Abstract

The present study was carried out along the coastal regions of Tuticorin, Tamilnadu,
India, to evaluate the distribution of uranium, thorium and potassium concentrations in
surface soil samples. A total of 5 soil samples were collected from 5 sea shores, lying by the
side of the Sea. The activity concentrations of natural radionuclides U,
238
Th and 40K were
232

measured and an average of 2.9957 Bqkg-1, 91.552 Bqkg-1 and 299.708 Bqkg-1. The radium
equivalent activities in the beach sands of Tuticorin district varies from 54.804 Bqkg -1 to
324.991 Bqkg-1, which is lower than the reference limit of 370 Bqkg-1. Results show that the
radiological parameters obtained for the beach sand from the Tuticorin district of are within
the safe limits and hence these places can be considered as Normal Background Radiation
Areas. The areas with high radiological parameters are within the safe limit with respect to
radiological index. The absorbed dose rate of the district ranged from 25.5 nGyh -1 to
138.0985 nGyh-1 with an average value of 69.1795 nGyh-1 which is also under safe limits.

1
CHAPTER I

2
 INTRODUCTION
1.1.Radioactivity:
Radioactivity is a property exhibited by certain types of matter of emitting energy and
subatomic particles spontaneously. An unstable nucleus will decompose spontaneously, or
decay, into a more stable configuration but will do so only in a few specific ways by emitting
certain particles or certain forms of electromagnetic energy. Radioactive decay is a property
of several naturally occurring elements as well as of artificially produced isotopes of the
elements. The rate at which a radioactive element decays is expressed in terms of its half-life;
i.e., the time required for one-half of any given quantity of the isotope to decay. Half-lives
range from more than 1024 years for some nuclei to less than 10−23 second. The product of a
radioactive decay process called the daughter of the parent isotope may itself be unstable, in
which case it, too, will decay. The process continues until a stable nuclide has been formed.

The emissions of the most common forms of spontaneous radioactive decay are
the alpha (α) particle, the beta (β) particle, the gamma (γ) ray, and the neutrino. The alpha
particle is actually the nucleus of a Helium-4 atom, with two positive charges. Such charged
atoms are called ions. The neutral helium atom has two electrons outside its nucleus
balancing these two charges. Beta particles may be negatively charged or positively charged.
The beta minus [β−] particle is actually an electron created in the nucleus during beta decay
without any relationship to the orbital electron cloud of the atom. The beta plus particle, also
called the positron, is the antiparticle of the electron; when brought together, two such
particles will mutually annihilate each other. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiations such
as radio waves, light, and X-rays. Beta radioactivity also produces the neutrino and
antineutrino, particles that have no charge and very little mass, symbolized by ν and ῡ,
respectively.

In the less common forms of radioactivity, fission fragments, neutrons, or protons

may be emitted. Fission fragments are themselves complex nuclei with usually between one-
third and two-thirds the charge Z and mass A of the parent nucleus. Neutrons and protons are
the basic building blocks of complex nuclei, having approximately unit mass on the atomic
scale and having zero charge or unit positive charge, respectively. The neutron cannot long
exist in the free state. It is rapidly captured by nuclei in matter; otherwise, in free space it will
undergo beta-minus decay to a proton, an electron, and an antineutrino with a half-life of 12.8
minutes.The proton is the nucleus of ordinary hydrogen and is stable. (E. O. Lawrence,1935)

3
1.2.History Of Radioactivity
In the year 1896, Roentgen discovered X-rays. At that time Professor Henri Becquerel
investigated the possibility that this mysterious radiation might be given off spontaneously
from natural substances. He had in mind particularly the class of substances that give off light
of their own accord - phosphorescent substances. Becquerel had been studying the properties
of phosphorescent substances and happened to have in his possession at that time some
phosphorescent salts of uranium, which he had prepared fifteen years before. Almost
immediately he discovered that uranium salts do give off a radiation like X-rays for when the
uranium salts were placed near a photographic plate enclosed in a light-tight box, after a
period of time the photographic plate was activated. Very soon Rutherford, then at McGill,
showed that the radiations continuously emanating from uranium could be divided into two
types: one called the alpha rays, which were very easily absorbed in matter and produced
intense ionization, and a much more penetrating type called the beta rays. When a still more
penetrating type of radiation was discovered, Villard named them the gamma rays. These
names for the three types are still used, although now it is known that the alpha rays are the
nuclei or centers of helium atoms, the beta rays are high-speed electrons, and the gamma rays
are indeed very penetrating X-rays, which are of the same nature as light.
Soon other radioactive substances were discovered and in 1898 Madame Curie
isolated radium. At this stage a number of radioactive substances had been found. Some
appeared to give off radiation continuously and constantly, while the radiation from others
decreased with time. This complicated mass of facts was reduced to order by the
transformation theory of Rutherford and Soddy in 1903.
According to this theory, the atoms of the radio-elements, unlike the atoms of the
ordinary elements, are not stable, but undergo spontaneous disintegration, accompanied by
the expulsion of an alpha or a beta particle. After the disintegration, the resulting atom has
physical and chemical properties entirely different from the parent atom. It may in turn be
unstable and pass through a succession of transformations, each of which is characterized by
the emission of an alpha or beta particle. (E. O. Lawrence,1935)

4
1.3.Ionizing Radiation:
Radiation is a form of energy, such as light or heat. Radiation is characterized
according to the frequencies of these wavelengths. Infrared waves, microwaves, and radio
waves occur at the lowest frequencies. Ionizing radiation occurs at the highest frequencies.
The process of transforming a neutral atom or molecule into an electrically charged
component is known as ionization. Ions are either positively charged or negatively charged,
depending upon the number of protons and electrons present in the atom.

Ionizing radiation is produced as the result of the disintegration of an unstable isotope.

These isotopes can decay in several ways. The ratio of neutrons to protons in a stable, light
atom is approximately unity. This ratio can increase to about 1.5 in heavier elements.
Unstable nuclei exist because of an imbalance in this ratio. The interaction of this ionizing
radiation with specific biological material will result in the production of ion pairs. An ion
pair is essentially an ionized atom together with its ejected electron. Therefore, ionizing
radiation will affect the fundamental structures of biological materials through the production
of these ion pairs.

Several different species of radionuclides will produce ionizing radiation. Heavy

elements, which include radionuclides such as 238
U and 232
Th, are found in all common types
of rock and soil. Furthermore, these radionuclides disintegrate into other nuclides that are
also radioactive, thus forming a decay chain. Therefore, not only is the release of ionizing
radiation cumulative over the existence of the lead radionuclide in a decay chain, but additive
throughout all the energy releases from the progeny in the decay chain as well. Products
formed in a nuclear reactor as the result of nuclear fission are radioactive. Other radioactive
isotopes can be produced by particle bombardment processes, such as neutron activation
(Borrelli,1999)

1.4.Radioactive Decay:

Radionuclides are quantified according a rate of disintegration. This rate is defined by

the Curie and the Becquerel. One Curie is defined as 1 Ci = 3.7 x 10 10 disintegrations per
second, and one Becquerel is defined as 1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second. These units,
however, incorporate neither the total amount of ionizing energy associated with each
disintegration, nor the total existence of the radionuclide. Singular usage of the Curie or the
Becquerel also does not fully reflect the cumulative quantity of ionizing radiation that will be
imparted to a specific biological material. The energy accompanying each radioactive

5
disintegration is specific to the given radionuclide, and is dependent upon the amount of
source material present. Therefore, the quantity of ionizing radiation that will be released
from a radionuclide is specific to each radionuclide. The total quantity of ionizing radiation
that will be released is essentially based upon a fixed set of radioactive particles and photons
that are ejected during disintegration. Additional factors such as the energy release per each
disintegration of the radionuclide, as well as the length of time that the radionuclide will
exist, can provide practical adjustments to the sole use of the unit of activity as a
quantification device. (Borrelli,1999)

1.5.Specific Ionization:

The unstable isotope will disintegrate to the stable state through the emission of
excess energy in the form of photons, particles, or a combination of both. Each of these
particles and photons is ejected from the radioactive source at a certain energy level, specific
to the source material. The extent to which ejected particles and photons interact with matter
can be described in terms of specific ionization.

