PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Quarter 3-Module 1
WEEK 1 – SYNTHESIS OF ELEMENTSSECONDS AFTER THE BIG BANG, IN THE STARSAND
IN THE LABORATORY
What I Need to Know
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you demonstrated
understanding of the formation of the elements during the Big Bang and during stellar evolution. In addition,
you will go into understanding the distribution of the chemical elements and the isotopes in the universe. The
end goal of this module is that you will be able to make a creative representation of the historical development
of the atom or the chemical element in a timeline.
The module is divided into three main lessons, namely:
Lesson 1 – Nuclear Transformation
Lesson 2 – Nucleosynthesis
Lesson 3 – Synthesis of New Elements in the Laboratory

Therefore, it is expected that you can

1. trace the formation of light to heavy elements during the big bang and star formation;
2. give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star formation and
evolution (S11/12PSIIIa-2);
3. write nuclear fusion reactions that take place in stars, which lead to the formation of new elements;
4. explain how the concept of atomic number lead to the synthesis of new elements in the laboratory
(S11/12PSIIIb-11); and
5. Show creativity in making a timeline on the formation of elements.

If you are now ready, you can by taking the pretest in “What I know”. To help you move on in this subject a
periodic table is attached at the end of this module.
LESSON 1: NUCLEAR TRANSFORMATION

In 1896 Henri Becquerel accidentally discovered spontaneous radiation when he placed uranium salts along
with photographic plates in a drawer. His discovery took place after the discovery of X-ray by Wilhelm
Roentgen. But it was Marie Curie who coined the term radioactivity. This would be the focus of this lesson. So,
let us now continue.

What’s In
What makes up matter? All matter is made up of atoms. Though Figure 1 shows that the idea of the atom
seems to be recent, it actually had been thought of and discussed in Ancient Greece. The word atom comes
from the Greek word “atomos” which means indivisible. Democritus and Leucippus paved the way of the idea
of a tiny, indivisible atom.
Figure 1. Timeline on the Development of the Atom. (Graphic by Compound Interest, The History of the Atom- Theories and Models, October 13, 2016,
https://www.compoundchem.com/2016/10/13/atomicmodels/)

With the advancement of technology, the idea of the atom evolved from a tiny
indivisible sphere into a tiny particle that has a dense core called the nucleus where
neutrons and protons are found. Surrounding the nucleus are electrons. These particles
dictate the characteristics of an atom. The characteristics are atomic number and atomic
mass. They are often written along with the symbol of the name of the element called an
isotopic notation. Can you still identify which one is the atomic number and which is the
atomic mass? Try identifying it and writing your answer on a sheet of paper.

Did you get the right answer? The atomic number, subscript A, is equal to the number of protons in an atom
while the atomic mass, superscript Z, is equal to the sum of the number of protons and number of neutrons.
Hence, we can say that the mass of the atom is concentrated at the nucleus. As we move on, we are going to
focus on the nucleus of the atom.

What’s New
Because of the discovery made by Chadwick and Goldstein we now come to learn that inside the nucleus are
protons and neutrons. These particles play an important role in the stability of an atom. With the next activity,
you will be able to identify whether the atom is stable or unstable by just studying the number of particles
present in their nucleus. Excited?
 Stable or Unstable
(Adapted from Physics IV Textbook by the DepED 2009, page 91)

Objective: To determine which nuclides are stable or unstable.

Procedure:
1. Study the information found in the illustration below, showing how the stability of
nuclei is related to the number of protons and neutrons contained in them. Then, answer
what is asked on your answer sheet.

2. Describe the nucleons based on the needed information:

State Number Patterns
a. Stable ____________________
b. Unstable ____________________
c. Very Unstable ____________________

3. Generalization: When can we say that a nuclide is stable or unstable?

__________________________________________________________

Source: Department of Education. 2009. Physics: Science and Technology Textbook for
Fourth Year. Quezon City: Department of Education.

What Is It
Nuclear Transformation
In 1885, Wilhelm Roentgen accidentally discovered X-rays. Because of this, a lot of physicists
became interested in radioactivity that includes Becquerel, the Curies even Rutherford and Chadwick.
Radioactivity is the spontaneous release of energy and particles from the nucleus of an atom.
This would only mean that an atom should undergo nuclear transformation. Nuclear transformation
is a change in the nuclei of an atom through radioactive decay or through the reaction with another
type of nuclei or with a neutron. Not all atoms will undergo nuclear transformation. Unstable atoms
are the ones that undergo nuclear transformation. The atom is considered unstable when its nucleon
has an odd-even pattern or an odd-odd pattern of the number of neutrons and no. of protons.
Nuclear transformation could be nuclear fission, nuclear fusion and radioactive decay.
Nuclear Fission
In nuclear fission, the nucleus of a heavy atom will separate into two or
more light nuclei. Nuclear fission may be induced by bombarding it
with a neutron as shown in figure 2. It can also occur spontaneously.
Nuclear fission is usually used in nuclear reactors of power plants
because it releases high amount of energy.
 Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is a process where two or more nucleus of a light
atom combine to form a heavy nucleus. Synthesis of elements in
the stars is a nuclear fusion process. Let us have the fusion of
hydrogen isotopes to form the helium atom as an example shown
in figure 3.

Radioactive Decay
As the name suggests, radioactive decay is a spontaneous process of nuclear transformation that
accompanies radiation of alpha, beta or gamma. Radiation is a particle or energy that is being
released during a radioactive decay. Below is a table differentiating the three types of radiation.
Table 2 Differences of the Three Radiation Types
Alpha Beta Gamma
Symbol α or 42He β or 0-1e γ or 00γ
Composition 2p & 2 n Electron Electromagnetic wave
Charge 2+ 1-/+ 0
Relative velocity 0.1% of speed of light ~0.9 of the speed of light Equal to the speed of
light
Penetrating ability Very little penetrating Can penetrate paper or Has a great penetrating
power that they can be several millimeters of power that not even a
stopped by paper, skin skin and about 1-m of air thick piece of lead can
and clothing and they can be stopped stop them.
by wood and glass.
Ionizing Power Can ionize a large Less ionizing power than The least ionizing power.
number of atoms within of an alpha particle.
the small area they are
able to penetrate.
Source: Department of Education. 2009. Physics: Science and Technology Textbook for
Fourth Year. Quezon City: Department of Education.

Alpha Decay involves the ejection of two neutrons and two protons. This process stabilizes the atom.
If you are wondering, why helium atom is found in the product side of an alpha decay equation? It is
because an alpha particle is a helium-like particle. Notice also if you add the atomic masses of radon
(Rn) and helium (He) it is equal to the mass of the radium atom. Even in nuclear transformation, the
law of conservation of mass is still followed.

Beta Decay involves the ejection of a high-speed electron or beta particle. The beta particle ejected
might be a negative beta particle or a positive beta particle called positron. The ejection of a
negative beta particle from a neutron produces a proton and a beta particle (electron like particle) the
one shown in example 1. A positron will be ejected if an atom has more neutrons than protons as
shown in example 2. What do you notice with the mass of the new atom after beta decay? What
about its atomic number?

Gamma Decay involves the emission of gamma rays which are high energy and high frequency rays.
Gamma ray is the only radiation type involved in nuclear transformation that is not a particle rather it
is an electromagnetic form of energy. Almost all alpha and beta decay is accompanied by gamma
radiation.
What’s More
Directions: Provide the information needed. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.
A. Stable or Unstable: Identify if each nuclide is stable or unstable.
1. 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟗𝟐𝑼 _____________ 3. 𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟎𝑵 _____________
2. 𝟔𝑶
𝟏𝟐 _____________ 4. 𝟓𝟑𝑰 𝟏𝟐𝟖 _____________
B. Radioactive Decay: Classify each nuclear reaction equation according to the form of radiation
released.
5) 31H → 32He + 0-1β 7) 23491Pa →γ + 23491Pa
6) 23890U→ 23490Th + 42He
C. Writing Nuclear Reactions: Use the periodic table, to supply the missing parent nuclei or daughter
nuclei.

LESSON 2: NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
As soon as the atoms were formed seconds after the big, galaxies and stars starts to form.
Carl Sagan once said that “We are all made of star stuff”. In this lesson, we are to focus on what
elements were synthesized seconds after the big bang and during the evolution of the stars.

What’s In
The Big Bang Theory is the widely accepted theory on the origin of the universe. The Big Bang
theory are supported by Edwin Hubble’s observation that the universe is expanding at a faster rate,
the Red Shift phenomena, and the discovery of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation. Thus,
scientists had traced back the origins of the formation of the atom and elements as far back as
seconds after the big bang as shown in the Figure 4 below.

