MODERN PHYSICS

EXPERIMENT
REPORT

TITLE :
RADIOACTIVITY

Experiment Date : SUNDAY, 28 NOVEMBER 2021

Assistant : NURHAIDA SAIYE
Class : ICP OF PHYSICS EDUCATION
Group/Session : 2/2
Name : NISMAYANTI
Student ID : 1912442009
Group Members : HUSNUL KHATIMAH
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A. Background
In 1896, the year that marks the birth of nuclear physics, the French physicist
Henri Becquerel (1852–1908) discovered radioactivity in uranium compounds.
Following his discovery, scientists did a great deal of research in attempts to
understand the nature of the radiation emitted by radioactive nuclei. Pioneering
work by Ernest Rutherford showed that the emitted radiation was of three types,
which he called alpha, beta, and gamma rays. Rutherford classified the rays
according to the nature of the electric charges they possessed and their abilities to
penetrate matter and ionize air. Later experiments showed that alpha rays are
helium nuclei, beta rays are electrons, and gamma rays are high-energy photons.
Radioactivity (radioactive decay) is the ability of an atom to spontaneously
transmute from a nucleus with certain Z and N values into another nucleus. This
property is possessed by an unstable nucleus and is called a radioactive nucleus.
There are three types of radiation that may be emitted in a decay event, namely
alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. The decay of radioactive materials has a
peculiar characteristic. Apart from that this event cannot be detected by the
senses, this decay process also occurs randomly, although it is still predictable. To
detect the presence of this decay radiation, a detector is used, namely the Geiger-
Muller detector (G-M tube).
Radiation from each particle has a different penetrating power, there are
small, sedan and large. The decay of radioactive material also has strange
characteristics and this event cannot be detected by the senses (eyes) the process
occurs randomly although it can still be predicted. Therefore, in order to detect the
presence of decay radiation, a Geiger Muller detector is used. We can detect the
radiation activity of radioactive materials by using a Geiger-Muller counter. A G-
M tube detector can work optimally if given the appropriate voltage. hen a thin
sheet of paper is inserted between the source and the Geiger-Muller tube, the
numeric reading on the calculator is reduced compared to before. This fact
indicates that some of the radiation has been absorbed by the paper. The radiation
absorbed by thin paper is α-ray radiation. Additional radiation absorbed by the
aluminum sheet is β radiation. The radiation absorbed by a sheet of lead is γ-ray
radiation.
In order to understand further the concept of matter from radioactivity, an
experiment entitled Radioactivity was conducted which aims, among other things,
to investigate the radiation properties of several radioactive substances,
investigate and compare the penetrating power of beta (β) rays. and gamma rays
(γ), investigate the ability of various materials (materials) to absorb radiation, and
investigate the relationship between the distance of a radioactive source and the
activity of the source.
B. Problem Statements
1. how the radiation characteristics of some radioactive substances?
2. How the comparison of the penetrating power of beta and gamma rays?
3. How is the ability of various materials (materials) to absorb radiation?
4. How is the relationship between the distance of the radioactive source and the
activity of the source?
C. Objectives Experiment
In this experiment you will perform three types of activities with the
following objectives.
1. Investigate the radiation characteristics of some radioactive substances
2. Investigate and compare the penetrating power of beta and gamma rays
3. Investigate the ability of various materials (materials) to absorb radiation
4. Investigate the relationship between the distance of the radioactive source and
the activity of the source.
D. Benefits Experiment
1. Theoretical Benefits
a. Students can know the radiation characteristics of some radioactive
substances, can identify and compare the penetrating power of beta and
gamma rays, can determine the ability of various materials (materials) to
absorb radiation, and can find out the relationship between the distance of the
radioactive source and the activity of the source.
2. Practical Benefits
With the knowledge of these radioactive substances, many of their uses have
also been found in various fields such as the medical field, the isotope Na-24
in Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is used to examine blood circulation in the human
body. One of the benefits of radioactivity in the health sector is for the
treatment of cancer and tumors. For example Co-60 as a gamma emitter for
tumor/cancer therapy. Actually, both normal cells and cancer cells can be
damaged by radiation but cancer cells or tumors are more sensitive (more
easily damaged). Therefore, cancer cells or tumors can be killed by directing
radiation precisely at the cancer cells. Radioactivity has a variety of uses,
including nuclear power, in medicine, and in the dating of organic and
geological samples.
 CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW

