Radioactivity

Saanvi Khanna 1/25/24 Chemistry

 Abstract

This is a comprehensive review of the topic of radioactivity by a Stage 9 student. It

investigates subtopics under the umbrella term of ‘radioactivity’, such as its origin, its

hazards, and its applications. The methods to procure information mentioned in this thesis

were solely based on literature/media review. The analysis of these sources was done with

careful effort not to be inclusive of plagiarism, as evidence and sources are mentioned in the

bibliography. The thesis aims to show the multiple facets of radioactivity, scrupulously.
 Table of Contents
Chapters Page no.
1. An introduction to radioactivity 1
1.1 Radioactivity
1.2 Alpha decay
1.3 Beta decay
1.4 Gamma decay
2. The origin of radioactivity 2
2.1 Antoine Henri Becquerel
2.2 Marie & Pierre Curie
3. Radioactivity in the periodic table 3
4. Events associated with radioactivity 5
4.1 Chernobyl
4.2 Fukushima Daiichi
5. Effects of radioactivity 6
5.1 Overview
5.2 Flora & Environment
6. Safety measures for radioactivity 7
6.1 Handling materials
6.2 Getting exposed to radioactivity
7. Life with radioactivity 8
7.1 Glowing paint
7.2 Smoke detectors
7.3 Carbon dating
7.4 Medical imaging
7.5 Curing cancer
8. Radioactivity in the future 9
8.1 Electrical
8.2 Medicine
8.3 Agriculture
Tab

Chapter 1
An introduction to radioactivity
1.1 Radioactivity
Radioactivity is a term that was coined by Madame Marie Sklodowska-Curie, which refers to
an unstable element stabilizing itself through the means of transforming sub-atomic particles.
The process by which they transform is called radioactive decay.
Radioactive decay is of 3 types:
 Alpha decay.
 Beta decay.
 Gamma decay.

1.2 Alpha decay

It is the emittance of heavy, low penetrating, positively charged alpha particles(α)/helium
nucleus that contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons along with electromagnetic energy (gamma
rays) to balance the forces in the nucleus. The nucleus is changed, due to the loss of these
subatomic particles, and so a new element is formed; which has a mass number that is less by
4, and an atomic number that is less by 2. While this process takes place, alpha radiation is
given off. The most prevalent example is that of Uranium and Thorium.

1.3 Beta Decay

Beta decay is of two types. β – (Beta minus) and β + (Beta plus). Beta minus is linked to
isotopes (variated nuclei with more neutrons, hence a different mass number) as it changes
the excess neutrons to a proton and electron. The electron is lost, while the proton is retained.
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Here, the change of the nucleus would signify an element with the same mass number, but a
higher atomic number (+1). Beta plus decay is when there are more protons in an unstable
atom, and these excess protons are changed into a neutron and a positron (an electron but
with a positive charge). The neutron is retained while the positron is lost. Whilst these
processes go on, they also give off Beta radiation. Beta decay also produces a packet of
electromagnetic energy, in the form of gamma rays to balance the radioactive nuclides.

In β +, a sub-atomic entity that has very little mass is produced. It has a weak force and
doesn’t participate in any interaction. It is called a neutrino. An antineutrino is produced in β
-, and it is essentially the antimatter version of a neutrino.
They also produce a gamma photon to balance the nucleus.

1.4 Gamma decay

It refers to the radioactive decay in heavy elements, where sub-atomic particles are ejected
from the nucleus. Electromagnetic radiation (light) is produced in its high-level form, a
photon which is a store of high energy. Unlike alpha or beta decay, the composition of an
atom is not changed. This gamma radiation can be highly penetrating, and also problematic
when in human contact.