Specific ionization can be defined as the quantity of ion pairs that will be produced,
given a specific amount of ionizing radiation that a radionuclide will release. Approximately
34 eV are required to produce one ion pair. The rate of production of ion pairs is energy
specific and not dependent upon the type of radioactive particle involved in the interaction.
Therefore, a 1 MeV release accompanying the emission of a radioactive particle or a photon
will produce approximately 30000 ion pairs for every release. As a result of the continuous
release of energy from a radioactive source, ion pairs will be generated continually
throughout the existence of the source. A quantity of radioactivity can be measured in terms
of the number of ion pairs that the energy will produce in exposed material. This adjusted
measure of radioactivity can be applied to the vast and highly variable amounts of sources
that exist in nature. Such adjustments can aid in the assessment of the environmental effects
of a source defined in terms of the imparted energy to materials, based upon the number ion
pairs that the source will produce. (Borrelli,1999)

1.6.Biological Effects of Ionizing radiation:

Radioactive substances and ionizing radiations are found naturally in our
environment. The radiation exposure risk cannot be eliminated entirely but can only be
restricted. The two categories of detrimental health effects that can be caused by exposure to
radiation are deterministic and stochastic.

6
1.7.Types of Radiation:

1.7.1.Alpha Particles:

An alpha particle is comprised of two protons and two neutrons. The alpha particle
possesses an electrical charge of +2. Alpha particle decay will occur from a nucleus in which
the number of neutrons is much higher than the number of protons. Nuclei heavier than lead,
such as thorium, plutonium, radon, and uranium decay through alpha emission.

Ra226 → 2He4 + Rn222 + energy

Each radionuclide will emit one or more alpha particles at fixed energy levels. The
resulting release of ionizing radiation will be imparted to a given medium only over a small
distance. Alpha particles collide very easily with matter and lose energy quickly because of
large size and of high electrical charge. Only a few centimeters of air, or the outer layer of
skin, will provide a sufficient barrier to alpha particle penetration.

1.7.2.Beta Particles:

Beta particles are equivalent to electrons but arise from radioactive decay of unstable

atoms. They are emitted with a continuous range of energies up to a maximum that is
characteristic of each radionuclide. Electrons have a greater range and penetrating power but
much less ionizing potential compared to alpha particles. The range of beta particles in air is
∼4 m per MeV of energy. In water the range in cm is approximately one-half the maximum
beta energy when expressed in MeV.

Thorium-234 is a nucleus that undergoes beta decay. Here is the nuclear equation for
this beta decay:

Th234 → -1e0 + 91Pa234

90

1.7.3.Gamma Rays:

Unlike the previous types of decay, gamma rays represent energy that is transmitted in
a wave. Gamma rays are similar to X-rays in that both forms of radiation are photons.
Fundamentally, there is no difference between these types of photons. Gamma rays originate
in the nucleus..These types of radiation occur at the highest frequencies of the energy

7
spectrum. Gamma rays occur at a higher frequency. Gamma rays have wavelengths shorter
than 10-11 meters and frequencies above 30 x 1018 Hz.

Nuclei formed as a result of the previous methods of decay usually are left in an
excited state after particle emission. Excited nuclei then proceed to decay to the ground state
through the emission of gamma rays. A large majority of nuclei in this excited state decay in
an immeasurably short period of time. In some instances, the decay of excited nuclei is
delayed.

Excited nuclei appear to exist in a semi-stable, or isomeric, state. The subsequent

decay, an isomeric transition, occurs as the semi-stable nucleus emits a gamma ray in order to
exist at the ground state. Beta particle emission also can take place in the isomeric state.

Because gamma rays are energy waves, they do not possess a mass or an electrical
charge. These photons have the highest ranges of penetration. These forms of radiation can
pass through the human body. Highly dense materials, such as lead or steel, provide effective
barriers to gamma rays. (Borrelli,1999)

1.8.Half Life:

Each radionuclide will decay for a fixed amount of time. This amount of time defines
the existence of each radionuclide. Scientists, engineers, and other professionals in nuclear
related fields use these fixed existences with which to classify radioisotopes. The time that
has elapsed for the activity of a radioisotope to decrease by a factor of two is defined as a
half-life. The probability per unit time that a radioactive nuclide will decay is a constant and
independent of time.

0.693
t1/2¿ λ

1.9.Secular Equilibrium :

This is a state in which the rate of decay of a parent radionuclide is equal to that of a
daughter radionuclide. It can occur in a decay series if the half-life of the parent radionuclide
is much longer than that of the daughter radionuclide. The decay rate of a parent radionuclide
and hence the production rate of the daughter radionuclide becomes approximately constant.
The quantity of the daughter radionuclide increases until the rate production of its atoms
becomes equal to its rate of decay. Considering the decay of a parent radionuclide, A,

8
decaying into daughter radionuclide, B, the idea of radioactive equilibrium can be explained
using the decay law .

dNB
=❑ A N A −❑ A N B
dt

where NA and NB are number of atoms of A and B at a given time while A and B are the
decay constants of radionuclides A and B, related to their half- lives by;

ln (2)
 t
1/ 2

Secular equilibrium occurs when;

❑A
NB= N
❑B A

(Kiplangat Elijah,2011).

1.10.Artificial Radioactivity:

Artificial radioactivity is the radioactivity produced in a substance by bombardment

with high-speed particles such as protons or neutrons. It is also called as induced
radioactivity. Artificially radioactive isotopes can be used in the treatment of disease as well
as in its diagnosis. For example, an artificially radioactive isotope of cobalt is used to treat
some types of cancer patients. The radiation from the cobalt damages cancerous cells and
may prevent the spread of the disease. However, the radiation also damages healthy cells, so
this isotope must be used in precisely controlled amounts. Besides its medical applications,
artificial radioactivity also provided scientists with additional opportunities for studying
radioactive decay and the changes that occur in nuclei. (E. O. Lawrence,1935)

1.11.Natural Radioactivity:

People are exposed to natural radiation on a daily basis as our planet earth is
radioactive. More than 60 naturally occurring radioactive materials are found in soil, water
and air. These radioactive elements are classified into the following categories:
1. Primordial - from the creation of earth.
2. Cosmogenic - formed as a result of cosmic ray (from sun
and outer space) interactions with earth's atmosphere.

9
 3. Human produced - enhanced or formed due to human
activities.
In recent years, the source of radioactive elements in soil, water and air is
considerably increased by various human activities such as: disposing the hospital wastes,
nuclear wastes and industrial effluents to the environment, etc. Wastes associated with
various industrial activities were enhanced levels of natural radioactivity (Hilal, Attallah,
Gehan, & Fayez-Hassan, 2014). Hence people can be exposed to radiation either externally
by a close source of radiation or exposed internally by radioactive material that has entered
the body. Soil not only acts as a source of continuous radiation exposure to humans but also
as a medium of migration for transfer of radionuclides to biological systems (Mehra, Badhan,
Sonkawade, Kansal, & Singh, 2010). Hence, the basic indicator of radiological contamination
in the environment is the soil.
Radioactivity is an integral part of our environment. All living beings have been
exposed to a constant flux of natural radiation on the surface of our friendly planet. Natural
radioactivity in the environment originates from two sources. First,
primordial radionuclides which were incorporated into the Earth at the time of its formation
are still present in it because of their long half-lives. 238U, 235U, 232Th and their decay
series, 40K, 87Rb and 187Re are examples of this category. Second, cosmic ray-produced
isotopes which are generated continuously in the atmosphere and earth's crust through
interactions of cosmic rays with their constituents.