In 1896 Henri Becquerel (1852–1908, French physicist) accidentally

discovered that crystals of uranyl potassium sulfate emit invisible radiation that
can darkens the photographic plate when the plate is closed to exclude light. After
a series of experiments, he concluded that the radiation emitted by the crystal is a
new type, which requires no external stimulation and is so penetrating that it can
darken the protected photographic plate and ionize the gas. This The process of
spontaneous emission of radiation by uranium was soon called radioactivity. The
energy released during radioactive decay arises from individual nuclei without
external excitation, unlike atomic radiation. It was only when Einstein proposed
the equivalence of mass and energy that the puzzle could be understood. When a
nucleus undergoes alpha and beta decay, the atomic number Z changes and
becomes a different element. So the elements are not fixed, even though the
mechanism of transformation is unknown to alchemists (Serway, 2005 : 479).
Many important discoveries in physics were made by accident. One of them is
the radioactivity event by Antoine Henri Becquerel. Although the phenomenon of
radioactivity was discovered by Becquerel, the name radioactivity was given by
Marie Curie, the discoverer of other radioactive elements besides uranium,
namely polonium and radium. Radioactivity is the ability of an unstable atomic
nucleus to emit radiation and turn into a stable nucleus. This process of change is
called decay, and unstable atomic nuclei are called radionuclides. Radioactivity is
the ability of an atom to transmute spontaneously from one nucleus with certain Z
and N values into another nucleus. These properties are possessed by an unstable
nucleus and are called radioactive nuclei (Beiser, 2003 : 441).
In radioactivity, radioactive activity (A) is the decay (disintegration) carried
out by a number of radioactive substances per unit time. The activity also shows
the decay rate of radioactive material for low activity levels, namely Becquerel
(Bq), while for very high activity radioactive substances the unit is Curie (Ci).
Radioactive activity only shows the number of radioactive nuclei that decay, but
does not indicate the amount of radiation emitted because each time it decays,
radioactive substances can emit more than one kind of wave radiation. The greater
the activity, the more nuclei decay per unit time (Safitrianaz, 2019: 182).
All uranium isotopes are radioactive. The decay process will continue until it
reaches stability, that is, until non-radioactive decay products are formed. In the
phosphate fertilizer industry, both mining and processing are known to contain
uranium and its derivatives, which can have a radiological impact on workers and
the environment. During mining and processing activities of phosphate rock, a
number of natural radionuclides are released into the environment, especially
uranium and thorium and their missing children which have a potential internal
and external radiation hazard to workers and local residents of phosphate rock
mining and processing facilities (Setiani, 2006 : 64).
Radioactive rays are known for their high penetrating power, alpha rays can
penetrate thin metal, but cannot penetrate thick paper. Beta rays have a stronger
penetrating power than alpha particles. Beta particles can penetrate a layer of
aluminum 1 mm thick, while gamma rays have a very strong penetrating power.
This beam can penetrate 30 cm of steel and it can penetrate lead. The power of
radioactive rays is inversely proportional to their penetrating power, this is
because given that particles use their energy for ionization, the more inonization
used for ionization the shorter the range (Surya, 2009 : 105).
Three types of radiation can be emitted by a radioactive substance: alpha, in which
the emitted particles are 4He nuclei; beta, in which the emitted particles are either
electrons or positrons; and gamma, inm which the emitted “rays” are high-energy
photons. A positron is a particle like the electron in all respects except that the positron
has a charge of e

Figure 2.1 The Radiation from a radioactive

(Source : Serway, 2005 : 481).
The three types of radiation have quite different penetrating powers. Alpha
particles barely penetrate a sheet of paper, beta particles can penetrate a few
millimeters of aluminum, and gamma rays can penetrate several centimeters of
lead. Alpha particles are deflected to the left, hence they are positively charged;
beta particles are deflected to the right, hence they are negatively charged; and
gamma rays are not affected, hence they are unchanged (Serway, 2005 : 480-481).
Following alpha or beta decay, the final nucleus may be in a state of ecstasy.
Like atoms, the final nucleus will reach the ground state after emitting one or
more photons, known as nuclear gamma rays. The energy of each photon is the
energy difference between the initial and final states of the nucleus, minus a small
correction for the nuclear bounce energy. These energies are typically objects in
the 100 keV to MeV range. The nucleus can also be excited from the ground state
to an excited state by absorbing photons of the right energy, in a process similar to
resonance absorption by atomic states (Krane 366-376 : 2014).
The gas-filled detector works on the principle of utilizing the ionization of the
gas-filled gas in the active medium in the detector due to the interaction with
radiation particles, an ion-electron pair will arise. As is the potential difference
between the anode and cathode will create an electric field, so that the ion-
electron pair will inseparable. Ions will move towards the cathode and electrons
will move to the anode

Figure 2.2 Geiger Muller detector schematic

(Source : Hilyana, 2017 : 394).
The count formed depends on the amount of voltage applied to the detector. When
the voltage which continues to be increased there is no longer any proportionality
and the pulse height does not depend on the amount of radiation energy that is
applied detected, this area is called the Geiger Muller area. Geiger Muller area
(figure 2.2) which is considered a curve plateau is the voltage range in the gas
chopper tube (Hilyana, 2017: 393-394).
The shape and way of the Geiger-Muller detector is similar to that of a
proportional detector with a very large gas folding factor M so that it reaches a
saturation state. Because the total ionization count is very large and the movement
of positive ions is very slow compared to the movement of electrons. The positive
ions eventually act as shields and prevent further ionization from occurring. But
when they get near the cathode, the positive ions will attract the cathode electrons.
At that time the electric field inside the detector recovered. There are two ways to
stop the ionization and unwanted folding, namely with an electronic circuit that
will lower the operating voltage of the detector when positive ions reach the
cathode (Kusminarto, 2011 : 210-211).