What’s New
LIFE AND DEATH OF A STAR
A star is any massive celestial body of plasma (mostly Hydrogen and Helium) that produces heat and
light due to nuclear fusion going on in its core. All stars are formed in a nebula which is a cloud of
gas and dust. Its life cycle depends on its size. Figure 5 on the next page, shows the life and death of
the star. Study it carefully because it might help you answer the activity in this section.
 Are you now ready to answer the puzzle that follows? You can now start.

Direction: Give the term that is being described in each item of the crossword puzzle below. Write the
correct answer on your answer sheet.

What Is It
Nucleosynthesis
Nucleosynthesis is a process of creating a new atomic nucleus from pre-existing nucleons. In this
module we are going to study the different means of element synthesis which are Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
and Stellar Nucleosynthesis.
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
The first step of nucleosynthesis is the big bang nucleosynthesis. It took place seconds after the big
bang when the universe had already expanded tremendously that the temperature drops down which allows
the formation of neutrons, electrons, and protons. The first element produced more than 1 second after the big
bang is deuterium an isotope of hydrogen. If you can remember, isotopes are elements having the same
atomic number but of different masses. How did it happen? It is through thermonuclear fusion. This complex
process takes place when some neutrons (n) combine with some protons (p) to produce not only deuterium (d)
but also releases tremendous amount of energy in the form of heat and light. The process is shown below:
n + p → d + γ (gamma radiation)
As more and more isotopes of hydrogen are produced the fusion of light elements such as helium (He)
and small amounts of lithium (Li) and beryllium (Be) took place. This is shown in the following equation:
d + p → He + γ
d+d→T+p
d + d → He + n
T + He → Li + γ
He + He → Be + γ
Big bang nucleosynthesis favors light elements.

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
Due to the nuclear fusion of light elements in the star heavy elements are produced. In other words,
stellar nucleosynthesis is a process by which elements are created within stars by combining together the
protons and neutrons from the nuclei of lighter elements. Stellar nucleosynthesis can be through carbon-
nitrogen-oxygen cycle, proton-proton fusion and triple alpha process. Let us start.
C-N-O Cycle:
This happens in the main sequence stars when hydrogen fuse into helium eventually to carbon.
These are the different nuclear processes
• Carbon-12 combines with a proton (hydrogen-1) to produce nitrogen-13 and emit gamma rays.

Proton-Proton fusion
The stars are very hot that an atom disintegrates into protons, electrons, and neutrons. This process
enables to fuel the sun and continue burning. It undergoes a 4-step process starting from fusion of protons until
helium-4 is produced. This is what happens:
Step 1: two protons fuse to form deuterium (H-2) and neutrino and
positron
Step 2: a proton hits a deuterium atom to produce He-3 and emit a
gamma ray
Step3: two He-3 nuclei collide to produce He-4 and two extra protons.

Triple Alpha Process

It is a fusion of three alpha particles (alpha particles are He-4 nuclei) to produce C-12 nucleus. This process
occurs in the red giant stars having a temperature of 108 K and higher. Once C-12 nucleus is formed it will
continue to form heavier elements: O-16, Ne-20, Mg-24, Si-28, P-31, S-31 and S-32.

Neutron Capture
Before we leave, elements heavier than iron (like cobalt, nickel, copper) needs tremendous amount of energy
before it is formed. Thus, the stars that will undergo supernova are the ones that could possibly produce
elements heavier than iron through neutron capture. In neutron capture an element captures a neutron to
become a more massive isotope of that element. This would make the element unstable that it will decay into a
more stable element that is heavier than iron. For example:
56
Fe + n → 57Fe + γ

What’s More

Direction: Do what is asked of you. Write your answers on your answer sheet.
I I. Pair-Me Up: Formation of Light to Heavy Elements
Column A Column B

_____ 1. 4He + 4He A. 24Mg + γ

_____ 2. 12C + 12C B. 2H + neutrino + positron
_____ 3. 1p + 1p C. 12C + γ
_____ 4. 12C + 4He D. 8Be
_____ 5. 4He + 4He + 4He E. 16O + γ

II. I Know How to Write It: Formation of Light to Heavy Elements

Write the balanced nuclear fusion reaction.
1. two deuterium isotopes form helium-3 _______________
2. deuterium combined with a neutron form tritium _______________
3. an oxygen-16 atom fused with a helium-4 atom become a neon
atom and emits gamma ray _______________

LESSON 3: SYNTHESIS OF NEW ELEMENTS IN THE LABORATORY

It is amazing that Mendeleev predicted that there are still elements that are not yet discovered. His prediction is
shown when he left gaps in his periodic table. With the new view of the atom through the discovery of the
subatomic and the further development of studies in radioactivity the synthesis of elements came to be fully
understood. Moreover, this has also led to the synthesis of the new elements in the laboratory. Let us all find out
how!

What’s In
The Periodic Table
Antoine Lavoisier, a French chemist, first attempted to arrange the known elements in 1789 based on
their properties as gases, metals, nonmetals and earths. As more and more elements are being discovered,
the need to systematically arrange them arose. The table below shows important Chemists who have paved
the development of the periodic table.

Table 2 A Summary of Events in the Development of the Periodic Table

Year Scientist Basis of Classification
1829 Johann Dobereiner Arranged elements into sets of three called Triads based on their chemical
properties.
1866 John Newlands Arrange elements into sets of eight called Octaves based on similar
chemical properties.
1869 Dmitri Mendeleev Arranged elements in order of increasing atomic weights and into sets of
eight based on their physical properties.
1870 Lothar Meyer Arranged elements in order of increasing atomic weights and into sets of
eight based on their physical properties.
1914 Henry Moseley Arranged elements in order of increasing atomic number and into sets of
eight.
Notice that Meyer and Mendeleev had similar
basis of classifying elements and arranging
the elements in the periodic table. However,
it was Mendeleev who first published his
periodic table and showed a periodic table
that has gaps which means that there are
elements yet to be discovered.

There were problems with Mendeleev’s

periodic table. It is observed that if you
arrange the elements according to
increasing atomic weights, it is almost
always that the atomic numbers also go in
the same pattern except for tellurium and
iodine.
Mendeleev could not give an explanation to exchange the places between these two elements. It was
Henry Moseley who solved the puzzle. Moseley worked with the use of X-rays in 1914. He fired each element
with X-rays and measured the frequency of the rays. When he graphed the square root of the frequency
against the atomic number, it showed a straight-line graph. This method is a means of measuring the atomic
number of an element. This also explains the need to exchange the places between tellurium and iodine. Thus,
this leads to using Moseley’s periodic table where the elements are arranged according to increasing atomic
number.

What’s New
10 Geekiest Elements
By Andrew Moseman in Popular Mechanics 2009
Direction: Using your periodic table name the elements that are being described in each item. Write your
answers on a separate sheet of paper.

____ 1. Its name comes from the Greek word “technetos” which means artificial.
____ 2. The element was discovered after harnessing nuclear energy and was named after a mythical figure
who stole fire from heaven and gave it to mankind.
____ 3. The first transuranium element that was discovered and thus, placed after uranium.
____ 4. It is created by letting neptunium undergo beta decay.
____ 5. The element is accidentally discovered from the first H-bomb testing and is named after the nuclear
scientist Enrico Fermi.
____ 6. This element has 110 protons and is created in Darmstadt, Germany through bombarding lead with
a billion of nickel ions.
____ 7. The newest element recognized by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemists (IUPAC).
This produced by fusing ions of zinc and lead to create a nucleus with 112 protons.
____ 8. Another transuranium element produced by bombarding Cf-249 with O-18. It is named after Glenn
Seaborg who was responsible for producing a lot of transuranium elements.
____ 9. It carries the symbol Cf. The name is after the state where it was first synthesized. Because it is a
strong neutron emitter, it is used as a portable metal detector of gold and silver, to identify water and
oil layers in oil wells.
____ 10. A silvery, shiny radioactive metal that is commonly used in smoke alarms. This element is a result
of a chain nuclear reaction during an H-bomb testing. This element bears the atomic number 95.
Source: Moseman, Andrew. 2009. 10 Geekiest Elements Ever Created in a Lab. October 1.
https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/a4418/4321681/

The elements mentioned in this exercise are all synthesized in the laboratory. As we move forward we will
learn how these elements are being synthesized in the laboratory.
What Is It
Synthesis of New Elements in the Laboratory
The first element hydrogen was born seconds after the big bang. From there on elements
evolved as stars were born through nuclear fusion. With the variety of elements discovered in our
environment the need for classifying them brought forth the periodic table. When Mendeleev made
his periodic table he was able to predict that there are still elements waiting to be discovered. Henry
Moseley on his end tried to answer the puzzle in Mendeleev’s periodic table by finding the
relationship of atomic number with atomic volume. With his work he was not only able to establish
that the elements in the periodic table be arranged in increasing atomic number but also the fact that
the atomic number is equal to the number of protons in the atom. The atomic number and the atomic
mass would dictate the identity of the atom.
The gaps in the periodic table are numbered 43, 61, 85 and 87. These elements were later
synthesized in the laboratory through nuclear transmutations. Ernest Rutherford carried successfully
in 1919 a nuclear transformation reaction of an isotope of nitrogen by bombarding it with alpha
particles from radium thereby producing oxygen nuclei (see nuclear equation below).