Natural radioactivity is still the principal source of radiation exposure. Humans are
constantly being bombarded by particles of cosmic radiations every second. Rocks like
granite, which have become symbols of permanence and durability, contain light traces of
radioactive uranium. Sitting on or walking near a block of granite exposes you to previously
unencountered sources of radioactivity. Even the food we eat or the air we breathe contains
radioactive elements. Humans are radioactive too. Eight thousand atoms of potassium 40 or
carbon 14 disintegrate in our bodies every second.

The most important natural source of radioactivity is a rare gas known as radon. One
of the products of uranium decay, radon is an ‘inert gas’ that can participate in no chemical
reaction. This would seem to make it completely harmless, were it not for the fact that radon
own radioactive decay produces gases poisonous to humans.

2.4 mSv is a low dose. In certain parts of India, China and Brazil the natural exposure
level rises to 10 or even 20 mSv a year. The fact that humans have survived these

10
comparatively overexposed conditions indicates that all doses of the order of millisieverts are
negligible and very likely harmless. (Radioactivity.Eu).

1.11.1.Cosmic radiation:

Cosmic radiation consists of high-energy particles and radiation that originate from
outside the Earth’s atmosphere, including from the sun and other sources in the universe.
Cosmic radiation is a type of high-energy radiation that originates from outer space, including
the sun and other sources in the universe. Cosmic radiation includes a mix of charged
particles, such as protons, alpha particles, and heavy ions, as well as gamma rays and other
forms of electromagnetic radiation.

Cosmic radiation is present everywhere in space and can penetrate the Earth’s
atmosphere, affecting the planet’s surface and atmosphere. The intensity of cosmic radiation
exposure depends on various factors, including altitude, latitude, and solar activity.

At ground level, the dose of cosmic radiation is generally low and not considered a
significant health risk for most people. However, people who work in high-altitude
environments may be exposed to higher levels of cosmic radiation, which can increase their
risk of radiation-related health effects, including cancer and cataracts.

1.11.2.Terrestrial radiation:

Terrestrial radiation that comes from natural sources on Earth, such as radon gas and
cosmic rays. Terrestrial radiation is a type of radiation that originates from natural sources on
Earth. It includes various forms of ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, such as:

● Cosmic rays: As mentioned earlier, cosmic rays are high-energy particles and
radiation that originate from outside the Earth’s atmosphere, including from the sun
and other sources in the universe.

● Radioactive decay of natural materials: Certain naturally occurring elements, such

as uranium, thorium, and radium, emit ionizing radiation as they decay over time.
This radiation can be emitted in the form of alpha and beta particles, as well as
gamma rays.

11
 ● Radon gas: Radon is a radioactive gas that is produced by the decay of uranium in
soil and rocks. Radon gas can accumulate in enclosed spaces, such as homes and
workplaces, and can pose a health risk if inhaled in high concentrations.

● Terrestrial gamma radiation: Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic

radiation that can be emitted by natural materials in the Earth’s crust, such as
potassium, uranium, and thorium.

1.11.3.Exposure from Terrestrial Radiation:

The composition of the earth's crust is a major source of natural radiation. The main
contributors are natural deposits of uranium, potassium and thorium which, in the process of
natural decay, release small amounts of ionizing radiation. Uranium and thorium are
“ubiquitous”, meaning they are found essentially everywhere. Traces of these minerals are
also found in building materials, so exposure to natural radiation can occur indoors as well as
outdoors.
1.12.Radioactivity Series:
1.12.1.Uranium Series:

12
 The Uranium series, also known as the actinide series, is a radioactive decay chain of
naturally occurring elements that begins with U238 and ends with Pb206. The series includes a
total of 14 radioactive elements, with each element in the series decaying into the next
element over time.

The uranium series begins with the decay of U238, which has a half-life of 4.5 billion
years. U238 decays into Th234, which has a half-life of 24 days. Th 234 then decays into Pa234,
which has a half-life of just 1.17 minutes. Pa 234 quickly decays into U234, which has a half-life
of 245,500 years.

The decay chain continues with U234 decaying into Th230, which has a half-life of
75,380 years. Th230 then decays into Ra226, which has a half-life of 1,600 years. Ra226 decays
into Rn222, which has a half-life of just 3.8 days. Rn 222 then decays into Po218, which has a
half-life of just 3.1 minutes.

The uranium series continues with Po218 decaying into Pb214, which has a half-life of
26.8 minutes. Pb214 then decays into Bi214, which has a half-life of just 19.7 minutes. Bi214
decays into Po214, which has a half-life of just 164 microseconds.

The uranium series concludes with Po214 decaying into Pb210, which has a half-life of
22.3 years. Pb210 then decays into Bi210, which has a half-life of just 5.01 days. Bi 210 decays
into Po210, which has a half-life of just 138 days. Finally, Po210 decays into stable Pb206.

The uranium series has important applications in geology and environmental science,
as the decay of uranium and its daughter elements can be used to date rocks and determine
the age of geological formations. It is also important in nuclear physics and engineering, as
uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear power plants.

13
1.12.2.Thorium Series:

The thorium series, also known as the 4n series, is a radioactive decay chain of
naturally occurring elements that begins with Th 232 and ends with stable Pb208. The series
includes a total of 13 radioactive elements, with each element in the series decaying into the
next element over time.

The thorium series begins with the decay of Th232, which has a half-life of 14.05
billion years. Th232 decays into Pa234, which has a half-life of 6.7 hours. Pa234 then decays into
U234, which has a half-life of 245,500 years.

The decay chain continues with U234 decaying into Th230, which has a half-life of
75,380 years. Th230 then decays into Ra226, which has a half-life of 1,600 years. Ra 226 decays
into Rn222, which has a half-life of just 3.8 days. Rn 222 then decays into Po218, which has a
half-life of just 3.1 minutes.

14
 The thorium series continues with Po218 decaying into Pb214, which has a half-life of
26.8 minutes. Pb214 then decays into Bi214, which has a half-life of just 19.7 minutes. Bi214
decays into Po214, which has a half-life of just 164 microseconds.

The thorium series concludes with Po214 decaying into Pb210, which has a half-life of
22.3 years. Pb210 then decays into stable Pb206 through a series of beta decays and alpha
decays.

Like the uranium series, the thorium series also has important applications in geology
and environmental science, as the decay of thorium and its daughter elements can be used to
date rocks and determine the age of geological formations. Thorium is also being explored as
a potential fuel for nuclear reactors, as it is more abundant than uranium and produces less
long-lived nuclear waste.

1.13.Radiation in Soil Samples:

Both natural and man-made sources of radiation can contribute to the presence of
radioactive elements in soils. Examples of natural sources include the decay of isotopes such
as uranium,thorium, and potassium, while man-made sources include nuclear weapons testing
and the operation of nuclear power plants. The sources of radiation in soils can be divided
into two categories: Natural and Man- Made.

Natural sources of radiation in soils include:

 The decay of isotopes of elements such as uranium, thorium, and potassium, which
are naturally occurring in the Earth’s crust.
 Cosmic radiation from outer space, which can penetrate the Earth’s atmosphere and
contribute to background radiation levels in soils

Man-made sources of radiation in soils include:

 Nuclear weapons testing, which has led to the release of radioactive isotopes into
the
environment, including soils.
 The operation of nuclear power plants, which can release radioactive substances
into the environment through accidents or routine releases.

15
  The use of radioactive materials in industry, medicine, and agriculture, which can
result in the release of radioactive isotopes into the environment and their
accumulation in soils.
 The disposal of radioactive waste, which can result in the migration of radioactive
isotopes into soils.

It’s important to note that the levels of radiation in soils can vary greatly depending on
the specific location and the presence of both natural and man-made sources.