In the I (Recommendation) region, when the applied voltage is still low, electrons and
positive ions are formed will soon recombine. If the voltage continues to be increased,
then the possibility of the recombination of electrons and positive ions can be neglected.
The ions that reach the electrode will produce a pulse signal. This region is called the
ionization region (II). Due to the increase in voltage, in region III (region Proportional)
the liberated electrons will have a sufficiently large energy of motion to cause secondary
ionization, ionizing other gas atoms due to collision. This increases the amount of charge
that collected at the electrodes and increases the height of the resulting pulse. In region
IV, the constant voltage is increased then there is no longer a proportionality and the
pulse height no longer depends on the amount of radiation energy that is applie detected.
This area is called the Geiger Muller area. Above the Geiger Muller region, if the stress
continues is increased, there will be a continuous electric discharge in the gas cylinder
and as a result the detector becomes broken

Figure 2.2 Geiger Muller detector schematic

(Source : Hilyana, 2017 : 394).
The Geiger Muller region has two important characteristics, namely: the number
of electrons produced is not affected by the applied voltage, and the number of
electrons produced is not affected by the number of electrons produced by the
initial radiation. Voltage is applied between the anode and cathode which is
regulated according to the type of gas and the activity of the element being
measured. This voltage must be higher than the threshold value, which is based on
gas and tube geometry (Hilyana, 2017: 394).
One of the most general laws of physics is the inverse square law. One
scientist states that the law of inverse squares is a characteristic of anything that
originates from a point source and moves in a straight line continuously. This law
states that the magnitude of a physical quantity or force is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance from the emitting source. Light and sound behave
according to the inverse square law when they leave a point source. The intensity
of light and sound becomes four times less when they travel 2 times from the
source. This is why this relation is known as the law of inverse squares. The
inverse square law generally applies that a force, energy, or other conserved
quantity is radiated radially from the source (Penuntun, 2021: 4-5).
 CHAPTER III
EXPERIMENT METHOD

A. Day/Time
Day/Date : Sunday/ 28 November 2021
Time : 14.00 - finished
B. Tools and Materials
1. Sample Stand (10 positions) 1 piece
2. Cable for G.M tube (BNC/BNC Connectors) 1 piece
3. Geiger Muller Tube 1 piece
4. Barrier Set (Aluminum & Lead) 8 pieces
5. ST360 Ratemeter 1 piece
6. Gamma & Beta Radioactive Sources 2 pieces
7. Micrometer Screw 1 piece
8. PC with ST360 application 1 piece
9. Sample Holder 1 piece
10. Ruler 1 piece
C. Identification Variable
Activity 1. Recognizing Radioactive Subtance
a. Control variable : radiation source distance
b. Manipulation variable : radiation source
c. Response variable : CPS amount
Activity 2. Measuring the Translucency of Beta and Gamma Rays
a. Control variable : barrier type, radiation source
b. Manipulation variable : barrier thickness
c. Response variable : CPS amount
Activity 3. Inverse Square Law
a. Control variable : radiation source
b. Manipulation variable : radiation source distance
c. Response variable : CPS amount
D. Variable Operational Definition
1. Radiation source, the radiation used in this experiment are beta and
gamma radiation sources.
 2. Radiation source distance (D), is the distance on each shelf on the sample
holder, measured using a ruler with units of cm
3. Barrier thickness (mm), is the thickness of the barrier (Al and Pb) used in
the second activity, measured using a screw micrometer with units of mm
4. Barrier type, there are two barrier used in activity 2, namely Al and Pb
5. CPS amount, the number of counts that occur in one second measured
using a ratemeter based on detection from the GM tube and displayed
digitally on the computer monitor screen
E. Work Procedures
1. Tools and materials are prepared
2. ST360 program is opened
3. The voltage is set to 900 volts on the application. In addition, the count
time (1s) and the desired amount of data are set 30 times.
Activity 1: Recognizing Radioactive Substances
1. Make sure the computer with the application is ready to record data.
2. Place one of the radioactive sources (Beta) on the sample rack 2.
3. Data is recorded by clicking the start button (green diamond shaped). The
computer will record data and stop automatically according to the desired
amount of data.
4. Recorded data is stored in a name format that matches the type of
experiment (e.g : keg_1_beta).
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 for gamma radiation sources and for background
radiation. (Note: background radiation is radiation that is read on the G-M
tube detector on an empty sample rack).
Activity 2: Measuring the Translucency of Beta and Gamma Rays
1. Make sure the computer with the application is ready to record data.
2. Place one of the radioactive sources (beta) on the sample rack 2.
3. Selected aluminum barrier material starting from the thinnest and place it
in position 1 on the sample rack. Previously measure the thickness of the
barriers to be used.
4. Data is recorded by clicking the start button (green diamond shaped). The
computer will record data and stop automatically according to the desired
amount of data.
 5. Recorded data is stored in a name format that matches the type of
experiment (e.g : keg_2_beta_Al_M).
6. Repeat steps 3-5 for aluminum with other thicknesses.
7. Repeat steps 3-6 but replace aluminum with lead.
8. Repeat steps 2-7 with a gamma radiation source.

Activity 3: Inverse Squares Law

1. Make sure the computer with the application is ready to record data.
2. Place one of the radioactive sources (beta) on the second shelf of the
sample. Measure the distance of the sample from the end of the GM tube
with a ruler.
3. Data is recorded by clicking the start button (green diamond shaped). The
computer will record data and stop automatically according to the desired
amount of data.
4. Recorded data is stored in a name format that matches the type of
experiment (e.g : keg_3_beta_1).
5. Repeat steps 2-4, change the position of the radiation source on sample
racks 4, 6 and 8 and measure the sample distance from the GM tip with a
ruler.
6. Repeat steps 2-5 for gamma radiation sources (note: use the same position
used for beta radiation sources).
F. Work Principal
The working principle of the radioactive substance activity experiment
uses the working principle of the emitted radiation detector, namely the Geiger
Muller detector. The G-M tube detector can work optimally when given the
appropriate voltage. The detector will start working when given a certain voltage.
This voltage is called the initial voltage (starting potential). When the radiation
source emits radiation substances in the form of particles which will then be
absorbed by the detector tube. These particles will pass through a thin window at
one end of the detector and will enter the tube. After the particles enter, the
particles will interact with the gas atoms contained in the tube, which then the gas
atoms will ionize the radiation which will produce positive and negative ions.
Where the negative ions will be attracted by the tube wall that will stick to the
diode while the positive ions will be attracted by the wire that will stick to the
cathode, the ions are pulled by the wire which will form chunks. These ions will
be read on the ratemeter and in applications used in computers as the number of
counts or the number of detected particles.
 CHAPTER IV
EXPERIMENT RESULTS