Both an alpha particle and the nucleus of an atom are positively charged. When you use an
alpha particle to transform a positively charge atomic nucleus these two tends to repel instead of
fusing together. Thus, bombarding an atomic nucleus with an alpha particle limits the kind of
elements to be produced.
To synthesize new elements scientists used neutrons in particle accelerators. A particle
accelerator is a device that speeds up protons to overcome the repulsion between protons and the
target nuclei by using magnetic and electric fields. This particle accelerator can synthesize new
elements. Two of the undiscovered elements that was predicted by Mendeleev was synthesized
using the particle accelerator.
In 1937, Ernest Lawrence used a linear particle
accelerator to synthesize the first man-made element
technetium (Tc) having the atomic number 43.
Lawrence used fast moving neutrons to bombard
molybdenum. The element with an atomic number 85
was synthesized in a cyclotron. A cyclotron is a
particle accelerator that uses alternating electric field to
accelerate particles that move in a spiral path in the
presence of a magnetic field.
Astatine comes from the Greek word “astatos”
which means unstable was synthesized from bismuth
bombarded with fast moving alpha particles. This was
synthesized in the laboratory by Dale Corson, K.
Mackensie and E. Segre in 1940. Promethium (61Pm)
and Francium (87Fr) were discovered through studies
in radioactivity. 61Pm was discovered as a decay
product of the fission of uranium while 87Fr was
discovered as a breakdown product of uranium.
The discovery of uranium in 1930 led to the
synthesis of transuranium elements. Transuranium
elements are those elements after uranium in the
periodic table. Neptunium and plutonium were discovered
in the laboratory using nuclear reactors or particle
accelerators involving the use of uranium as the parent
element.
 Now there are 118 known elements and 4 of these still don’t have a permanent name. The
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemists (IUPAC) is responsible for recognizing the name of
the elements, but chemists have to establish first the stability of the element. Superheavy elements
that are synthesized in the laboratory are stable only for a short period of time and that is the reason
why it would take a long time for them to be recognized and be named. Thanks to nuclear reactors,
new particle accelerators, cyclotrons and hadron colliders. New elements are being produced that
would be potentially helpful in the future.

What’s More
A. Synthesis of New Elements in the Laboratory Puzzle: Complete the puzzle below. On a separate
sheet of paper, write your correct answers.

B. Writing Nuclear Reactions:

On a separate sheet of paper, write a balanced nuclear reaction in the synthesis of new elements in
the laboratory.
1. Pu-239 is bombarded with an alpha particle producing Am-241, a proton and a neutron._________
2. U-238 fused with C-12 produced Cf-246 and 4 neutrons. _____________

What I Have Learned

Now I Know
Direction: On a separate sheet of paper complete the phrases below.

What I Can Do
Evolution of the Elements
Direction: Make a timeline on the synthesis of elements from nucleosynthesis up to artificial
synthesis. Use a bond paper for your output for printed modular students and Canva or Slide
presentation or any application for online or digital offline students.
Criteria:
Content Accuracy: 40%
Comprehensiveness of Content: 30%
Visual Appearance: 15% pts
Creativity: 15% pts
Total: 100%

Physical Science
QUARTER 3, WEEK 2
MODULE 2: POLARITY AND PROPERTIES OF MOLECULES

What I Need to Know

Hello! We have already talked about how naturally occurring elements were synthesized and how the artificial
elements are synthesized in the laboratory. In our environment these elements exist with other elements to
form compounds. For this module, your mission is to demonstrate understanding of how the uses of different
materials are related to their properties and structures. In this end, you should be able to make a creative
representation of the historical development of the atom or the chemical elements in a timeline.
To help out, this module is divided into the following lessons:
Lesson 1 –Bond Formation
Lesson 2 – Molecular Geometry
Lesson 3 –Polarity of Molecules and Properties of Matter

Further the objectives below are set to guide you in accomplishing the mission for this module.
1. Describe the types of chemical bonds.
2. Use the electronic configuration of each element to determine the tendencies of an element.
3. Determine the polarity of the molecule based on its structure.
4. Determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar given its structure (S11/12PSIIIc-15)
5. Relate the polarity of a molecule to its properties (S11/12PSIIIc-16).

Let us get going then.

LESSON 1: CHEMICAL BONDS

Pure substances can be an element and a compound. Each element has its own property and uses. When
elements combine, they become more useful and interesting. But they don’t just combine in any way they
want. According to John Dalton, atoms combine in a definite proportion. But what will keep two atoms
combined to form a compound? Let us find out!

What’s In
Looking Back at Electronic Configuration
Neils Bohr described the atom as having electrons in orbit of a specific size and amount of energy
around a positively charged nucleus. The electron cloud model, on the other hand, describes the atom as
having electrons surrounding the nucleus but its location and velocity could not be pinpointed. Both have
differing views locating the electrons but one thing is sure is that they are located outside the nucleus.
The electrons are arranged in order of increasing energy level. This arrangement of electrons in an
atom is called electronic configuration or electron distribution. To distribute the electrons in an order of
increasing energy level, it would be helpful to use the device that is shown on the right. Take note that this set
of device shows the maximum number of electrons each orbital can hold.
 When you are
able to write the electronic configuration of an element you will be able to determine its period number
and group number. Can you still remember how?

The electron distribution of each elements would not only help you determine its location but its
physical properties as well. In our next activity, we will try to examine the electron distribution of some
elements.

Electron Distribution of Elements of the Noble Gases

Direction: On your answer sheet, copy and complete the table below. Then answer the questions that
follow.
Elemen Valence Shell No. of Valence Electrons
t
2He
10Ne
18Ar
36Kr
54Xe

1. What is common with the electronic configuration of all the noble gases?
_______________________________________________
2. They were once called inert gases. What do we mean by the word “inert”?

_______________________________________________
3. What is the electronic configuration of noble gases or inert gases?
_______________________________________________
What’s New
Not Your Ordinary Object
Name each picture and then, answer question no. 5. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

What Is It

CHEMICAL BOND
Substances are made up of atoms. Most atoms do not exist individually in nature. Atoms
interact with other atoms to form molecules. The valence electrons of the interacting atoms form
intramolecular force of attraction which we call chemical bond. A chemical bond is a strong attractive
force that holds atoms together. This happens when atoms transfer or share electrons.
Why do atoms form bonds? Atoms form bonds to attain the most stable electronic
configuration. The noble gases also known as inert gases has the most stable electronic configuration
that is why they hardly form compounds with other elements. Atoms interact to have 8 valence
electrons similar to that of the noble gases. This is embodied in the Octet Rule. It states that atoms
become stable by having eight valence electrons.
How will bonding take place? Bonding will take place when atoms either transfer or share their
valence electrons. Either the transferring or sharing of electrons requires energy of each participating
atom. Thus, the tendencies of the atom to transfer or share their electrons would depend on how
many electrons are needed to complete the electronic configuration like that of their nearest noble
gas. Below shows the tendencies of atoms based on the number of valence electrons and family
number.
Table 1.1 No. of Valence Electrons, Family No. and Tendencies of Atoms
No. of valence electrons Family No. Tendency of the atom
1-3 1-3 Lose or give up electrons
4 4 Share electrons
5-7 5-7 Gain or accept and/or share
electrons

When atoms lose and/or gain electrons it becomes an ion through the ionization process.
Ionization is a process where an atom acquires a positive or negative charge by gaining or losing an
electron. For example, Na belongs to family 1A so it tends to lose its electron. When Na becomes an
ion it will have an electronic configuration similar to that of Ne which is its nearest noble gas. Let us
look at the electronic configurations below.

To show bond formation, the Lewis structure is often used rather than the use of the electronic
configurations. Lewis structure also known as electron-dot structure has the symbol of the element to represent
the core of the atom and the dots around the symbol represents the valence electrons. The number of dots in
the Lewis structure should be equal to the number of valence electrons. The table that follows shows the Lewis
structure of some elements.

Table 1.2 Lewis Structures of Some Elements

There are three types of chemical bonds metallic, ionic and covalent bond.
Metallic bond is the attractive force that holds metal atoms together. Metallic bonding occurs when the
valence electrons of metallic atoms are delocalized (see figure 1.1). The delocalized electrons will flow around
the overlapping positive metallic atoms. They are called the “sea of electrons”. Metallic bond is considered a
strong bond because of the high boiling points and high melting points exhibited by metals.