Background to the Study

Naturally occurring radionuclide materials have been present in the Earth’s surface
since its formation. These radionuclides include: U238, Th232 and K40. Their concentrations
vary from place to place and can be artificially introduced to the soil by application of
inorganic fertilizers and pesticides to enhance soil properties and increase crop production.
Gamma rays, alpha and beta radiations are released when these radionuclides and their
daughters in the series undergo decays. Human beings therefore, cannot avoid continuous
exposure to ionizing radiation both inside and outside their dwellings. Inorganic, especially
phosphate (P) fertilizers contain hazardous elements including heavy metals, for example Cd,
Cr, and Pb, and radioactive elements, for example U, Th and their daughters, which are
considered to be toxic to animal and human health.
Soil is an important resource to human. It can be used for food production and
building shelter. The chemical, mineral and biological components of soil can be inhaled,
ingested or absorbed through the skin, hence can be harmful to human health, for example
cancers due to inhalation of radon gas from the decay of uranium in soil minerals, radiation
sickness and sterility. As soils interact with atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, human
health can also be influenced indirectly, for example the frequent detrimental biological and
chemical quality of recreational and drinking water that are influenced by processes of soil
erosion, leaching, surface runoff and interflow.
Studies on the background to natural radiation are very crucial because it is the main
source of exposure for humankind and also the largest contributor to the external dose of the
world population. The study of the distribution of primordial radionuclides allows the
understanding of the radiological implication of these elements due to the gamma ray

16
exposure to body, irradiation of lung tissue from inhalation of radon and its daughters, and
ingestion through foodstuff and water
The radionuclide concentrations in samples can be determined using several
measurement techniques. Gamma radioactivity can be measured by HPGe and NaI(Tl)
detectors. In this study NaI(Tl) detector is used to measure activity of 40K, 238
U and Th.
232

Radium equivalent activity and hazard indices are assessed to evaluate radiological effects of
the surface soils.

CHAPTER II

17
 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.Related studies on Natural radioactivity :

Numerous studies have been done to evaluate the risk of radiation exposure due to
naturally occurring radionuclides in the environmental samples. A study on natural
radioactivity level in the soil samples of Eloor Island, India, reported an outdoor annual
effective dose of between 0.1mSvy-1 and 0.7mSvy-1 with a mean value of 0.3 mSvy-1. All the
values were within the recommended dose of less than 1 mSvy-1 (Dhanya et al., 2015).

In Cyprus, a survey involving various geological formations reported maximum

concentrations of 232
Th, U and
238
K of 39.8 Bqkg-1, 39.3 Bqkg-1 and 565.8 Bqkg-1
40

respectively with maximum gamma absorbed dose of 51.3 nGyh -1 which is below the world
average of 60 nGyh-1 (Tzortzis and Tsertos, 2004).

A study of natural radioactivity in beach sediments from north coast of Tamilnadu,

India found that the maximum activity concentrations of U and
238 232
Th were 30.42 Bqkg-1
and 218 Bqkg-1 respectively in Mahabalipuram beach. The highest activity concentration for
40
K was 423.43 Bqkg-1 in Kovalam beach. The calculated absorbed gamma dose rate had a
mean of 30.15 nGyh-1 which is less than the world average of 60 nGyh -1 and annual effective
dose rate of 0.15 mSvy-1 which is more than the world average of 0.07 mSvy -1 (Ramasamy et
al., 2009).

An assessment of natural radioactivity levels and radiation hazards in agricultural and

virgin soil in the state of Kedah, North of Malaysia found that the mean activity
concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides 226
Ra, 232
Th and 40
K were 102.08±3.96
Bqkg-1, 133.96±2.92 Bqkg-1 and 325.87±9.83 Bqkg-1, respectively, in agricultural soils and

18
65.24±2.00Bqkg-1 , 83.39±2.27 Bqkg-1 and 136.98±9.76 Bqkg-1 , respectively, in virgin
soils. The mean values of radium equivalent activity, absorbed dose rate, annual effective
dose rate and external hazard index were 458.785 Bqkg -1, 141.62 nGyh-1 and 0.169 mSvy-1,
respectively, in agricultural soils and 214.293 Bqkg-1, 87.47 nGyh-1 and 0.106 mSvy-1,
respectively, in virgin soils, with average external hazard index of 0.525 (Ghazwa et al.,
2016).

A study on the specific activity concentration of radionuclides in soils from some

districts of Abua/Odua Local Government Areas in Nigeria for instance reported higher
values than the safe limit stipulated by UNSCEAR (2000) (Ononugbo et al., 2016).

A study carried out at the Minjingu phosphate mines in neighboring Tanzania found
concentrations of 226
Ra as high as 5760±107 Bqkg-1 in phosphate rock and 4250 Bqkg-1 in
waste rock. These values are more than 100 times the world average value. Elevated 226
Ra
levels were also observed in biological samples such as wild leaf vegetation with a
concentration of 650±11 Bqkg-1 and edible leaf vegetation with concentration of 393±9 Bqkg-
1
. The radiation dose from ambient air over five years at the phosphate mine ranged from
1375 nGyh-1 to 1475 nGyh-1 with 15 an average of 1415 nGyh -1 which is higher than the
global average background radiation from terrestrial sources by a factor of 28. These values
suggest a possible radiation health risk to the area inhabitants resulting from external gamma
irradiation as well as internal exposure from vegetables consumption (Banzi et al., 2000).

Another study involving clay samples from Aswan, South Egypt found average
activity concentrations of natural radionuclides to be within the recommended safe limits
(Alharbi and Taher, 2016).

A research on natural radioactivity and its associated radiological hazards in Ghanaian

cement reported that the mean activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K were 35.94±0.78
Bqkg-1, 25.44±0.80 Bqkg-1 and 233±3.95 Bqkg-1 respectively. The mean indoor absorbed dose
rate was 50.5% less than the world average of 60 nGyh-1 while the annual effective dose rate
was 79% less than the acceptable public safety limit of 1 mSvy-1 (Kpeglo et al., 2011).

In Kenya, several studies on environmental radioactivity measurements are

documented. In a study involving Mombasa, Malindi and Gazi along the coastal region of the
country, concentration of U,
238
Th and 40K was observed to be higher in Mombasa with
232

average values of 22.8±1.8 Bqkg -1 , 26.2±1.7 Bqkg-1 and 479.8±24.2 Bqkg-1 respectively

19
resulting in effective dose rate lower than the ICRP acceptable dose limit of 1 mSvy -1 by a
factor of nearly 10 (Hashim, 2001).

In another study, soil samples obtained from the region around titanium mines in the
coastal region were also found with low radioactivity levels relative to the world averages
(Osoro, 2007).

Still in the coastal region of the country, soil samples from Mrima hills were found
with 16 elevated absorbed dose rate averaging 440.7 nGyh -1 which is much higher than the
world average of 60 nGyh-1 (Kebwaro, 2009).

Further studies on soil and rock samples in soapstone quarries in Kisii annual
effective dose in the ranging from 1.03 mSvy -1 to 1.27 mSvy-1 was observed. (Kinyua et al.,
2011)

A research on assessment of human exposure to natural source of radiation on the

soil in Tongaren constituency of Bungoma county, Kenya reported that the mean activity
concentrations of 238U, 232Th and 40K were 260.3±13.0 Bqkg-1 , 85.0±4.3 Bqkg-1 and 981±49.1
Bqkg-1, respectively. The average values of radium equivalent activity, absorbed dose rate,
annual effective dose rate, external hazard and internal hazard indices were 456.4±22.8 Bqkg -
1
, 206.4±10 nGyh-1, 0.63±0.03 mSvy-1, 1.24±0.06 and 1.94±0.10, respectively (Wanjala,
2016).

A study on radionuclide content of sand used for construction in Kakamega County

and associated indoor radon diffusion doses found that Ra ranged from 36.79±8.89 Bqkg-1
226

to 185.21±5.89 Bqkg-1 with a mean of 128.05±8.89 Bqkg-1, 232

Th ranged from 51.12±2.56
Bqkg-1 to 158.92±7.95 Bqkg-1 with a mean of 98.37±6.41 Bqkg-1 and K ranged
40
from
322.38±16.12 Bqkg-1 to 17 960.53±48.03 Bqkg-1 with a mean of 756.39±35.99 Bqkg-1. The
average values of radium equivalent activity, absorbed dose rate, annual effective dose rate
and external hazard index were 321.67±12.4 Bqkg-1, 151.76±5.65 nGyh-1, 0.74±0.02 mSvy-1
and 0.88±0.03, respectively (Shikali, 2013).