Chapter 2
The origins of radioactivity
2.1 Antoine Henri Becquerel
Antoine Henri Becquerel descended from a lineage of scholars, with his grandfather being a
Fellow of the Royal Society. After his father retired from the Chair of Applied Physics at the
Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, he began working as an assistant at the Museum of Natural
History in 1878. He was named Professor of Applied Physics in the Paris Museum's

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Department of Natural History in 1892. In 1895, he got the position of Professor at the
polytechnic. He had the idea minerals that turn phosphorescent in sunlight might emit X-rays.
Hence, he wrapped a photographic plate in black paper (to protect the plate from direct
sunlight), placed the uranium mineral on it, and exposed it to sunlight. This acted like an x-
ray, developing an image of the mineral and he thought his theory was correct. However, later
on, in Feb there was less sunlight and he kept the photographic plate and uranium mineral
away and expected a weak image by the remaining phosphorescence. Yet, the image was
strong. His new theory was that the exposure of light had come from uranium itself, birthing
the idea of radioactivity. He, as her professor, recommended Marie Curie to take on the topic
for her doctorate thesis. He discovered radioactivity.

2.2 Marie & Pierre Curie

Born in Warsaw, Poland, Marie Skłodowska was raised in a family of teachers who valued education
greatly. To pursue further studies, she relocated to Paris and married a fellow radioactivity scientist,
Piere Curie. Marie Sklodowska-Curie and Piere Curie found that it was the uranium in the
mineral that was emitting the phosphorescence/what we know today as radioactivity. The
couple, along with Henri Becquerel won a Nobel Peace Prize in Physics. Later on, she won a
Nobel Peace Prize in Chemistry due to her work of isolating radioisotopes. She coined the
term radioactivity.

Chapter 3
Radioactivity in the periodic table

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 Technetium, Tc-91
 Promethium, Pm-145
 Polonium, Po-209
 Astatine, At-210
 Radon, Rn-222
 Francium, Fr-223
 Radium, Ra-226
 Actinium, Ac-227
 Thorium, Th-229
 Protactinium, Pa-231
 Uranium, U-238
 Neptunium, Np-237
 Plutonium, Pu-244
 Americium, Am-243
 Curium, Cm-247
 Berkelium, Bk-247
 Californium, Cf-251
 Einsteinium, Es-252
 Fermium, Fm-257
 Mendelevium, Md-258
 Nobelium, No-259
 Lawrencium, Lr-262
 Rutherfordium, Rf-265
 Dubnium, Db-268
 Seaborgium, Sg-271
 Bohrium, Bh-267
 Hassium, Hs-269
 Meitnerium, Mt-276
 Darmstadtium, Ds-281
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  Roentgenium, Rg-281
 Copernicium, Cn-285
 Nihonium, Nh-284
 Flerovium, Fl-289
 Moscovium, Mc-289
 Livermorium, Lv-293
 Tennessine, Unkown
 Oganesson, Og-294

Chapter 4
Events associated with radioactivity
There have been many disasters in history where radioactivity has played a major role. The
majority of these have been due to the effects of gamma radiation.

4.1 Chernobyl
The tragic event of Chornobyl is one such disaster. A nuclear power plant in the area used
Uranium and Plutonium as fuel. An accident took place, due to inadequately trained staff and
a flawed reactor, and an ironical ‘safety test’. An explosion occurred and it released 5% of the
radioactive particles into the atmosphere. This spread over Ukraine, Belarus, Russia, and
Europe and went on until Canada, where there were “unusually high readings in British
Columbia”. 203 people were hospitalized, of whom 31 people died. 13,500 people were
evacuated from the area.
In the short term, civilians and the general public in the area inhaled 3-150 sieverts of
caesium-137. Children in some contaminated areas were unknowingly dosed with iodine-
131, from their milk. Since most of the food supply was contaminated, thyroids were
affected.
Even to date, there have been increased chances of thyroid cancer in adolescents in the closer
areas. There is long-term psychological distress amongst the public, however, most of the
people affected did not face much radiation so there is little evidence of genetic problems or
deaths.
Today, the scene of disaster has lessened and people find that the area has become home to
many animals and wildlife due to human absence. They are prone to inherit genetic damage
due to their ancestors being bombarded with high doses of radiation.