Ionic bonds are formed between a metal and

nonmetal. A transfer of electrons takes place in this
bonding process. When we say transfer one atom
will lose or give up its electrons while the other gains
or accepts electrons. We have the example (see
figure 1.2) of the interaction of sodium a metal and
chlorine a nonmetal to form sodium chloride
commonly known as table salt. The Na atom loses
an electron, making it a sodium cation while the Cl
atom gains an electron making it a chlorine anion.
The compounds formed through ionic bonding are
called ionic compounds.
 Covalent bonds are formed between nonmetals. This
time the participating atoms share electrons. Unlike ionic
bonding, the atoms who shares electrons do not lose nor
gain an electron as shown in the picture in figure 1.3.
Electrons found between the two chlorine atoms are
bonding electrons while the electrons that do not take part
in the bonding process are called nonbonding electrons. A
pair of bonding electrons forms a single bond, double bond
for 2 pairs of bonding electrons and triple bond for 3 pairs of
bonding electrons. The number of bonds formed may be
represented by a single line for single bond, double lines for
double bonds and triple lines for triple bonds.
Each atom has a different ability of sharing electrons. A nonpolar covalent bond is formed
when there is equal sharing of electrons. They are mostly formed by identical atom for example in
hydrogen gas whereas, polar covalent bond is formed
when there is unequal sharing of electrons. They are formed by two different atoms like in
hydrochloric acid. Since there is unequal distribution of charges there is a temporary positive and
temporary negative side of the atom. In Figure 3.4, chlorine is the partially negative side and
hydrogen is the partially positive side of the molecule.

Elements become compounds due to the formation of an intramolecular force called chemical bonds.
Chemical bonds are strong bonds formed between atoms and ions. The chemical bonds formed by each
compound would affect the properties that it will possess.

What’s More
Bond Formation
Direction: Copy and answer the table below on a separate sheet of paper.
LESSON 2: Molecular Geometry
In living things certain processes like photosynthesis, digestion of food and reproduction proceed only
when the reacting molecules are of the correct shape. When molecules, having the wrong shape,
come together there will be no reaction. Hence, molecular shape plays a vital role in biochemical
processes.

What’s In
Electron Dot Structure of Some Elements
Directions: Draw the electron dot structure of the following elements on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Carbon 3. Sulfur 5. Bromine
2. Magnesium 4. Aluminum

What’s New
Skeletons in the Closet
A. Identifying the organism based on its skeleton.
Directions: Identify the organisms based on its skeleton. Write your answer on a
separate sheet of paper.

B. Importance of a skeleton
Directions: Answer the question below on your answer sheet.
Why is a skeleton important? ________________
What Is It
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
Skeletons are important because they would give shape to a living thing. As we have
mentioned earlier that the molecular geometry of molecules is important in the success of most
biochemical processes.

Molecular geometry or molecular structure is the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms

within a molecule. It is important to determine the structure of a molecule because it affects the
properties of a molecule like polarity, magnetism, phase, color, etc. The shape depends on the
valence electrons because these are the subatomic particles involved in the formation of bonds.
Since electrons have the same electrical charge and repel each other, the molecules will be shaped
in such a way to minimize the repulsion of the bonding and nonbonding electrons to become a stable
molecule.
The valence shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) model is used to predict the shape of the
molecule. Its theory states that the valence electron pairs surrounding the atom tend to repel each
other and will, therefore, therefore adapt an arrangement that minimizes this repulsion. Table 2.1
shows molecular geometry of molecules of some molecules. Observe if each molecular shape has
symmetry or not.
 The shape of a molecule may be described as symmetrical and unsymmetrical. If similar
atoms are bonded to a central atom and all angles between the bond are equal, the shape is
symmetrical. In a symmetrical molecule there is a uniform distribution of electrical charge in the
molecule, therefore the molecule is nonpolar. If the angles between the bonded atoms are not equal
or if different atoms are bonded to the central atom, the molecule is said to unsymmetrical.
Unsymmetrical molecule has a nonuniform distribution of electrical charges, hence the molecule is a
polar molecule.

Table 2.1 Molecular Geometry of Some Molecules

What’s More
What is the Molecular Shape
Directions:
Step 1. Draw the molecular shape of the listed molecules below.
Step 2. Determine if the molecular shape is symmetrical and unsymmetrical.
Step 3. Indicate if the molecule is polar or nonpolar.
Write your answers in a separate sheet of paper.
a. Ammonia (NH3) d. hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
b. Methane (CH4) e. water (H2O)
c. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
LESSON 3: POLARITY OF MOLECULES AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
The polarity of a molecule is a result of molecular geometry. It would affect the properties of a
substance. Chemists then can produce substances that would be useful to our society based on its
properties.

What’s In
YOU LOOK FAMILIAR
Directions: Name each picture below. Write you answers on a separate sheet
of paper.

What’s New
Finding the Right Solvent
Advisory: Strict parental supervision is advised.

Objective: To determine the right solvent for some solutes.

Materials:
Water sugar 6 clean stick as stirrer
Cooking oil salt 3 ballpen cap (spatula)
rubbing alcohol MSG (vetsin) 6 transparent containers
vinegar

Procedure:
1. Pulverize the solid samples (sugar, salt, MSG).
2. Label 6 transparent containers from 1-6. Pour in each container 150 mL of water (1 tablespoon =
14.79 mL).
3. Add 1 tablespoon of the rubbing alcohol, the vinegar and the cooking oil respectively in the glass
container and using the ballpen cap as spatula, add 1 scoop each of the sugar, salt and MSG to the 3
remaining containers. Be guided by the figure below.

4. With the use of clean stick or spoon, stir the mixture. (Make it sure you are using separate sticks or
a spoon for each mixture).
5. Write down in the observation table if the solute is soluble (miscible for liquids), partly soluble or
insoluble (immiscible) in the solvent.
6. Repeat the same procedure this time using cooking oil as your solvent. (If you don’t have enough
containers you may use the same containers in steps 1-5 but wash it up first.)

Observations:
Solubilities of Selected Solute in water and cooking oil
Solute Solvent Nature of Solute (ionic, polar,
nonpolar)
Water Cooking Oil
1. rubbing alcohol
2. vinegar
3. cooking oil
4. sugar
5. salt
6. MSG
Guide Questions:
1. Which solutes dissolve in water? In cooking oil? _____________________

2. What is the nature of the substances that dissolves in water? In cooking oil?
____________________

3. What affects the solubility of a substance? ___________________________

What Is It
POLARITY OF MOLECULES AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Polarity is the separation of electric charge leading to have a dipole moment in a molecule.
Simply put, polarity is the ability of an atom to have poles or a positive end and a negative end. In
covalent bonding, molecules tend to share electrons to follow the Octet rule. Unlike ionic bonding
where the electrons are transferred that a permanent dipole is created, covalently bonded atoms may
have or not have polar ends. We cannot say that if participating atoms are not identical then the
molecule formed is polar. What should be the best basis for determining whether the molecules is
polar or nonpolar.
Aside from its molecular structure, the electronegativity difference of the participating atoms
would easily help us determine which is a polar or a nonpolar molecule. Electronegativity is the
ability of an atom to attract electrons towards itself. It is like the atoms are playing a tug-of-war. They
are pulling each other’s valence electrons. The one with the higher electronegativity pulls its
opponents electrons towards itself. In this process of tug-
of-war, a dipole moment is created. A dipole moment is a
measurement of the separation of two opposite charges.
Let us take the case of hydrochloric acid, it is made up of
hydrogen having an electronegativity value of 2.1 and
chlorine 3.0 Since chlorine has a higher electronegativity
value it has more power to pull hydrogen’s electrons
towards itself. As a result, most of the electrons in the
molecule stay at chlorines side. Chlorine now becomes
partially negative, and hydrogen becomes partially
positive. This makes hydrochloric acid a polar molecule.
Table 3.1 below, shows the electronegative difference
that would help us determine the type of chemical bond
formed and its polarity.
 Table 3.1 Electronegative Difference
Electronegative Type of Chemical
difference Bond
0 – 0.5 Nonpolar Covalent
0.5 – 2.0 Polar Covalent
2.0 and higher Ionic

The strongest chemical bond is that of the metallic bond making most of them exist in the solid
phase and have high conductivities (electrical and heat), high melting points and high boiling points.
For compounds, the polarity of the bond matters. The strongest bond is present in ionic compounds
followed by polar covalent molecules and last is the nonpolar covalent molecules. The polarity of
these substances affects the properties of each substance. Like in our previous activity, polar solute
substances dissolves in polar molecules (which are ionic and polar covalent substances) while
nonpolar solute dissolves also in nonpolar solvents. That is why they always say, “like dissolves like”.
Moreover, ionic substances often exist as solids and have high boiling points and melting points.
The properties of substances are related to its polarity. The polarity of the substance also is
affected by its molecular geometry.