An Assessementon radiation exposure levels associated with construction sand from

Tharaka-Nithi County in Kenya reported that mean activity concentrations of U,
238 232
Th and
40
K were 98±4 Bqkg-1, 53±3 Bqkg-1 and 1069±46 Bqkg-1, respectively. The mean values of
radium equivalent activity, eternal hazard index, internal hazard index, outdoor absorbed dose
rate, indoor absorbed dose rate, outdoor and indoor annual effective dose rates were 256±13

20
Bqkg-1, 0.69±0.04, 0.95±0.05, 120.99±6.07 nGyh-1, 166.67±8.31nGyh-1, 0.30±0.02 mSvy-1
and 0.61±0.06 mSvy-1, respectively. (Kamunde, 2016).

A study on gamma ray spectroscopic analysis of the naturally occurring radionuclides

in soils collected along the shores of Lake Victoria, Migori County, Kenya found that the
mean of activity concentrations of 238U, 232Th and 40K were 64.5±3.3 Bqkg-1, 146.0±4.4 Bqkg-1
and 1222.8±43.3 Bqkg-1 respectively. The mean values for radium equivalent activity,
absorbed dose rate, annual effective dose rate, external hazard and internal hazard indices
were 367.1±7.3 Bqkg-1, 171.2±3.4 nGyh-1, 0.420±0.008 mSvy-1, 0.99±0.02 and 1.17±0.02
respectively (Okelo, 2015).

A study on the levels of radionuclides in Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Norte found
that the average activity concentrations of Radium-226, Thorium-232 and Potassium-40 in
soil samples from the area of study were 29 Bqkg-1, 46.6 Bqkg-1 and 677 Bqkg-1 respectively
(Malanca et al., 1993).
A research on radioactivity in soils of Johor state in Malaysia found out that the
concentration of naturally occuring radionuclide Uranium-238 was in the range of (58.8
Bqkg-1 - 484.88 Bqkg-1) and that of Thorium-232 ranged from 59.68 Bqkg-1 - 1203 Bqkg-1 .
(Ramli et al., 2005).
In a research on activity concentrations in phosphate and soil samples from El-Sabaea
Aswan in Egypt, it was observed that the activity concentration of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K
ranged from 59.7±6.7 Bqkg-1 to 638±31.0 Bqkg-1, 9.9±1.4 Bqkg-1 to 40.6±6.3 Bqkg-1 and
213.1±9.5 Bqkg-1 to 798.9±30.6 Bqkg-1 respectively (Harb et al., 2008).

Surface soils around Mrima hill were analysed and the activity concentrations of 238
U,
232
Th and 40K in the samples were found to be 207.03±11.3 Bq/kg, 500.7±20.3 Bq/kg and
805.4±20.7 Bq/kg respectively. It was found out that the radioactivity concentrations were
higher than the world mean values. The calculated radiation absorbed dose from the different
points where sampling was done ranged from 253.8±2.5 nGyh-1 to 733.1±3.4 nGyh-1 with a
mean of 440.7±16.8 nGyh-1. (Kebwaro et al., 2009)

21
CHAPTER III

22
 MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.1.Study Area:
3.1.1.About The Site:

Thoothukudi (formerly Tuticorin) is a port city, a municipal corporation and

an industrial city in Thoothukudi district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The city lies in
the Coromandel Coast of Bay of Bengal. Thoothukudi is the capital and headquarters
of Thoothukudi district. It is located about 590 kilometres (367 miles) southwest of Chennai,
190 kilometres (118 miles) northeast of Thiruvananthapuram and 580 kilometres (360 miles)
southeast of Bangalore. According to Confederation of Indian Industry, Thoothukudi has the
second highest Human Development Index in Tamil Nadu next to Chennai. Thoothukudi is
an "Emerging Energy and Industrial hub of South India".

Thoothukudi is known as "Pearl City" due to the pearl fishing carried out in the town.
It is a commercial seaport which serves the inland cities of Southern India and is one of the
sea gateways of Tamil Nadu. The current estimate population of Thoothukkudi city in 2023 is
327,000 , while Thoothukkudi metro population is estimated at 567,000 . The majority of the
people of the city are employed in salt pans, sea-borne trading, fishing, and tourism. The 21
islands between Thoothukudi and Rameswaram shores in the Gulf of Mannar are noted as the
first Marine Biosphere Reserve of India, and have around 36,000 species of flora and fauna.

23
 Thoothukudi is a port town situated in the Gulf of Mannar about 125 km (78 mi)
North of KanyaKumari and its environs form part of the coastal belt which forms a
continuous stretch of the flat country relieved here and there by small rock outcrops. The
region, surrounding Thoothukudi is liberally dotted with rain fed tanks. Red soils found on
the southern side of the Thoothukudi town is composed quartz and variable quantities of fine
red dry dust. The port is an all weather one. The bay formed by the Hare Island, Devils point
and the main land gives ample protection to the lighters from monsoonal weather. The beach
of Thoothukudi is featured with calm breeze and very low waves giving an image of a big
river.[16]

Thoothukudi is located at 8.53°N 78.36°E. Thoothukudi is located in South India, on

the Gulf of Mannar, about 540 kilometres (340 miles) south of Chennai and 125 kilometres
(78 miles) north of Kanyakumari. The city mostly has a flat terrain and roughly divided into
two by the Buckle channel. Being in coastal region, the soil is mostly clay sandy and the
water table varies between 1 and 4 m (3.3 and 13.1 ft) below ground level. The city has loose
soil with thorny shrubs in the north and salt pans in the south.

Thoothukudi experiences a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh) characterised by

sweltering summers, hot winters and occasional heavy rain during the northeast monsoon.
Summer extends from March to June when the climate is very humid. Thoothukudi registers
a maximum temperature of 39 °C (102 °F) and a minimum temperature of 32 °C (90 °F). The
city receives adequate rainfall only during the months of October and November. The city
receives around 444 mm (17.5 in) rainfall from the Northeast monsoon, 117.7 mm (4.63 in)
during summer, 74.6 mm (2.9 inches) during winter and 63.1 mm (2.5 inches) during
the South-west monsoon season. The coolest month is January and the hottest months are
from May to June. The city has a very high humidity being in the coastal sector. The City has
many Industries.

24
 Figure 3.1 : The Thermal Power Station Of Thoothukudi

3.1.2.Sampling Sites:

25
 The Samples are collected from the various Sea-Shores of the district. The below map
shows the sampling sites of the district.

S1

S2

S3
S4

S5

Figure 3.2 : Sampling Sites In the Map

The Geographical Location of the Samples:

Table 3.1
SAMPLES LOCATION Place Name
S1 8.88677oN 78.17124oE Tharuvaikulam Fishing
Harbour, Tuticorin.
S2 8.833353oN 78.165298oE Sea Salt
Harvesting,Rajapalayam.
S3 8.807195oN 78.162945oE Pearl City Beach
S4 9.20oN 79.08oE Hare Island , Tuticorin.
S5 8.786851oN 78.16069oE Roche Park , Tuticorin.

26
 Figure 3.3: The Sampling Site Pictures

S1 Site S2 Site

S4 Site S5 Site

27
3.2.Sample Preparation:
 Five sampling sites have been selected across the coastal region each separated by 10
kilometers.
 Soil samples were collected according to the standard procedures and they were labelled
as S1,S2,S3,S4,S5 .
 To find the radioactivity levels, the samples were dried in an oven till a constant dry
weight was obtained.
 These samples were powdered and sieved through a 150-mm mesh.
 The processed soil samples were packed in a 250 ml plastic container to its full volume
with uniform mass.
 These containers were sealed hermetically and sealed externally to ensure that all the
daughter products of uranium and thorium and in particular, radon isotopes formed do not
escape.
 A time of 30 days was allowed after packing to attain secular equilibrium between 226
Ra
and its short-lived daughter products. The net-weight of each sample was determined
before counting.
 To reduce the contribution from background radiation while recording the spectrum in the
laboratory, the samples were kept in a lead shield, which has a shielding efficiency of
95%.