4.2 Fukushima Daiichi

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The major earthquake, with a magnitude of 9.0 on the Richter scale off the coast of Honshu,
caused the Fukushima nuclear accident. This earthquake led to a tsunami that created waves
up to 128 ft. The waves were 45ft tall as they struck the nuclear power plant, and they
flooded and shut off the cooling of reactors 1, 2, and 3 causing a core meltdown. Substantial
amounts of volatile radionuclides (radioactive form of elements), primarily noble gases
including iodine and cesium, are thought to have vaporized during the process of the grave
catastrophe. More than 15,000 people were killed, 6000 injured and 2500 people were
reported missing.
People in the area faced more PTSD, and children faced issues with hyperactivity and
emotion.

Chapter 5
Effects of radioactivity
5.1 Overview
Alpha rays do not have a high penetrating power so, outside exposure to alpha particles can
be overlooked. However, if alpha rays get in through openings, they are heavy enough and
carry enough energy to severely damage tissues.
Beta particles are slightly more penetrating, they can cause skin burns. Like alpha rays, they
are hazardous when they get inside the body.
Gamma rays have high penetrating power, as they are pure energy. They can easily penetrate
barriers, and even outer exposure can cause tissue and DNA damage. Cancer induction rises
if a being is exposed enough, as these rays can be carcinogenic.

5.2 Flora & Environment

Environmentally, flora and fauna can become contaminated if subjected to radioactivity. They
can often transfer the radioactivity to humans and other species due to their linkage in the
food chain. Radioactivity can damage their genetic makeup too, as has happened in the
atomic bombing of Nagasaki. Ferns carry genetic mutations in their cells and have a series of
anomalies that do not allow them to grow normally. They produce spores to develop into a
plant, but Nagasaki ferns stopped diving too early and couldn’t form into a spore. Despite
this, some of them still grew but faced mutations like malformed leaves or incomplete roots.
They couldn’t reproduce properly, either. Trees in the area that hadn’t been damaged, would
also face problems like these. Flora is especially prone to face problems with unnatural blasts
and accidents that involve radioactivity due to materials seeping into the ground (like in
Chornobyl with Caesium-137 settling in the ground) and their physical inability to evacuate.

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 Chapter 6
Safety measures for radioactivity
6.1 Handling materials
The acronym for safely handling materials is “ALARA”, which stands for ‘as low as
reasonably achievable’. Any contact with radioactive materials should be as low as
reasonably achievable, in terms of closeness, time, and contact. The precautionary steps are
below:
 One should keep a good distance from radioactivity because increased distance means
decreased dose.
 One should only be handling them for the duration of their task, and try to minimize
that too.
 One should have some protection whilst handling the materials, like gas masks and
protective clothing, and make sure that no part of their body is perceptible to
radiation.
 One should not have any food whilst in contact due to chances of contamination.
 One should keep the materials in a safe place, with a bold sign to warn any
unknowing person from coming in contact.
 One should keep separate utensils just for radioactive materials, and trash any
disposable material coming into contact with it carefully.
 One should trial run and test as much as possible before getting close to the materials.

6.2 Getting exposed to radioactivity

If one gets in contact with radioactivity, one should take precarious care to remove traces of
it. Following are the steps one should take:
 One should remove the outer layer of clothing very carefully, to not spread the
contamination. Keep these clothes away from others.
 One should get clean, and shower so to ensure no particles on the skin and clean those
around you too carefully. If one doesn’t have the amenities to shower, use soap and
water to clean any unprotected places.
 One should stay in good condition by eating sealed or in-house food.

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 Chapter 7
Life with Radioactivity
Despite the common notions of radioactivity being dangerous, it has helped us evolve into the
thriving community we are today. This is how:

7.1 Glowing paint

Watches and signs that can glow in the dark may contain tritium or radium, which are
radioactive materials. These watches were made in the early 1900s and used tritium and
radium’s property of radioluminescence. The problem arose when workers who used paint
that was luminescent, used to lick their brush bristles for a fine tip. That settled in their bones
and led to many of them getting bone cancer as radium emits alpha, beta, and gamma
radiation.