What’s More
A. Predicting Bond Types
Direction: Using the periodic table with electronegativity values found at the back, copy and complete
the table on a separate sheet of paper.
Interacting Atoms Electronegative Difference Type of Bond Formed

1. Ca & Cl

2. P & S

3. Br & Br

4. Na & O

5. O & O

B. Polarity and Properties of Matter

Directions: Study the hypothetical substances found in the table below, then predict the type of bond
formed. Write and explain your prediction on your answer sheet.
Property Substance A Substance B Substance C
Color & phase Solid, silvery white Liquid, red gas, Powder, white
liquid reddish brown liquid, transparent
Melting Point 6600C 7.20C 6800C
Electrical Conductor Nonconductor Nonconductor
Conductivity conductor nonconductor conductor
Solid phase
Liquid phase
What I Have Learned
Directions: Write down at least 5 lessons you have learned on your the answer sheet.
1. __________________
2. __________________
3. __________________
4. __________________
5. __________________

What I Can Do
Do you wash your own clothes? I hope you do but if not, I would like you may ask your parents
or anyone who does the laundry to help you answer and to complete this task.

LOOKING FOR MR./MS RIGHT!

Directions: Find out what is the best stain remover. Copy and answer the table on your answer
sheets.

Cloth Stain Stain Remover

Blood Cold water, hydrogen peroxide
Antiperspirant
Coffee
Ink
Rust
ketchup
Nail polish
mud

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
QUARTER 3, WEEK 3
MODULE 3: INTERMOLECULAR FORCE OF ATTRACTION

What I Need to Know

Hola, everyone! We have seen the beauty of nature from the atoms to molecules, i.e. from elements
to compounds. These pure substances make the world a beautiful place to live in most especially
when pure substances interact with one another. In this module you are to demonstrate an
understanding on how the uses of different materials are related to their properties and structures.
Each task in this module is directed to:
1. describe the general types of intermolecular forces (S11/12PS-IIIc-d-17);
2. identify the intermolecular forces in a substance; and
3. explain the effect of intermolecular forces on the properties of substances (S11/12PS-IIIe-
19).

Please be ready with the periodic table for you may use this as you go along the way.
What’s In
IONIC? NONPOLAR? POLAR?
Directions: Below are pictures of different pure substances. On a separate sheet of paper classify
the substances whether each substance is Ionic or Nonpolar or Polar.

What’s New
There are lot of things and phenomena around us that we do not give much importance. We
find them trivial and ordinary. Nowadays people are keen on sanitizing themselves by applying
alcohol before and after touching objects. This habit of applying alcohol to our body becomes
ordinary.
Recently, there were posts on Facebook about people who before starting to cook had applied
alcohol in their hands got burns. Have you ever wondered why this took place? To help us
understand ordinary things in life let us do this activity first. Ready? Let us start.

MOLECULAR ATTRACTION
Advisory: Perform with strict parental supervision.
Objective: To demonstrate the attraction between particles of matter.
Materials:
Part A: transparent container, medicine dropper (clean stick), water
Part B: small basin (bowl), paper clip (or needle or razor blade), water,
soap water solution
Part C: water, alcohol, tissue paper, timer
Procedures:

A. 1. Fill a glass with water in half. Observe the shape of the water surface.

Draw what you see.

2. Then fill the glass to the brim. Using a medicine dropper (use a clean
stick if you do not have a medicine dropper), continue adding a few more drops until it is full. Be
careful not to spill the water. Observe the shape of the water surface. Draw what you see.
 B. 1. Fill a small basin with water in half.

2. Carefully lay horizontally the paper clip (or needle or blade) on the surface of the water in the
basin (bowl) and let it float.
3. Dry the object and try to make them float on soap water solution.

C. 1. Wet 1 sheet of tissue paper with at least 2 drops of alcohol and another tissue with 2 drops of
water.

2. Air dry both sheets.

3. Measure and record the time for each piece of tissue paper to dry out.
Observation & Discussion:

A. 1. Draw the shape of the water surface in procedure A1 and A2.

2. Describe the shapes formed in procedure A1 and A2. ___________

3. Explain the why the shape formed in convex or concave for each procedure.
_________________________

B. 1. In which liquid did the paper clip (or needle or blade) float? Explain your observation.
__________________________

C. 5. Write down the time it took for each substance to dry out? _________

6. Which dries out the fastest? Explain why? ____________________

What Is It
Intermolecular Forces
We had investigated different physical properties of substances like adhesion, cohesion,
surface tension and volatility. These properties are related to the strength of attractive forces that
exists between molecules which is called intermolecular forces (IMF). Intermolecular forces also
known as van der Waals hold molecules together. The term van der Waals force is in honor of
Johannes van der Waals who first proposed the existence of these forces within molecules of pure
substances. These are the general types of IMF: dipole-dipole interaction, ion-dipole interaction,
dispersion forces and hydrogen bonding.

Dipole-dipole interaction
Polar molecules are also known as “dipoles”. The
word “dipole” is made up of the prefix “di” meaning
two and “pole” meaning sides. Dipoles are
molecules having a partial positive end and a
partial negative end in the molecule. Dipole-dipole
interaction exist between polar molecules. As
shown in Figure 1, Cl which is the partial negative
in one polar molecule of HCl forms an attractive
force with H, the partial positive end, in another
HCl molecule.
 Ion-dipole interaction
Ion-dipole interaction exists in the attraction of an ion in an ionic
compound and a polar compound. This can be seen during the
dissolution process of salt (NaCl), an ionic substance, in water,
a polar substance. When salt is added to water, it will dissociate
into Na+ ion and Cl- ion. Chlorine anion forms an attractive
force with H (having a partial positive charge) in water and
sodium cation forms an attractive force with O (having partial
negative charge) in water.

Hydrogen bonding
Hydrogen bonding is often called a special type of dipole-
dipole interaction between the hydrogen atom in a polar
molecule and to any of these highly electronegative
elements fluorine, oxygen, and nitrogen. You can see
this in the phenomenon surface tension in water. The
hydrogen bond formed between the H of one water
molecule forms an attractive force with O in another water
molecule. This allows the formation of a thin film which
explains why the paper clip or the needle floats on water
when placed horizontally. Moreover, this explains why
there are insects which walks on water.
Dispersion Forces
This intermolecular force exists between nonpolar
molecules. Dispersion forces is also known as London
forces in honor of Fritz London who conducted a study on
this phenomenon. In figure 4, we can see that chlorine in
a carbon tetrachloride molecule forms an attractive force
with chlorine in another carbon tetrachloride molecule.
Dispersion forces can also be called induced dipole
interaction since another particle is needed to induce
temporary poles in a molecule. Temporary dipoles are
created since the electrons constantly move around a
nucleus and at times an uneven distribution of electrons
around the nucleus takes place resulting into the
formation of a temporary dipole. Induced dipole interaction could be a dipole-induced-dipole
interaction or an ion-induced-dipole interaction. The carbon tetrachloride interaction as shown figure 4
is an example of a dipole-induced-dipole interaction since CCl4 is a nonpolar compound. When an
ion induces a dipole in a nonpolar substance it is called an ion-induced-dipole interaction.

Strength of Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces are weaker force of attraction between particles compared with chemical bonds.
The weakest among the IMFs is the dispersion forces while the strongest is the ion-dipole interaction.

Intermolecular Forces and Properties of Matter

The physical properties that you have investigated in the activity “Molecular Attraction” is best
explained by the presence of intermolecular forces.
 Meniscus formation occurs due to cohesion and adhesion. A meniscus is an upward or
downward curve seen at the top of the liquid in a container. A concave meniscus is observed in the
container half-filled with water (procedure A.1) because the adhesive force between the water and the
container is stronger than the adhesive force in the water molecules. A convex meniscus is formed
due to a stronger cohesive force between the water molecules than the adhesive force of the water
and the container.
Surface tension is a phenomenon where liquids create a thin film on its surface. Surface
tension allows for the paper clip or the needle (if you used a needle) to float on water. The strength of
the H-bond allows this to take place.
Vaporization, commonly known as evaporation, is the process where a liquid becomes a gas.
In part C of the activity earlier, it took a long time for water to dry out compared to alcohol. This is due
to the difference in the strengths of the IMF present in each substance. H-bond is the main IMF
present in water while dipole-dipole interaction is the main IMF present in alcohol. H-bond is stronger
that dipole-dipole interaction. Thus, this makes alcohol more volatile compared with water.
Solubility is the ability of a solute to dissolve in a solvent. Generally, we say “like dissolves
like”. Ionic and polar substances dissolves easily in an ionic or polar solvent while nonpolar solute
dissolves in a nonpolar solvent.
The boiling point and melting point of substances depend on the strength of the IMF since
these result from the progressive weakening of the attractive forces of the molecules. When you boil
or melt a substance you must break the intermolecular forces present in the substance. This explains
why water has a high boiling point and melting point because its dominant IMF present is H-bond
which is a very strong bond. Further, as the mass of the molecules increases, so does the strength of
the IMF acting between the molecules. This implies that more energy is required to weaken the
attraction between the molecules resulting in higher boiling and melting points.