A. Observation Result
Activity 1. Recognizing Radioactive Subtances
Beta radiation source : Stronsium-90 (Sr-90)
gamma radiation source : Kobart (Co-60)
Tabel 4.1.1. Relationship of radiation source with average CPS
Sumber Radiasi Beta Sumber Radiasi Gamma Radiasi Latar Belakang
(cps) (cps) (cps)
135 123 115 11 14 16 0 1 2
126 125 138 23 15 14 2 0 2
132 114 111 14 13 15 2 2 0
138 154 149 11 15 17 0 0 2
141 126 111 11 19 10 1 1 0
137 113 117 11 15 10 2 1 2
120 136 116 10 13 19 1 2 1
126 152 129 13 13 13 0 1 0
131 116 125 15 12 12 2 1 2
140 139 122 17 9 11 3 1 1
CPS CPS CPS
154 23 3
Maksimum Maksimum Maksimum
CPS Rata-Rata 128.566 CPS Rata-Rata 13.7 CPS Rata-Rata 1.1666
Standar Deviasi 12.133 Standar Deviasi 3.142 Standar Deviasi 0.874281

Activity 2. Measuring the Transluency of beta and gamma rays

a. Radiasi Beta
Beta radiation source : Stronsium-90 (Sr-90)
Part time : 28,8 tahun
Initial activity : 0,1 µ Ci
Unobstructed Activity : 128.5667
Tabel 2.a(1). Transluency β rays to aluminium (Al)
Barrier type : Aluminium (Al)
 Al G Al I Al N Al P
|0,515 ± 0,005| |1,560 ± 0,005| |2,270 ± 0,005| |3,125 ± 0,005|
mm mm mm mm
71 77 70 19 19 19 9 5 6 4 0 4
77 89 75 16 27 25 4 5 7 1 0 1
67 81 74 20 20 15 5 4 9 1 4 1
79 74 90 23 27 22 2 9 7 1 1 1
75 69 69 19 24 13 7 6 7 2 2 2
82 79 72 17 12 24 7 6 5 0 2 2
67 74 70 23 12 19 6 5 5 0 2 1
66 73 99 25 21 20 7 2 6 2 1 1
66 61 76 23 19 21 4 6 5 1 0 1
75 73 69 26 21 15 5 7 2 1 1 2
CPS CPS CPS CPS
Rata-Rata 74,6333 Rata-Rata 20,2 Rata-Rata 5,66667 Rata-Rata 1,4
Standar Standar Standar Standar
Deviasi 7,86712 Deviasi 4,18041 Deviasi 1,84453 Deviasi 1,10172

Table 2.a(2). Translurncyβ rays to lead (Pb)

Barrier type : Timbal (Pb)
Pb R
Pb Q |2,210 ± 0,005| Pb S Pb T
|1,395 ± 0,005| mmmm |3,355 ± 0,005| mm |7,590 ± 0,005| mm
1 0 0 3 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 2
0 1 1 0 3 1 0 0 2 0 0 0
2 1 0 3 0 1 1 1 4 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 2 0 2 2 0 0 0
0 2 1 1 0 0 0 1 3 0 4 2
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 2 1 3 1 0
2 0 2 1 1 1 2 1 0 0 2 0
1 3 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 3 2 0 2 1 0 1 1 3 0
CPS
CPS Rata- Rata- CPS CPS
Rata 0,9 Rata 1,06667 Rata-Rata 1,03333 Rata-Rata 0,7
Standar Standar Standar Standar
Deviasi 0,88474 Deviasi 1,01483 Deviasi 1,0662 Deviasi 1,1188
a. Gamma Radiation
Gamma radiation source : Kobart-60 (Co-60)
Part time : 10,5 tahun
Initial activity : 1 µ Ci
Unobstructed activity : 13,7

Table 2.b(1). Transluency γ rays to aluminium(Al)

Barrier type : Aluminium (Al)
Al P
Al G Al I Al N |3,125 ± 0,005|
|0,515 ± 0,005| mm |1,560 ± 0,005| mm ||2,270 ± 0,005| mm mm
7 11 11 1 7 13 3 4 4 8 9 8
7 11 7 6 10 4 2 9 8 7 9 5
8 9 8 6 8 10 8 4 5 5 7 7
11 14 8 3 7 7 4 6 7 5 11 3
1 13 8 7 7 7 4 9 9 5 5 4
3 6 8 9 5 8 4 10 4 5 9 7
7 5 11 10 2 6 6 3 6 7 6 5
5 10 14 5 7 2 4 8 4 4 4 7
8 11 3 4 6 8 7 4 3 5 7 5
10 8 6 9 11 7 7 6 5 10 4 7
CPS CPS CPS CPS
Rata- Rata- Rata- Rata-
Rata 8,3 Rata 6,73333 Rata 5,66667 Rata 6,3333
Standar Standar Standar Standar
Deviasi 3,14204 Deviasi 2,75347 Deviasi 2,17641 Deviasi 1,98847