7.2 Smoke detectors

Smoke detectors are used to warn the user of a fire that may have started in a place traceable
of usage. It uses alpha radiation given off by Americium-241 to do this. The reason is that
alpha particles can ionize very easily, due to the properties of their decay. Hence, Americium-
241 converts air molecules into positive and negative ions and a circuit is created because of
their attraction. As smoke enters the device, the bond and the circuit are disrupted and that is
when the smoke alarm sounds. All in all, the alpha particles ionize the air around them and
make it more conductive. When smoke interferes, the conductivity decreases and that is how
a smoke detector works using radioactivity.

7.3 Carbon dating

Carbon dating is the process by which one understands how ancient a fossil is. Scientists have
found ways to track the age of a fossil by carbon. It is done by looking at a comparison
between two types of carbon atoms C12, which is most commonly present, and C14- an
unstable, radioisotope formed by cosmic rays interacting with nitrogen. Carbon 14, like other
radioactive elements, has a ‘half-life’ (the time in which half of a nucleus in a radioactive
element decays). After 5730 years of an animal dying, the C-14 will be at its half-life. After
another half-life, C-14 will be at ¼ of its original amount, and so on. C-12 will stay the same.
The ratio of C14:C12 will show us how long it has been.

7.4 Medical Imaging

There have been many developments in the field of medical imaging, with X-rays and MRIs.
One such way to get clearer images of a person’s body is by injecting a radioactive drug or
tracer with a short half-life. An external device is used for tracking this and providing a
picture of the internal structure. There are 2 main types of imaging here, SPECT (Single
Photon Emission Computed Tomography) which uses gamma decay and its radiation, and
PET (Positron Emission Tomography) which uses beta+ decay and positron emission. There

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are very low risks of a patient contracting cancer as the radiation exposure is kept extremely
low.

7.5 Curing cancer

Brachytherapy is a medical procedure that can treat certain cancers. It involves placing
radioactive material inside the body near cancerous cells to damage their genetic matter and
exterminate them. It has a lower risk than external radiation, which targets a larger and wider
area. It is used to treat cancers like brain, eye, lung, cervical cancer, etc. Brachytherapy
including radiation in a body cavity is called intracavity brachytherapy, and in this process,
the material is placed in a body opening. Brachytherapy including radiation in body tissue is
called interstitial brachytherapy, where a device is put within body tissue. These devices
could be wires, needs, or balloons and may be placed using tubes like catheters or special
applicators may be used.

Chapter 8
Radioactivity in the future
There are many prospects of radioactivity in the future, in fields such as electrical, medicine,
and agriculture.

8.1 Electrical

There is a radioisotope thermoelectric generator in the makings, that uses plutonium to

generate power and it is proven to be an innovative upcoming source of energy for human
use. The waste it produces is minor, so it is a solution to problems such as the production and
storage of nuclear waste which can be even more reactive than

8.2 Medicine
Radioactivity has been influential in the medical field and continues to be. There have been
plans to introduce radioactive tracers to analyze genetic material and come up with
personalized care plans and treatments. It would give the physicians a better prediction of the
response time and type of their patients. A specific and individualized medicine would lead to
a better healthcare system.

8.3 Agriculture
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Plant breeding is a futuristic way that food can be improved to adapt better and ensure
nutrition. Seeds can be exposed to gamma rays and that can alter the genes of a plant in a
controlled fashion. This would increase yield, quality, tolerance, and time of growth.
Overall, however controversial “radioactivity” may be, it plays a part in improved humanity
and standards of living. It has made the human race learn from our mistakes and find ways to
stop them. Whether it is nuclear power plants or Exit signs, radioactivity is all around us…
and it will continue to be.

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