What’s More
INTERMOLECULAR FORCE OF ATTRACTION
Directions: Write down what is asked in each part on a separate sheet of paper.

A. Determining IMF in Pure Substances

Give the dominant intermolecular force present in each pure substance.
1. Hydrogen gas [H2] _____ 4. Benzene [C6H6] _____
2. Acetone [(CH3)2CO] _____ 5. Ethyl alcohol [C2H4O2] _____
3. Silicon tetrafluoride [SiF4] _____

B. Identifying the IMF in Substances

Name the possible IMF that would exist in each pair of substances.
C. Strength of Substances
Arrange the substance from weakest to strongest IMF.
1) CO2, CF4, LiCl, SiF4 ______________
2) F2, SO2, HF, PCl3 ______________

D. IMF and Processes

Identify the dominant IMF broken in the following processes.
1) Melting of candle (C10H22) _________
2) Vaporization of acetone _________
3) melting of ice (HCl) _________

What I Have Learned

IMF IN A NUTSHELL

What I Can Do
EXTRAORDINARY CHEMISTRY OF THINGS
(Performance Assessment No. 1)
Listed below are things and processes that you are so familiar with. Make a factsheet or a brochure
about any one of the topics that you will choose. Include here explanation in the light of IMF. Again,
you just have to choose one topic.
Topics:
1. Amazing Wonders of Water
2. The LPG (liquefied petroleum gas)
3. Insect Can Walk on Water But I Can’t
4. Staying Away from Trucks Filled with Petroleum Gas
5. Plants Do Drink
6. The Power to Stick by Lizards and Geckoes
Rubric for the Factsheet
Criteria Rating
Excellent Very Good Good Needs
Improvement
Content Has all the required and Has all of the required Has most of the Has few required
Accuracy correct and detailed information and correct required and correct basic information
(15pts) information. (15) but with few details information only. (6 pts)
(12 pts) (9pts)
Attractivene Formatting is Formatting has a variety Formatting needs Formatting is
ss & exceptional, attractive of pictures or graphics. more variety of ordinary and
Organizatio and exceptionally Information is well pictures or graphics. information is less
n (10 pts) organized information organized. Information is more organized.
(10 pts) (8 pts) organized. (4 pts)
(6 pts)
Use of All the graphics are The variety of graphics The graphics are The graphics are
Graphics exceptionally relevant go very well with the few but relevant to irrelevant to the text.
(10 pts) and useful to the text. texts. the text. (4 pts)
(10 pts) (8 pts) (6pts)

Physical Science
Quarter 3 - Module 4
WEEK 4 - THE MOLECULES OF LIFE

What I Need to Know

Good day! Another week had passed, and we are now moving to a new lesson that focuses on
understanding the relationship between the function and structure of biological macromolecules. Yes, we are
going to explain how the structures of biological macromolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids,
nucleic acids and protein determine their properties and function (S11/12PS-IIIE-22).

The targets for this module are:

1. Describe the types of biological macromolecules.
2. Distinguish the types of biomolecules from one another.
3. Relate the structure of biomolecules with their function and properties.
4. Summarize the general characteristics of each biomolecules.
5. Examine one’s food preference during snack time.
6. Design an information dissemination tool on proper nutrition and diet for teenagers.

As you go along the way, please bear in mind that this topic is close to us since it talks about essential
molecules for our life. Let us answer first the pretest in “What I Know”.

What’s In
From Atoms to Molecules
Directions Study the structural formulas below.
Then, answer the questions that follow on your
answer sheet.

What’s New
 MY FAVORITE SNACK
(Adapted from: You are What You Eat: Food, Biomolecules and the Carbon Cycle by Mitchell Smith in Better Lesson)

Objective: To examine the components of the snack food we are eating.

Procedure:
1. Cut-out 2 favorite snack labels (nutritional value). Clean it up thoroughly.
2. Paste it carefully on a separate sheet of paper.
3. Below it, show the similarities and differences of your favorite snack by studying its nutritional components.
4. Copy and answer the questions in the discussion part.
5. Follow the format as given below in writing your report on a short size bond paper.

Format:

Name: Grade & Section:

MY FAVORITE SNACK
Objective:

Food Nutritional Label:

Snack 1 Both Snack 2

Discussion:
1. How many calories of the snack do you take in every day? __________
2. What substance is rich in your favorite snack food? __________
3. Is your favorite snack food healthful or not? Explain.

___________________________________________________________________
4. What do you consider in buying your favorite snack food? _________

___________________________________________________________________

What
Is It
 MOLECULES OF LIFE
Planet earth is a unique planet in the sense it is the only planet that supports life. One of the
reasons that life thrives in the planet is the presence of essential elements that are found in different
organic substances. Organic compounds are substances that contain carbon and hydrogen. Since
these organic compounds are essential components of life, they are called biomolecules. Each
biomolecule has its own specific function. The four basic biomolecules that we will be discussing here
are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and proteins. We are familiar with these biomolecules as from
the nutrients that we get from the food that we eat. These biomolecules are mostly large molecules,
so they are also called macromolecules. Macromolecules are large molecules composed of smaller
subunits called monomers.
Let us now start discussing each biomolecule or macromolecule.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are often associated with go foods. They are considered as go foods since they
provide energy. Carbohydrates is more than that. Aside from being a source of energy, it also gives
form and structure to the cells and an essential component of DNA & RNA.
The empirical formula for carbohydrates is
Cn(H2O)n. The kinds of carbohydrates depend on the
number of monomers present in the carbohydrate. The
monomer of carbohydrate is monosaccharide from the
words “mono” meaning one and “saccharide” from the
Greek word “sakhar” meaning sugar. The kinds of
carbohydrates are monosaccharides, disaccharide, and
polysaccharide. Let us begin with a monosaccharide. The
monosaccharide is the simplest form of sugar. A
monosaccharide can be an aldose or a ketose (see figure
1). An aldose has its carbonyl (CO) group at the end of the
structure while in a ketose the CO group is in the middle of
the structure. Monosaccharides may be classified also
according to their number of carbon atoms in the structure.
If it has 3 carbons, then it is called a triose; 5 Cs are called
pentose and 6 Cs are called hexose. Monosaccharides are
sweet, colorless, crystalline, and soluble in water. Glucose,
fructose, and galactose are the common monosaccharides.
Monosaccharides have a straight single-bonded carbon chain. This open chain allows the
monosaccharide to form twist and turn to bring its two ends together. Since this is the simplest form it
serves as the fuel for cellular metabolism and other biochemical reactions.
Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides that had undergone dehydration
reaction. Dehydration reaction is a chemical reaction where there is a removal of water. Once water is
removed a glycosidic bond will join the two monosaccharides together. The table below are the
examples of disaccharides and the component monosaccharides. Disaccharides are our source of
energy. Since it is made up of only two monosaccharides, they can easily be broken down to a form
readily absorbed by the cells in our body.

Table 1 Some Disaccharides

Disaccharide Monomer 1 Monomer 2
Sucrose (table sugar, cane sugar) glucose fructose
Lactulose galactose fructose
Lactose (milk sugar) galactose Glucose
Maltose (malt sugar) Glucose glucose
 Polysaccharides come from the word “poly” meaning many and saccharide for sugar. A
polysaccharide is a complex carbohydrate since it is made up of thousands of monosaccharides
joined by glycosidic linkages. These thousands of monosaccharides become a polysaccharide
through a process called polymerization. Polymerization is defined as the building up of the polymer
from various monomers.
The common examples of polysaccharides are starch, glycogen and cellulose. Starch is a
polymer of glucose usually found in plants. Starch is the source of stored energy. It is insoluble in cold
water. Glycogen is another important polysaccharide of glucose. It is found in the liver and muscle
tissues. It has the same function as that of a starch however, this is only in animals. When there is too
much carbohydrate intake that the body cannot metabolize, the blood sugar rises-up to produce
glycogen. Excess glycogen in the liver and muscles is converted to fats which would result to
overweight. Our last example of a polysaccharide is cellulose. Cellulose is a polysaccharide of
glucose found in the cell walls of plants. They provide firmness and structure to plants. Its counterpart
in the animals and fungus is chitin however, chitin has a nitrogen component in its molecule. Chitins
are found in the exoskeletons of animals (ex. arthropods).