Figure 3.4 : Prepared Samples

28
 SPECTRSCOPIC TECHNIQUES

3.3.1.Gamma-ray spectrometry:
Gamma-ray spectrometry is a technique that studies quantitatively the energy spectra
of gamma-ray sources such as those used in the nuclear industry, geochemical investigation
and astrophysics. Most radioactive sources produce gamma rays of various energies and
intensities. When these emissions are detected and analyzed with an energy calibrated gamma
spectroscopy system, a gamma-ray energy spectrum is produced. The detector is usually
energy calibrated using specific energy peaks from standard reference sample so that each
channel is assigned a specific energy value. The spectrum is typically used to identify and
quantify the gamma emitters present in a gamma source given that the gamma spectrum is
characteristic of the gamma emitting nuclides contained in the source.

3.3.2.NaI(Tl) Scintillation Counter:

A NaI(Tl) scintillation counter is a radiation detector which uses the effect known as
scintillation. In this case, scintillation occurs in the NaI(Tl) crystal.

Figure 3.5: NaI(Tl) Detector

29
 A NaI(Tl) scintillation counter is a radiation detector which uses the effect known as
scintillation. Scintillation, which occurs in the NaI(Tl) crystal, is a flash of light produced in a
transparent material by the passage of a particle (an electron, an alpha particle, an ion, or a
high-energy photon). Scintillation occurs in the scintillator, which is a key part of a
scintillation detector. In general, a scintillation detector consists of:

Scintillator: A scintillator generates photons in response to incident radiation.

Photodetector: A sensitive photodetector (usually a photomultiplier tube (PMT), a

charge-coupled device (CCD) camera, or a photodiode), which converts the light to an
electrical signal and electronics to process this signal.

The basic principle of operation involves the radiation reacting with a scintillator,
which produces a series of flashes of varying intensity. The intensity of the flashes is
proportional to the energy of the radiation. This feature is very important. These counters are
suited to measure the energy of gamma radiation (gamma spectroscopy) and, therefore, can
be used to identify gamma emitting isotopes.

Scintillation counters are widely used in radiation protection, assay of radioactive

materials and physics research because they can be made inexpensively yet with good
efficiency, and can measure both the intensity and the energy of incident radiation. Hospitals
all over the world have gamma cameras based on the scintillation effect and, therefore, they
are also called scintillation cameras.

The advantages of a scintillation counter are its efficiency and the high precision and
counting rates that are possible. These latter attributes are a consequence of the extremely
short duration of the light flashes, from about 10 -9 (organic scintillators) to 10-6 (inorganic
scintillators) seconds. The intensity of the flashes and the amplitude of the output voltage
pulse are proportional to the energy of the radiation. Therefore, scintillation counters can be
used to determine the energy, as well as the number, of the exciting particles (or gamma
photons). For gamma spectrometry, the most common detectors include sodium iodide (NaI)
scintillation counters and high-purity germanium detectors.

30
Thallium-doped Sodium Iodide – NaI(Tl) scintillators:

The most widely used scintillation material is NaI(Tl) (thallium-doped sodium

iodide). NaI(Tl) as the scintillator is used in scintillation detectors, traditionally in nuclear
medicine, geophysics, nuclear physics, and environmental measurements. The iodine
provides most of the stopping power in sodium iodide (since it has a high Z = 53). These
crystalline scintillators are characterized by high density, high atomic number, and pulse
decay times of approximately 1 microsecond (~ 10 -6 sec). The wavelength of maximum
emission is 415 nm. Scintillation in inorganic crystals is typically slower than in organic
ones. They exhibit high efficiency for detection of gamma rays and are capable of handling
high count rates. Inorganic crystals can be cut to small sizes and arranged in an array
configuration so as to provide position sensitivity. This feature is widely used in medical
imaging to detect X-rays or gamma rays. Inorganic scintillators are better at detecting gamma
rays and X-rays. The NaI(Tl) scintillator has a higher energy resolution than a proportional
counter, allowing for more accurate energy determinations. This is due to their high density
and atomic number which gives a high electron density. A disadvantage of some inorganic
crystals, e.g., NaI, is their hygroscopicity, a property which requires them to be housed in an
airtight container to protect them from moisture. The crystals are usually coupled with a
photomultiplier tube, in a hermetically sealed assembly.

Photomultiplier Tube:

Photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) are a photon detection device that uses the
photoelectric effect combined with secondary emission to convert light into an electrical
signal. A photomultiplier absorbs light emitted by the scintillator and re-emit it in the form of
electrons via the photoelectric effect. The PMT has been the main choice for photon detection
ever since due to the fact that they have high quantum efficiency and high amplification.

Components of Photomultiplier Tube:

The device consists of several components and these components are shown in the
figure.

Photocathode:

Right after a thin entry window, is a photocathode, which is made of material in

which the valence electrons are weakly bound and have a high cross section for converting
photons to electrons via the photoelectric effect. For example, Cs3Sb (caesium-antimony)

31
may be used. As a result, the light created in the scintillator strikes the photocathode of a
photomultiplier tube, releasing at most one photoelectron per photon.

Dynodes:

Using a voltage potential, this group of primary electrons is electrostatically

accelerated and focused so that they strike the first dynode with enough energy to release
additional electrons. There is a series (“stages”) of dynodes made of material of relatively
low work function. These electrodes are operated at ever increasing potential (e.g. ~100-200
V between dynodes). At the dynode the electrons are multiplied by secondary emission. The
next dynode has a higher voltage which makes the electrons released from the first to
accelerate towards it. At each dynode 3-4 electrons are released for every incident electron,
and with 6 to 14 dynodes the total gain, or electron amplification factor, will be in the range
of ~104-107 when they reach the anode. Typical operating voltages are in the range of 500 to
3000 V. At the final dynode, sufficient electrons are available to produce a pulse of sufficient
magnitude for further amplification. This pulse carries information about the energy of the
original incident radiation. The number of such pulses per unit time also gives information
about the intensity of the radiation.

3.3.3.Radioactive Measurements:
The gamma-ray spectrometer was used to determine the activity of the radionuclides,
238
U, 232Th and 40K. A sodium iodide [NaI(Tl)] crystal detector of 3” x 3” size combined with
an 8 k multi-channel analyser (model PCA-II) was used to record the gamma-ray spectra. The
detector was shielded by 15 cm thick lead on all four sides and 10 cm thick on top to reduce
background due to cosmic ray component by almost 98%. The inner sides of lead shielding
are lined by 2mm thick cadmium and 1 mm thick copper to cut off lead X-rays and cadmium
X-rays respectively. This graded lining shield further reduces the background especially in
the low energy region. The energy resolution of Standard International Atomic Energy
(IAEA) sources were used for calibrating the gamma-ray spectrometer. The soil samples
were placed on the top of 3” x 3” NAI (T1) crystal. Count spectra were obtained for each
sample using gamma ray spectrometer and multichannel analyser. The counting time for each
sample was 1000 s. From the counting spectra, the activity concentrations of 238
U, 232Th, and
40
K were determined using computer program. The peak corresponds to 609 keV ( 214Bi) for
238
U, 583 keV (208Tl) for 232
Th and 1460 (K40) for keV K40 for Th were considered for the
232

activity concentration (Bq/kg) measurement.

32
 Figure 3.6 : NaI(Tl) Detector

Figure 3.7 : Representation Of The Output Spectrum

33
3.4.Energy calibration of gamma-ray spectrometer:
The gamma spectrometry detector was calibrated before it was used for analysis. The
energy peaks of 609 keV (214Bi) for 238U, 583 keV (208Tl) for 232Th and 1460 (K40) for keV K40
for 232Th were used to calibrate the spectrometer for 232Th , 238U and 40K.

