crust.
• Bed Load: This fraction of the river loads comprises
the heavier particles of sand, pebbles, gravels and Juvenile water: It is also known as magmatic water as
cobbles and other type of materials which are moved it originates in the earth’s interior and associates with
along the other side of the roads. the magmatic activities below the crust.
• The dissolved load: This fraction includes particles Condensational water: It is the prime source which
of material soluble in water, which the river may gain replenishes groundwater in deserts and semi-desert
due to its solvent action on the rock of the channel. areas.
Types of Deposits Properties of Materials
• Alluvial fans and cones: These are coned shaped Transmissivity is also an important concept in
accumulation of stream deposits that are commonly knowing an aquifer’s ability to yield groundwater.
found at places where small intermittent streamlets
coming down from hill slopes enter the lowlands. 1. Porosity of the Rock - Porosity is determined by
studying the shape and arrangement of soil particles.
• Natural Levees: these are essentially riverbank
deposits made by a river along its bank during floods. 2. Permeability - is a measure of the capability of rock
to transmit water through its pore spaces.
• Deltas: deltas are defined as alluvial deposits of
roughly triangular shape that are deposited by major
river at their mouth, i.e. where they enter a sea.
• Channel deposits: Many streams are forced by some
natural causes to deposit some of their loads along the
riverbed.
Wind performs the work of erosion by at least three
different methods: Deflation, abrasion, and
attrition.
Deflation - This process of removal of particle of dust
and sand by strong wind is called deflation.
Wind Abrasion - This type of erosion involving
rubbing, grinding, polishing the rock surface by any
natural agent is termed as abrasion.
Attrition by wind - The sand particles and other
particles lifted by the wind from different places are
carried away to considerable distances.
The work of erosion is accomplished in three ways.
Hydraulic action, abrasion, and corrosion.
• Hydraulic Action: This is the process of erosion by
water involving breaking, loosening, and plucking out
of loose, disjointed blocks of rocks
• Marine Abrasion: This involves the rubbing and
grinding action of seawater on the rocks of the shore
• Corrosion: It is the solvent action of seawater which
is particularly strong in environment where the shore is
of vulnerable chemical composition.