Table 2.b(2). Trasluency γ rays to lead (Pb)

Barrier type : Timbal (Pb)
Pb R
Pb Q |2,210 ± 0,005| Pb S Pb T
|1,395 ± 0,005| mm mm |3,355 ± 0,005| mm |7,590 ± 0,005| mm
2 10 4 1 8 7 0 1 1 1 1 2
2 5 3 1 3 4 0 2 6 0 2 2
2 7 11 6 1 4 2 0 0 1 2 1
7 7 0 2 2 3 2 3 4 4 0 3
3 1 6 2 5 6 1 1 3 0 4 1
6 8 4 3 4 6 0 3 0 2 1 0
6 5 3 2 5 3 0 2 2 1 0 0
7 2 1 6 3 7 3 0 2 1 3 1
5 4 1 2 3 4 1 3 2 1 0 0
6 4 5 3 6 3 2 2 1 1 0 1
CPS
CPS Rata- Rata- CPS CPS
Rata 4,5667 Rata 3,83333 Rata-Rata 1,63333 Rata-Rata 1,2
Standar Standar Standar Standar
Deviasi 2,68692 Deviasi 1,94906 Deviasi 1,42595 Deviasi 1,15669

Activity 3. Inverse Squares Law

Table 3.a. The Relationship between 𝛽 radiation source distance and average
radiation activity
Rak 2 Rak 4 Rak 6 Rak 8
|2,20 ± 0,05|cm |4,20 ± 0,05| cm |6,20 ± 0,05|cm |8,20 ± 0,05|cm
114 125 131 57 67 55 28 33 16 14 20 21
119 126 111 67 48 60 24 28 30 19 20 24
130 134 125 51 46 63 30 34 30 20 24 25
124 129 112 55 52 57 41 27 36 15 20 21
132 112 124 57 53 51 32 29 40 14 16 16
143 113 120 58 48 47 26 34 28 16 23 18
123 123 130 75 55 43 29 32 23 24 22 19
138 131 120 56 60 56 39 34 29 15 20 19
132 124 131 64 54 50 35 25 35 22 19 13
132 114 114 65 50 63 33 28 32 22 29 22
CPS CPS
CPS Rata- CPS Rata-
Rata- Rata-
Rata Rata
124,533 Rata 56.1 Rata 30,6667 19,7333
Standar Standar Standar Standar
Deviasi 8,36138 Deviasi 7,23187 Deviasi 5,261 Deviasi 3,74104

Tabel 3.b. The Relationship between 𝛾 radiation source distance and average
radiation activity
Rak 2 Rak 4 Rak 6 Rak 8
|2,20 ± 0,05|cm |4,20 ± 0,05| cm |6,20 ± 0,05|cm |8,20 ± 0,05|cm
11 16 9 4 8 3 7 5 5 3 2 4
19 15 9 9 8 8 1 3 4 7 6 1
11 17 10 0 6 6 5 6 6 1 2 5
16 14 7 8 5 7 2 3 6 3 2 4
16 10 14 8 6 7 2 3 5 2 2 1
14 14 13 8 8 8 5 4 3 3 7 2
15 9 17 3 6 10 3 6 3 6 2 7
21 11 11 6 5 4 4 3 4 0 1 2
9 13 14 6 9 5 6 5 5 2 2 5
18 17 13 4 5 6 4 3 1 2 2 7
CPS CPS CPS
CPS
Rata- Rata- Rata-
Rata-Rata
Rata 13,4333 6,2 Rata 4,06667 Rata 3,16667
Standar Standar Standar Standar
Deviasi 3,43093 Deviasi 2,17192 Deviasi 1.55216 Deviasi 2,10227
B. Data Analysis
Activity 1. Recognizing Radioactive Substances
Histogram Graph
For beta radiation source
1. Range (R)
R = CPS max − CPS min
R = 154-111
R =43
2. Total class (BK)
BK = 1 + 3.3 log 𝑛
BK = 1 + 3.3 log 30
BK = 5,874 ≈ 6
3. Class interval (P)
R
P=
BK
43
P=
6
P = 7,16 ≈7
4. Distribution Table
Table 4.1.1 Distribution of the frequency of activity of radioactive Beta

CPS range Frequency

111 – 117 8

118 – 124 3

125 – 133 8

134 – 140 7

141 – 147 1

148 – 154 3

Number 30

b. Histogram Graph
 9
8
7
6
Frequency 5
4
3
2
1
0
111-117 118-124 125-133 134-140 141-147 148-154
CPS Range

Graph 4.1.1 Histogram of Radioactive Substances for Beta

Radiation Sources (β)
Based on the histogram obtained above on Beta radioactive sources, in
general it can be seen that the activity of the substance is very high,
namely for the smallest data 111, and the largest data being 154. There
were 6 classes with a class length of 7. With the highest frequency in
the range 111-117 and 125-133 whose frequency is 8 and the lowest
frequency is in the range of 141-147, which is only 1 data. So it can be
said that the frequency in each class is not evenly distributed because
there is a class that has a very small frequency, namely in the fifth
class.
For Gamma radiation source
1. Range (R)
R = CPS max − CPS min
R = 23 − 9
R = 14
2. Total class (BK)
BK = 1 + 3.3 log 𝑛
BK = 1 + 3.3 log 30
BK = 5,874 ≈ 5
3. Class interval (P)
R
P=
BK
14
P=
5
 P = 2,8 ≈ 3
4. Distribution Table
Table 4.1.2 Distribution of the frequency of activity of radioactive Gamma