3.5.Background Measurement:
The background radioactivity distribution in the environment around the detector was
determined by counting a plastic container filled with distilled water in the same manner and
in the same geometry as the samples. The background measurement was repeated at regular
intervals for quality control. The background radiation was subtracted from each of the
recorded spectrum (Righiet al., 2009)
Yg − Yb = Yn
where Yg is the gross spectra count, Yb is the background radiation and Yn is the net
spectra count of the sample.

3.6.Detector Efficiency :
This is the probability that an emitted gamma ray will interact with the detector and
produce a count. It is measured by comparing a spectrum from a source of known activity to
the count rates in each peak to the count rates expected from the known intensities of each
gamma ray. In this research work, standard IAEA certified samples of 238U, 232Th and 40K
were used. The peak corresponding to 609 keV (214Bi) for 238
U, 583 keV (208Tl) for 232
Th and
1460 (40K) for keV 40K were considered in arriving at the activity levels. Certified activities
and number of counts in the peaks were used in the calculation of detector efficiency using
the formula given by ,

Net Counts 100

Efficiency = x
Time Yield

34
 Radionuclides Energy Efficiency
(KeV) (%)
238
U 609 3.6274
232
Th 583 1.1567
40
K 1460 2.4106
Table 3.2: Energy and Efficiency

4
Efficiency (%)
3.5
3
Efficiency (%)

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Energy (keV)

Figure 3.8 : Detector efficiency curve

3.7.Acquisition of spectral data and analysis of samples:

A time of 1000 seconds for acquiring data for each sample and determining
background radiation was set. The reference sample was also analysed. From the counting
spectra, the activity concentration of 238
U, 232
Th and K was determined. The peak
40

corresponding to 1460 keV (40-K) for 40K, 583 keV (Tl-208) for Th and 609 keV (Bi-214)
232

for 238
U were considered in arriving at the activity levels. These peaks were chosen because
they weakly interfere with other peaks hence forming pure peaks of the spectrum. The total
counts were obtained after a region of interest was selected at the peak. A peak consists of a
number of counts in adjacent channels. In order to obtain the region of interest (ROI) net
area, the underlying continuum is subtracted from the gross area. The gross area is simply the
summation of channel contents overall channels within the peak. The intensity of the
background was subtracted to obtain residual intensity of sample for use in activity
calculation.

35
3.8.Calculation of Activity Concentration:
The radioactivity concentration of the radionuclides in the sample was calculated
using the following equation
Counts per time
Ci = E X P X M

where Ci is the radioactivity concentration of radionuclide i in the sample, M is the

mass of the sample, E is the detector efficiency at a specific gamma-ray energy and 𝑃 is the
emission probability of the specific gamma-ray.

3.9.Evaluation of Radiological Hazard parameters:

In order to evaluate the radiation hazards of area due to the presence of natural
radionuclides in soil, the radium equivalent activity, external hazard index, internal hazard
index and absorbed dose rate were calculated from the activity concentration of natural
radionuclides in the soil samples.

3.9.1.Radium Equivalent Activity (Raeq):

Radium equivalent activity index in Bqkg-1 is the universally accepted index for
analysing the radiation exposure created by the primordial radionuclides. The radium
equivalent allows us to describe the gamma output from different mixtures of uranium,
thorium, and K in soil samples from the study area. Radium equivalent activity is the
40

common index for assessing the radiological hazards of radioactivity in environmental

materials. The radium equivalent activity (Raeq) is the sum of the activity of 238U, 232Th,
and 40K based on the assumption that 10 Bqkg-1 of 238U, 7 Bqkg-1 of 232Th, and 130 Bqkg-1
of 40K produced the same ᵞ-ray dose rates. The radium equivalent activity (Raeq) was
calculated according to equation:
Raeq = CU + 1.43CTh + 0.077CK
where CU, CTh and CK are the specific activities of 238U, 232Th and 40K (in Bqkg-1) respectively.
1.43 and 0.077 are conversion factors for 232Th and 40K, respectively.

3.9.2.External Hazard Index (Hex):

The external hazard index is used for the evaluation of external exposure to gamma
radiation in the outdoor air. It was calculated from the expression of Ra eq through the

36
assumption that its allowed maximum value (equal to unity) corresponds to the upper limit of
Raeq (370 Bqkg-1). This index must be less than unit, in order to keep the radiation hazard
insignificant. (UNSCEAR,2000)
The external hazard index, Hex was calculated using equation,

CU C Th CK
Hex = + + ≤1
370   Bq/kg  259 Bq/kg 4810  Bq/kg

where CU, CTh and CK are the activity concentrations of U, and

238 Th and 40K, respectively
232

(Ahmed, 2005).

3.9.3.Internal Hazard Index (Hin) :

Radon and its short lived products are also hazardous to the respiratory organs. To
address the radiation to respiratory organs due to the radioactive inert gas radon a daughter
product of radium and its short-lived secondary products, the index renamed internal hazard
index.
CU C Th CK
Hin = + + ≤ 1
185   Bq/kg  259 B q/kg 4810  Bq/kg

where CU, CTh and CK are the activity concentrations of 238U, and 232Th and 40K, respectively.

3.9.4.Absorbed Dose Rate (nGy/h):

Radiation damage to tissue or organs depends on the dose of radiation received or the
absorbed dose. The absorbed dose of radiation is the energy imparted per unit mass of the
irradiated material. Absorbed dose rate refers to the amount of radiation absorbed or
deposited per unit mass of substance. The absorbed gamma dose rates due to gamma
radiations in air at 1 m above the ground surface for the uniform distribution of the naturally
occurring radionuclides (238U, 232Th and 40K) was calculated based on the guidelines provided
by (UNSCEAR, 2000).
D (nGyh−1) = 0.462CU + 0.604CTh + 0.041CK
where D is the absorbed dose rate (nGyh -1), CU, CTh and CK are the activity
concentrations (in Bqkg-1) of 238
U, 232
Th and K, respectively.The Unit is known as nano
40

Gray per hour.

37
CHAPTER IV

38
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The aim of this study is to measure natural radioactivity levels in soils obtained from
coasts of Tuticorin district. These activity levels were measured using NaI(Tl) detector. The
soils collected are prepared and analysed at Radiation Laboratory,Scott Christian College,
Nagercoil. The analysis of these soil samples included measuring the intensity and
calculation of radioactivity concentration, radium equivalent activity, external and internal
hazard indices, and absorbed dose rate.

4.1.Activity Concentration of Natural radionuclides:

The activity concentrations of natural radionuclides 238U, 232Th and 40K were measured
and an average of 2.9957 Bqkg-1, 91.552 Bqkg-1 and 299.708 Bqkg-1 respectively were
obtained. The minimum radioactivity concentrations for 238
U, 232Th and 40K were found to be
0.163557 Bqkg-1, 24.391 Bqkg-1 and 80.9278 Bqkg-1 while the maximum values were 5.048
Bqkg-1, 221.378 Bqkg-1 and 828.6852 Bqkg-1 respectively. It is observed that the activity
concentrations of world average value of are 33 Bqkg-1, 45 Bqkg-1 and 420 Bqkg-1 for 238
U,
232
Th and 40K respectively (UNSCEAR, 2016).