Lipids:
Lipids are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Lipids are insoluble in water. It is made
up of glycerol and fatty acids. A glycerol is an alcohol of 3 carbon, 5 hydrogens and 3 hydroxyl (OH)
groups whereas a fatty acid is a long chain of hydrocarbon with a carboxyl (C=O) group attached. The
primary functions of lipids are for storage of energy, protection, insulation, hormone precursors and
building material for cell membranes. The three kinds of lipids are fats and oils, phospholipids, and
steroids.
Fats and oils are made up of a glycerol and 3 fatty acids. It
is also called triglycerides. Its major function is for energy storage.
There are two kinds of fats saturated and unsaturated. Saturated
fats have no double bonds in their chemical structure. They are
“saturated” with hydrogen atoms. Normally, they are solid at room
temperature and usually found in animal meat, poultry, pork,
processed meats, and pre-packaged snacks. Unsaturated fats
contain one or more double bonds and typically liquid at room
temperature. They can be classified as monounsaturated fats and
polyunsaturated fats. Monounsaturated fats contain one double
bond in its structure while polyunsaturated fats contain two or more
double bonds. A common unsaturated fat that is widely used is
trans-fat. A trans-fat is used to extend the shelf life of processed
food typically cookies, cakes, fries, and donuts. Any item that contains “hydrogenated oil” or “partly
hydrogenated oil” likely contains trans-fat. It is called hydrogenated because it had undergone
hydrogenation where the liquid oil is changed into solid fats. The problem with trans-fat is that they can
raise total low-density lipoproteins (LDL or bad cholesterol) level while lowering the high-density
lipoprotein (HDL or good cholesterol) levels.
Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules because
phospholipids have a hydrophobic (water-fearing) tail and
hydrophilic (water-loving) head. A phospholipid molecule is made
up with two fatty acids and a modified phosphate group attached to
a glycerol backbone. Phospholipids are a major component in the
cell membrane. The structure of the phospholipids allows them to
create a bilayer (figure 3) which makes the cell membranes semi-
permeable. Thus, only lipophilic solutes can enter the cell because
of the structure of the phospholipids.
 Steroids are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings. A steroid
plays an important role in reproduction, absorption, metabolism regulation and brain activity. The
most common steroid is cholesterol and is a precursor to Vitamin D, testosterone, estrogen,
progesterone, aldosterone and cortisol. Cholesterol is also a component of the phospholipid bilayer.
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are important molecules for the perpetuation of life since these are responsible
for storing genetic information and protein synthesis. A nucleic acid is a long molecule that is made
up of repeating monomers called the nucleotide. A nucleotide is composed of three parts, a pentose
sugar, a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group. The types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Let us look at the similarities and differences between the
nucleic acids in the DNA and RNA.
Table 2 DNA and RNA

DNA RNA
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Bases- pyrimidines Cytosine, thymine Cytosine, uracil
Bases- purines Adenine, guanine Adenine guanine
Structure Double helix Single stranded
Function Repository of genetic Involved in protein synthesis,
information gene regulation and carrier of
genetic information

Proteins
A very important biomolecule is protein. Proteins are
species-specific; that is the protein of one species differ from
those of another species. For example, the proteins that are
found in humans are different from those of other animals.
Moreover, proteins are organ specific. Therefore, the proteins in
your liver are not the same protein in your heart.
The building block of a protein is the amino acid. An
amino acid is an organic molecule with both an amino group
and a carbonyl group with a side chain. There are 20 amino
acids that combines to form a protein. When these amino acids
combine, they are joined together by a peptide bond. A chain of
amino acids is called a polypeptide. When amino acids combine,
they form into four level of structures. The first level is the
primary structure. When this long chain of folds into pleated
sheets linked by H-bonds then it is now a secondary protein.
The real protein is in the tertiary structure and the quaternary
structure is now a large protein complex.
Proteins have a diverse function. Aside from providing
the famous function of building up muscles, they are also
responsible for directing biological reactions, controls
metabolic processes and the like. Below is a table showing
some proteins and their functions.
 Table 3 Some Examples of Proteins and their function.
Classes of Proteins Example Function
Structural collagen Fibrous connective tissue (tendons,
cartilage, bones), elements of skin,
feathers, nails, hoofs
Enzyme DNA polymerase Replicate and repair DNA
Transport hemoglobin Transport O2 form the blood to the cells
Contractile actin, myosin Cause muscle contraction
Protection or defense antibodies Identify and precipitate or neutralize
invading bacteria, viruses or foreign
proteins
Hormones insulin Regulate sugar metabolism
Adapted from: Science and Technology III Textbook for Third Year High School

What’s More

A. Biomolecules from Food

Label each item with a “C” for carbohydrate, a “P” for proteins, or a “L” for lipids. You can have more
than one answer in each item.
_____ 1. peanuts _____ 4. butter
_____ 2. bread _____ 5. corn grains
_____ 3. hamburger

B. The Who!
Name the biomolecule being referred to in each item.
________________________ 1. main source of energy in the
body
________________________ 2. antibodies
________________________ 3. makes up your muscles, skin,
and bones
________________________ 4. what salivary amylase breaks
down
________________________ 5. hemoglobin
C. I Would Rather
Complete the table below by filling in with your answer of the food molecule (carbohydrate, protein,
lipid) then give the explanation for each answer.

When I… I would because

rather choose
1. needed a quick boost of energy…
2. wanted to grow strong nails…
3. have not eaten in days…
4. have a race tomorrow…
5. wanted to get bigger muscles…
 What I Have Learned
The Biomolecules
Direction: Copy the table below on your answer sheet and complete with the needed information.
Biomolecules
CARBOHYDRATES LIPIDS NUCLEIC ACIDS PROTEINS
MONOMERS
ELEMENTS PRESENT
FUNCTION
EXAMPLES
(at least 3)

FOOD SOURCE
(at least 3)

What I Can Do
Watch What You Eat
(Performance Assessment No. 2)
You are to act like a nutritionist or a medical doctor or a nurse or a health and wellness guru. Make a
brochure that would guide teenagers or even our parents in choosing the right kind of food. The
brochure should contain the following:
• • Picture of food from the supermarket.
• • Nutritional value and macromolecules present in those foods; and
• • Recommendation as to which of those foods from the supermarkets are healthful.

Rubrics:
Criteria Rating
Excellent Very Good Good Needs
Improvement
Content Has all the required Has all of the Has most of the Has few required
Accuracy and correct and required information required and correct basic information
(15pts) detailed information. and correct but with information only. (6 pts)
(15 pts) few details (9pts)
(12 pts)
Attractiveness Formatting is Formatting has a Formatting needs Formatting is
& Organization exceptional, variety of pictures or more variety of ordinary and
(10 pts) attractive and graphics. pictures or graphics. information is less
exceptionally Information is well Information is more organized.
organized organized. organized. (4 pts)
information (8 pts) (6 pts)
(10 pts)
Use of Graphics All the graphics are The variety of The graphics are few The graphics are
(10 pts) exceptionally relevant graphics go very well but relevant to the irrelevant to the
and useful to the with the texts. text. text.
text. (10 pts) (8 pts) (6pts) (4 pts)
Physical Science
Quarter 3 - Module 5
WEEK 5 – CHEMICAL REACTION RATE
What I Need to Know
Hello! I hope you are doing well. As we continue with our lessons, this module is focused on
understanding chemical changes specifically how fast a reaction takes place. Hence, you are
expected to make a poster, a flyer, or a brochure on a product (such as fuels, household, or personal
care products) indicating its uses, properties, mode of action, and precautions.

The target for this module is for you to:

1. determine the evidence of chemical changes in matter;
2. explain the collision theory;
3. determine the factors affecting rates of chemical reaction;
4. use simple collision theory to explain the effects of concentration, temperature and particles size on
the rate of reaction (S11/12PSf-23);
5. define catalyst and describe how it affects reaction rates (S11/12PSf-24); and
6. cite real life situations that relate to factors affecting chemical reaction rates.

As you move on using this module, please be sensitive with the chemical changes in our surrounding
because this would help you fully understand what this lesson is about. Good luck and God Bless!
What’s In

Changes in Matter
Directions: On your answer sheet, create a concept map showing about changes in matter. Use the
terms in the boxes below to create your concept map.
What’s New
Chemical Changes
Advisory: Perform the activity with strict parental supervision.
Objective: To describe the chemical changes that a substance undergoes.