CPS range Frequency

9 – 11 9
12 – 14 10
15 – 17 8
18 – 20 2
21 – 23 1

Number 30

5. Histogram graph
12

10

8
Frequency

0
9 -- 11 12 -- 14 15--17 18 -- 20 21 -- 23
CPS Range

Graph 4.1.2 Histogram of Radioactive Substances for Gamma

Radiation Sources (γ)
In gamma radioactive sources, in general it can be seen that the activity
of the substance is lower than the activity of beta substances. This
gamma radioactive source is in the 9-23 range. The highest frequency is
in the 12-14 range with 10 frequencies and the lowest frequency is in
the 21-23 range, which is only 1 data. So it can be said that the gamma
radiation source based on the graph above, the frequency in each class
is not evenly distributed because there is a class that has a very small
frequency, namely in the fifth class but is still in the normal level.
 Untuk radiasi latar belakang
1. Range (R)
R = CPS max − CPS min
R=3−0
R=3
2. Total class (BK)
BK = 1 + 3.3 log 𝑛
BK = 1 + 3.3 log 30
BK = 5,874 ≈ 5
3. Class interval (P)
3
P=
BK
4
P=
5
P = 0,6 ≈ 1
4. Distribution Table
Table 4.1.3 Distribution of the frequency of activity of radioactive Beta

CPS range Frequency

0 8

1 10

2 11

3 1

Number 30

5. Histogram Graph

12

10

8
Frequency

0
0 1 2 3
CPS range

Graph 4.1.3 Histogram of Radioactive Substances for Background

Radiation Sources
 From the histogram graph of the background with the largest data 3
and the smallest data 0 with the number of data 30. It can be seen in
the graph above that the distribution of radiation on the background
occurs as it should or it can be said that the distribution of radiation on
the background occurs normally. This is due to the decrease that
occurs constantly for each data obtained.
a. Maximum activity and average activity of each source
Table 4.1.4 Maximum activity and average activity of each source

Radiation Standard
CPS Mak CPS Average
Source Deviation

Beta 154 128.5667 12.13341

Gamma 23 13.7 3.14204

Latar Belakang 3 1.16667 0.874281

Based on the results of the analysis based on the average number of

cps generated for the three radiation sources, it is found that beta
radiation sources have a higher radioactive activity than gamma and
background radiation sources. With the order of the activity of
radioactive substances from the largest to the smallest, namely, beta
radiation sources, gamma radiation sources, and background radiation
sources.
Activity 2. Measuring the Transluency of Beta and Gamma rays
a. The graph of the relationship between the thickness of the barrier and the
logarithm of the comparison
Table 4.2.1 Beta radiation penetrating power with aluminum and lead
barrier
𝑰
Thickness 𝐥𝐧 𝟎⁄𝑰
Barrier Type I0 It 𝒕
(mm)
0.515 128.5667 74.6333 0.5433861
1.56 128.5667 20.2 1.850765
Aluminum
2.27 128.5667 5.66667 3.121846
4.519976
3.125 128.5667 1.4
 4.961808
1.395 128.5667 1.395
4.791906
2.21 128.5667 2.21
Timbal
4.823661
3.355 128.5667 3.355
5.213123
7.59 128.5667 7.59
Table 4.2.2 Gamma radiation penetrating power with aluminum and lead
barrier
𝑰
Thickness 𝐥𝐧 𝟎⁄𝑰
Barrier Type I0 It 𝒕
(mm)
0.50114
0.515 13.7 8.3
0.71033
1.56 13.7 6.7333
Aluminum
0.900599
2.27 13.7 5.56667
0.77157
3.125 13.7 6.33333
1.098612
1.395 13.7 4.56667
1.273662
2.21 13.7 3.83333
Timbal
2.126775
3.355 13.7 1.63333
2.435074
7.59 13.7 1.2

5
4.5
y = 1.3838x
4
3.5
3
ln Io/It

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Thickness (mm)
Graph 4.2.1 The relationship between the thickness of the aluminum (Al)
barrier and the logarithm of the ratio at the Beta radiation source

7 y = 0.9679x

5
Ln Io/It

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Thickness (mm)

Graph 4.2.2 The relationship between the thickness of the lead (Pb)
barrier and the logarithm of the ratio at the Beta radiation source

1.2

y = 0.3305x
1

0.8
Ln Io/It

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Thickness (mm)

Graph 4.2.3 The relationship between the thickness of the aluminum (Al)
barrier and the logarithm of the ratio at the Gamma radiation
source
 5
4.5
y = 0.3959x
4
3.5
3
Ln Io/It

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Thickness (mm)