Table 4.1: A summary of the activity concentration of 238U, 232Th and 40K in all the
sampling points.
Sample Location 238
U Th
232 40
K
(Bqkg-1) (Bqkg-1) (Bqkg-1)
S1 Tharuvaikulam Fishing 3.775 127.06 161.779
Harbour, Tuticorin.
S2 Sea Salt 5.048 43.917 828.685
Harvesting,Rajapalayam
S3 Pearl City Beach, 0.16356 24.391 256.638
Tuticorin.
S4 Hare Island , Tuticorin. 3.8029 41.016 170.509
S5 Roche Park , Tuticorin. 2.1894 221.378 80.9278

Average 2.99577 91.5524 299.708

39
 Table 4.2: Mean activity concentrations of the soil samples measured in this study
compared to the world average (UNSCEAR, 2016)

Radionuclides Present Study Worldwide (Bqkg-1)

(Bqkg-1) (UNSCEAR, 2016)
238
U 2.99577 33

232
Th 91.5524 45

40
K 299.708 420

It is also observed that the activity concentration of 40K is highest in all the sampling
sites except sample S5. The high activity concentration of 40K in site S2 may be due to the
rich in presence of potassium. It is also the most abundant radionuclide element under
consideration.
The activity concentration of Th in sample S5 is high compared to the other sites.
232

The high levels of natural radionuclide concentration in some parts of this region might also
have resulted from industrial disposals. The sample site S1 is also having a high thorium
level. The natural radioactivity levels of 238
U, Th and
232 40
K in these regions have been
compared with published values of worldwide. These variations in the activity concentrations
in the soil of the various locations of the country was due to the geological and geographical
conditions of the area.
The activity concentration of 238
U in sample S2 is high among the other sites. Many
Salt pans are situated in that particular area. There are few people living near the area and
some of them are doing fishing.
Fishing harbour and salt pans are more in number near the sampling sites S1 and S2.
The sample site S3 is a public beach which has low activity concentration among the other
sites. Sample S4 is collected from an island. Hence the Activity Concentrations of the areas
are calculated and observations are made. The Graph is plotted between sampling sites and
their Activity Concentrations.

40
 900

U-238
800
Th-232
700
K-40
Activity Concentration

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5

Sampling Sites

Figure 4.1 : The Activity concentration of the primordial radionuclides against

sampling sites

4.2.Radium Equivalent Activity:

From the Calculated values, the mean value for radium equivalent was found to be
156.9933 Bqkg-1 within a minimum of 54.804 Bqkg -1 and a maximum of 324.991 Bqkg-1. The
permissible healthy limit is 370 Bqkg-1 (UNSCEAR, 2016). The calculated radium equivalent
activity (Raeq) are given in table 4.3. The graph is plotted between the sampling sites and
Radium equivalent activity which describe its levels. The Radium equivalent activity in every
region is found to be under the safe limit.

41
 Table 4.3: Radium equivalent activity

Samples Location Radium Equivalent Activity

(Bqkg-1)
S1 Tharuvaikulam Fishing Harbour, 197.928
Tuticorin.
S2 Sea Salt 131.658
Harvesting,Rajapalayam.
S3 Pearl City Beach 54.804
Tuticorin.
S4 Hare Island , Tuticorin. 75.585
S5 Roche Park , Tuticorin. 324.991

Mean 156.9933

Figure 4.2 : A summary of values of Radium equivalent activity

350 324.9914
300
Radium Equivalent Activity

250
197.928
200
(Bqkg-1)

150 131.658

100 75.585
54.804
50

0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
Sampling Sites

Radium Equivalent Activity

4.3.Hazard Indices:

42
 The external hazard index and the internal hazard index were calculated. The mean
external hazard index was found to be 0.42389 within a minimum of 0.147971 and a
maximum of 0.87748. The average internal hazard index was to be 0.431984 within a
minimum of 0.14841 and a maximum of 0.8834. The average values of both external hazard
index and internal hazard index were below 1, which is the world average. The internal
hazard index is higher than the external hazard index. The site S5 has the large index among
the other sites. The Site S5 is near a thermal power plant. A comparison of external hazard
index and internal hazard index obtained in this study.

Samples Location Hex Hin

S1 Tharuvaikulam Fishing 0.534416 0.544618

Harbour, Tuticorin.
S2 Sea Salt 0.35549 0.36913
Harvesting,Rajapalayam
S3 Pearl City Beach, Tuticorin. 0.147971 0.14841

S4 Hare Island , Tuticorin. 0.204091 0.21436

S5 Roche Park , Tuticorin. 0.87748 0.8834

Mean 0.42389 0.431984

43
 Table 4.4.Internal and External Hazard Indices

Figure 4.3 : Values of Hazard indices against sampling sites

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Hazard Index

0.5
External H
0.4 Internal H
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
Sampling Sites

4.4.Aborbed Dose Rate:

The absorbed dose rate was calculated. The absorbed dose rate in air at a height of 1
m above the ground level was obtained from the different sites ranged from 25.5 nGyh -1 to

44
138.0985 nGyh-1 with an average value of 69.1795 nGyh -1 . The mean absorbed dose rate is
higher than the world average value of 60 nGyh-1 but lower than maximum allowed health
limit of 1500 nGyh-1 as proposed by UNSCEAR (2016). The Absorbed dose rate describes
the amount of energy deposited per mass. The Calculated Values are under public safe limit.

Table 4.5 : Absorbed Dose Rate of the sampling sites

Samples Location Absorbed Dose Rate (nGy/h)

S1 Tharuvaikulam Fishing Harbour, 85.234
Tuticorin.
S2 Sea Salt Harvesting,Rajapalayam 63.414
S3 Pearl City Beach, Tuticorin. 25.51
S4 Hare Island , Tuticorin. 33.641
S5 Roche Park , Tuticorin. 138.0985

Mean 69.1795

Figure 4.4 : Absorbed Dose Rate against the sampling sites

160
Absorbed Dose Rate
140 (nGy/h)

120 Absorbed Dose Rate (nGy/h)

Dose Rate (nGy/h)

100

80
25% S1
60 40% S2
S3
40 S4
18% S5

20 10% 7%

0 45
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
Sampling Sites
 Figure 13 : Dose Rate range among the sites

4.5.Worldwide Radiological Parameters:

The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
(UNSCEAR) assesses the levels and effects of exposure to ionizing radiation. UNSCEAR's
scientific findings underpin radiation risk evaluation and international protection standards.

Ra (Bqkg-1 ) Hex Hin D (nGy/h )

World Average 89 1 1 60
Acceptable Public 370 6 6 1500
Safety limit

Table 8 : The world average and maximum acceptable safety health limit of radiological
parameters (UNSCEAR, 2016)

CONCLUSION

Radioactivity levels of 238

U, 232
Th and 40K have been measured in the soil samples
collected from sea shore samples of Tuticorin district. The activity concentration of 238
U,
232
Th and 40K in the soils were found to be in the range of (0.16356 – 5.048) BqKg -1, (24.391
– 221.378) BqKg-1 and (80.9278 – 828.685) BqKg-1 respectively. The mean activity of 238
U,
232
Th and K in the soil samples were found to be 2.99577 Bqkg -1, 91.5524 Bqkg-1 and
40

299.708 Bqkg-1 respectively. The concentrations of Th is higher in Sample S5 and S2. The
232

concentration of 40K was found to be high compared to the World average in sampling site
S2. The average radium equivalent activity (Raeq) in the study area is 156.993 Bqkg-1. This is
less than the recommended safe value of 370 Bqkg-1 so the radiation hazards associated with
the radionuclides present in the soil are within the limits. The hazard indices values are less
than the world average value of unity so there is no radiation harm in the study area. The

46
average Absorbed dose rate in the study area is 69.1795 nGyh -1 .This is slightly higher than
the world average value of 60 nGyh-1. The absorbed dose rate is high in the sampling site S5.
The presence of 232
Th is more in sampling site S5. The sampling site S3 (Pearl City Beach)
has least amount of hazard index (0.148) hence it has absolute no harm in radioactivity. This
place is under safe consideration. The dose absorption rate is high in site S5 (Roche Park)
and the soil observed to be black in colour. Hence the levels of radionuclides 238
U , 232Th and
40
K are analysed and using the activity concentration of the radionuclides the Radium
equivalent activity was found. Further the internal and external Hazard indices are calculated
which is used to measure the radioactivity hazard of the study area. Then the Absorbed dose
rate for the study area is calculated by the activity of each sampling sites. From the results it
is observed that the Study area possesses no radiation harm in both air and soil.

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