Grafik 4.2.4 The relationship between the thickness of the lead (Pb) barrier
and the logarithm of the ratio at the Gamma radiation source
b. Based on the graph and the average cps obtained, it can be said that the
type of radiation that has the greatest penetrating power is gamma rays
with an aluminum barrier. Because the source of gamma radiation has the
highest cps value and is almost constant. In accordance with the nature of
gamma rays, where we know that gamma rays are rays that have a high
penetrating power so that they can penetrate aluminum and lead materials.
In contrast to beta rays which have a small penetrating power with
maximum radiation occurring in aluminum. While the beta radiation
source is the radiation source that has the smallest penetrating power.
c. Based on the results of the graph plot obtained, it can be seen that the
effect of the thickness of the barrier on the penetrating power of radiation
is inversely proportional. Where the greater the thickness of the barrier,
the radiation produced will be smaller. Vice versa, the smaller the
thickness of the barrier, the greater the radiation produced. The penetrating
power of radiation is also influenced by the type of light used. Because for
each beam also has the characteristics of the radiation emitted.
d. The coefficient of penetrating power (μ) of the radiation barrier material
It = I0 𝑒 −𝜇𝑡
It
= e−μt
I0
 It
ln = −μt
I0
I0
ln = μt
I𝑡
𝑦 = μt
1. Beta radiation source
 Aluminium (Al)
y = 1.3838x
𝑦 = μt
μ = 1.3838
 Timbal (Tb)
y = 0.9679x
𝑦 = μt
μ = 0.9679
2. Gamma radiation source
 Aluminium (Al)
y = 0.3305x
𝑦 = μt
μ = 0.3305
 Timbal (Tb)
y = 0.3959x
𝑦 = μt
μ = 0.3959

Based on the data and graphs obtained, it is known that the coefficient of
penetration of the material in each radiation source is different. For
aluminum material, the coefficient of beta radiation is 1.3838 and the lead-
blocking beta ray is 0.9679. Meanwhile, for gamma radiation sources for
aluminum, the penetrating power coefficient is 0.3305 and for gamma rays
with a lead barrier it is 0.3959.
Activity 3. Invers Squares Law
1. Table 4.3.1 The relationship between the radiation distance and the average
cps for the radioactive beam used

Sumber Radioaktif Jarak (D) (cm) CPS Rata-Rata

2.20 124.533
Beta
4.20 56.1
 6.20 30.6667

8.20 19.7333

2.20 13.4333

4.20 6.2
Gamma
6.20 4.06667

8.20 3.16667

Table 4.3.2 The Relationship Between the Inverse of the Squared

Distance(1/D2) and the Average CPS for the Radioactive Beam Used

Sumber Radioaktif Jarak (1/D2) Cps Rata-Rata

0.206612 128.1

0.056689 53.8
Beta
0.026015 30.9

0.014872 20.5

0.206612 13.5

0.056689 6.63
Gamma
0.026015 4.03

0.014872 2.6

Based on the results of the table above, the product of the average cps and the
squared distance is almost constant. Where the average CPS is directly
proportional to the source distance, as well as the relationship between the
average cps and the Distance (1/D2) which is directly proportional to each
other and both produce a continuous graph. It can be seen in the table of
observations that the ability of radioactive substances to count is getting
smaller.
2. Make a graph of the relationship between the average cps and the source
distance from the G-M tube!
 140

120 y = -16.992x + 146.11

CPS Avarage 100

80

60

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Distance (cm)

Graph 4.3.1 Relationship of Average CPS with Distance from Beta Ray Source
16
14 y = -1.6467x + 15.279

12
CPS Avarage

10
8
6
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Distance (cm)

Graph 4.3.2 Relationship of Average CPS with Source Distance with Gamma
Rays
3. Plot the relationship between the average cps and the reciprocal of distance
squared
140
y = 525.28x + 17.812
120
R² = 0.9833
100
CPS Avarage

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Distance Inverse Squares (1/D2) (cm)

Graph 4.3.3 The Relationship between Average CPS and Inverse of

Squared Distance on Beta Rays

16
y = 52.254x + 2.7429
14
R² = 0.9941
12
CPS Avarage

10

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Distance Inverse Squares (1/D2) (cm)

Graph 4.3.4 Relationship of Average CPS with Inverse of Squared

Distance on Gamma Rays
 4. Using a logarithmic graph, plot the relationship between the average cps
and the G.M tube source distance.
140

120 y = -81.2ln(x) + 182.65

100
CPS Avarage

80

60

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Distance (cm)

Graph 4.4.1 Logarithmic Relationship Between Average CPS and Distance

on Beta Rays to G-M Tubes

16

14 y = -7.949ln(x) + 18.942

12
CPS Avarage

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance (cm)

Graph 4.4.2 Relationship Between Average CPS and Distance on Gamma

Rays
5. Based on the graph of the relationship between the average cps and the
distance that has been made, it can be concluded that radiation behavior is
subject to the law of inverse squares, where according to the law of inverse
squares states that the farther the radiation source is from the tip of the GM
tube, the radiation activity will be smaller while the shorter the distance
from the radioactive source, the greater the activity.
C. Discussion
Radioactivity (radioactive decay) is the ability of an unstable atom to emit
radiation and transform into a stable nucleus spontaneously from one nucleus
with certain Z and N values into another nucleus. This property is possessed
by an unstable nucleus and is called a radioactive nucleus. There are three
types of radiation that can be emitted in a decay event, namely alpha, beta,
and gamma radiation. The decay of radioactive materials has unique
characteristics. In addition to this event cannot be detected by the senses, this
decay process also occurs randomly, although it is still predictable.
The working principle of the experiment on the activity of radioactive
substances uses the working principle of the emitted radiation detector,
namely the Geiger Muller detector. The G-M tube detector can work
optimally when given the appropriate voltage. The detector will start working
when given a certain voltage. This voltage is called the initial voltage
(starting potential). When the radiation source emits radiation substances in
the form of particles which will then be absorbed by the detector tube. These
particles will pass through a thin window at one end of the detector and will
enter the tube. After the particles enter, the particles will interact with the gas
atoms contained in the tube, which then the gas atoms will ionize radiation
which will produce positive ions and negative ions. Where the negative ions
will be attracted by the tube wall while the positive ions will be attracted by
the wire, the ions are attracted by the wire which will form chunks. These
ions will be read on speed meters and in computer applications as a count or
number of detected particles.
In the practical activity of radioactive substances to detect the presence of
decay radiation, a detector is used, namely the Geiger-Muller detector (G-M
tube). There are three activities in the Radioactive Substance Activity
experiment. The first activity was carried out to identify the activity of
radioactive substances in this case using background radiation (without a
radiation source), beta rays (Strontium-90/Sr-90) and gamma rays (Barium-
133. The highest is the beta radiation source, then the gamma radiation
source, and the lowest is the background radiation.This can be seen from the
maximum cps obtained for the beta, gamma, and background radiation
sources which are 154.23 and 3. The results are in accordance with the theory
which states that beta radiation sources have the highest activity compared to
gamma and background radiation.
In the second activity, measuring the penetrating power of and rays. Data
retrieval is done by providing a barrier of Aluminum (Al) and Lead (Pb) with
different thicknesses which is placed between the GM tube and the radiation
source. The penetrating power of beta radiation sources is strongly influenced
by the thickness and material of the barrier. Where in the aluminum barrier,
the thicker the barrier material used, the smaller the count obtained, while the
lead barrier material cannot penetrate the barrier at all, this is evidenced in the
results of the count that was detected the same as the background count.
Meanwhile, the penetrating power of gamma radiation sources is not affected
by the thickness and barrier material. Where the aluminum and lead barriers
are of different thicknesses, the radiation count results obtained are almost the
same as for unobstructed gamma radiation. Based on the results of
observations made, it can be seen that the activity of radioactive substances
for beta radiation sources without a barrier is greater than the activity of
radioactive substances with barriers, while the activity of gamma radiation
sources without barriers is the same as activity. with a barrier.
Based on the graphic analysis, it can be seen that for beta rays with an
aluminum barrier it is proportional to the logarithm of the ratio, where the
thicker the barrier, the higher the logarithm of the ratio. Meanwhile, for
gamma rays with a lead barrier, it is also proportional to the logarithm of the
ratio, where the thicker the lead used, the logarithm of the ratio also increases.
The radiation penetration coefficient for each barrier is different, where the
coefficient of penetration of beta rays with an aluminum barrier is 1.3838,
beta with a tin barrier is 0.9679, gamma with an aluminum barrier is 0.3305,
and gamma with a tin barrier. 0.3959. There is a difference between the
results obtained with the existing theory where theoretically the greatest
penetrating power is gamma, beta. While the results of graphic analysis
obtained for the type of barrier Pb and Al beta penetrating power is greater
than the gamma penetrating power. This happened probably because at the
time of data collection and data analysis as well as noise from the tools used.
In the third activity, the results of the graphic analysis that have been carried
out, it can be seen that the radiation behavior is subject to the inverse square
law where according to the reciprocal square law, the farther the radioactive
source is from the tip. GM tube, the lower the source activity. This can also
be seen in the results of the graph plot of the relationship between the source
distance and the average CPS, where the greater the source distance, the
average CPS will decrease as the source distance increases.
G-M tube detector can work optimally when given the appropriate voltage.
The detector will start to work when given a certain voltage. This voltage is
called the initial voltage (starting potential). When the voltage is increased,
the detector reaches the plateau area, the resulting count is almost constant. If
the voltage continues to be increased there will be a spike in the count and
this can cause damage to the detector. The area where the count suddenly
spikes sharply is called the discharge area. Giving the right voltage to the G-
M tube detector will produce a constant count as long as it is still in a certain
voltage area (plateau area). When decay occurs, radioactive radiation will be
emitted, namely alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. This radiation has the
ability to penetrate different materials for each type.
 CHAPTER V
CLOSING

A. Conclussion
After we do the experiment and data analysis it can be concluded that :
1. Based on the experiments that have been done, it can be said that radioactive
substances have different characteristics in some radioactive substances. where
the beta ray radioactive substance has a greater activity than the activity of the
gamma ray radioactive substance.
2. Sources that have the highest activity or greater penetrating power are sources
of gamma radiation compared to beta rays because the coefficient of room
penetration is smaller than beta rays, which means that gamma rays have
greater penetrating power. In addition, gamma rays have electromagnetic wave
properties with strong penetrating power compared to beta rays. So the highest
penetrating power is gamma radiation, then beta and background.
3. The absorption of Lead is better than the absorption of Aluminum, it can be
seen from the measurement results, where radioactive substances pass through
the aluminum barrier more easily than lead, and the penetrating power of
radioactive substances is greater when passing through the aluminum barrier
than lead.
4. The distance from the source of radioactive radiation to the source greatly
affects the radioactive activity, it can be said to be inversely proportional. The
farther the distance from the source of radioactive radiation, the less radioactive
activity and vice versa.
B. Suggestion
In the "Radioactive Substance Activity" experiment, students are expected to
be able to apply and develop this radioactive substance experiment as well as
possible, especially in daily life, so that it can be useful for humans and the
environment in the future because in the universe there are several radioactive
substances that have an impact. positive and negative for humans. Therefore, it is
very important to know the positive and negative effects of radioactive
substances because not all radiation is good but some are harmful to the human
body.To Practitioners are expected to understand the unit material to be
experimented with so that it can be easier to answer response tasks and carry out
practicum.
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LITERATURE