Materials
a piece of bread eggplant 4 transparent glasses
eggshell water food tongs
evaporated milk candle knife
vinegar

Procedure:

1. Changes in bread: Get a small piece of bread. Light a candle or lamp. Using a food tong,
place it over a flame for at least 1 minute. Observe the change that you have seen.
2. Changes on eggplant: Cut a small piece from the eggplant and observe its characteristics
particularly the cut section. Leave this cut section in the air for 5 minutes. Observe and record
any changes that is taking place.
3. Changes on eggshells and vinegar: Pound one half of the eggshell while the other half use it
as is. Get two transparent glasses. Label each with A & B respectively. Pour into each glass
with ¼ cup vinegar. In glass A add the pounded eggshells while in glass B, soak the eggshell.
Observe any changes.
4. Changes on milk and vinegar: Get two transparent glasses and label each C & D. Pour ¼
cup of vinegar into each transparent glass. Slowly add 2 teaspoons of milk to glass C. Then
prepare a mixture of 1 teaspoon water and 1 teaspoon milk. Slowly add it to the vinegar in
glass D. Record your observations in both cases.
5. Write your observations and answer the guide questions on a separate sheet of paper.

Observation and Discussion:

A. Observations:
Before After
1. burning bread
2. exposing to air cut section of eggplant
3.a. adding pounded eggshell to vinegar
3.b. adding not pounded eggshell to vinegar
4.a. adding pure evaporated milk to vinegar
4.b. adding milk-water mixture to vinegar

B. Guide Questions:
1. Which materials undergo chemical change? Give your reasons for your choices.
___________________________________________________________
2. What are the evidences that you must look for in a chemical change?
___________________________________________________________________
3. What is chemical change? _________________________________________
What Is It
Chemical Reaction Rates
Matter changes all the time be it physically or chemically. Chemical change would result in a
change in chemical composition of the material and its chemical properties. Therefore, a chemical
change had taken place if a new identity of the substance is being formed. The following signs tell us
that there is a chemical change:
1. evolution of a gas (ex. bubbling of the eggshell when added to vinegar);
2. formation of a new substance (ex. curdling of milk when added with vinegar) especially a
precipitate which is a solid, insoluble substance;
3. change in color (ex. browning of eggplant and burning of bread);
4. change in temperature (ex. composted materials heat up ones it decomposes); and
5. production of light (ex. different colors are seen once fireworks are lighted).
However, not all reacting substances will undergo a chemical change. What would make a
chemical reaction successful? This is embodied in the collision theory.

Collision Theory
The substances that take part in the chemical reaction are called reactants. Let us remember
that reactants are made up of particles (be it atom or molecules or ions) that interact to undergo
chemical reaction. For a chemical reaction to take place, the particles must collide. But not all
collisions will result to a chemical reaction. As shown in figure 1, colliding molecules must have
sufficient energy to reach an activated state and the colliding particles must have proper orientation.
The minimum energy needed to start a chemical reaction is called activation energy. An example
here is lighting a matchstick. You need to rub it against a rough surface to input energy for the match
to light up. But even if you have enough energy, there must be a correct molecular orientation. The
positive/partial positive side must be oriented towards the negative/partial negative end for a reaction
to take place.

Factors Affecting Chemical Reactions:

There are chemical reactions that take place right
away like lightning flashes or dynamite explosion. Some
reactions take very slow like fermentation of vinegar or fading
of paints. Why are some reactions slow?
The number of molecules which collide successfully
in a given time determines the speed of a chemical reaction.
If activation energy is high, only few molecules collide
successfully, then reaction occurs slowly. If the activation
energy is low, more molecules collide thus, the chance for
successful collisions is greater and reaction occurs faster.
Reaction rate or the speed of a chemical reaction is measured in terms of the amount of
reactants used up or the amount of products formed in a certain period. This varies on certain
conditions. The factors that would affect reaction rates are concentration, temperature, particle size or
surface area, and presence of a catalyst.

Concentration
The rate of the reaction is observed to be proportional to the concentration of the reacting
system. Concentration measures the relative amount of components present in a given solution. The
more concentrated the reacting substances, the greater the number of particles of reacting
components in a container, the more reaction will occur in a given time. We have seen this when we
added milk to vinegar.
 More milk curdles in the milk (pure) and vinegar system compared to the milk-water mixture
and vinegar system. This took place because there are more milk particles compared to the milk-
water mixture that took part in interacting with the vinegar particles.

Temperature
To prevent spoiling of food that is not consumed, these are always placed in a refrigerator. The
temperature can either increase or decrease the rate of reaction. According to the kinetic molecular
theory, the kinetic energy of the molecules is directly proportional to the temperature. When you
increase the temperature, the kinetic energy of the molecules also increases. The increased
movement of molecules would lead to increasing the chances for collision thus, a successful chemical
reaction.

Particle Size/Surface Area

If you remember you added powdered eggshell to vinegar (container A) and not pounded
eggshell to vinegar (container B). You see bubbles on the eggshells in both cases, but which
container did you observe more bubbles? This happens in container A. Why did this happen? When
you powdered up the eggshell, you are decreasing its particle size but you are increasing the surface
area. The unpowdered eggshell has a bigger size but less surface area. The vinegar could easily
interact with the eggshell (CaCO3) particles in powdered form compared with the unpowdered one.
The speed of bubbling is indicative of the difference in the rate of chemical reaction.

Nature of the Reactants

You may observe that there are elements that rust easily
while others do not. Rusting is a chemical reaction wherein the
metal reacts with oxygen present in the air. The rust formed is the
product of that reaction. Gold does not rust but iron does. Though
both are metals, gold does not react with oxygen while iron does.
This difference in the nature of metals have made the scientists to
arrange the elements in order of their ability to displace one
another. The order is known as the activity series (see figure 2).
The elements in the upper portion can displace the elements below
it but not the other way around. For example, if you are to let Cu
react with Magnesium chloride (MgCl2), this is not possible
because Cu is found below Mg. But if you make Mg react with CuCl
this could happen because Mg is above Cu.
Some elements have different physical forms. An example is
the crystalline form of diamond and graphite. Though diamond and
graphite are two different forms, both are made up of the same
element - carbon. Carbon exhibits allotropy.
Allotropy is the property of a substance especially an element to
exist in two or more forms that are chemically identical but having
different physical properties. Another example of an element
exhibiting allotropy is phosphorus. One is color white and the other
is red. Between the two, white is more reactive. It burns readily
when exposed to air while red phosphorus does not. Red
phosphorus is less dangerous and can be stored for long periods of
time without exploding. However, to store white phosphorus, it
must be submerged in water. Even though both are made up of the
same element, their chemical behaviors are different.
Presence of a Catalyst/Inhibitor
There are cases that you need to increase the reaction rate without increasing the temperature
or the concentration or even the surface area. You can do this by using a catalyst. A catalyst is a
substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being used up in the reaction. When your
parents would cook up a chicken soup dish, you would notice that they add papaya. Yes, this would
make the chicken dish tastier, but it also serves another purpose. Papaya has papain an enzyme
which would help the chicken to become tender at a short period of time. There are also times that a
catalyst is not a substance for example light. In photosynthesis, you need light so sugar will be
synthesized from CO2 and water.
Who wants to add an already brown eggplant? When you left the sliced eggplant in the air for
5 minutes, oxidation takes place that is why it became brown. As much as possible we do not want
that to happen. To do this, we must have an inhibitor. An inhibitor is a substance that slows down a
chemical reaction and, like the catalyst, is not used up in the reaction. Vitamin C is the best inhibitor.
That is why fruits and vegetables that browns easily when sliced are usually dipped or immersed in
calamansi juice.
You may have observed that there are vitamins stored in amber or brown colored bottles.
Why? Amber bottles would block light out, thus, preventing the vitamins from going through a
chemical change. So, the color of the bottle now serves as the inhibitor of the chemical reaction.

What’s More

A. Reaction Rates:
On a sheet of paper, draw a smiley if the statement is correct or a frown face if it is incorrect.
______ 1. Catalysts are used up during chemical reaction.
______ 2. The speed of a chemical reaction can be altered by adding a catalyst.
______ 3. The speed of chemical reaction increases as the particle size increases.
______ 4. Heating causes more products to be formed in a reaction.
______ 5. Inhibitors are substances that slows down a chemical reaction.

B. Factors affecting Reaction Rates

Identify in which situation there is a higher reaction rate, then state the factor affecting it.
Situation 1 Situation 2 Situation with higher Factor affecting the
reaction rate reaction rate
Powdered sugar Sugar cubes Situation 1 Surface area
Adding papaya in No papaya in a Situation 1 Adding catalyst
cooking a chicken dish chicken dish
Frying fish in medium Frying fish in medium
heat high heat
Using twigs as kindling Using logs as kindling
material in building fire material in building fire
Using 70% ethyl alcohol Using 90% ethyl
in dehydrating a alcohol in dehydrating
specimen a specimen
What I Have Learned
I thought… Now I know…
Direction: On your answer sheet, write that the things that you misconceived or wrongly understood in
the I thought column and what you now learn in Now I know column.
I thought… Now I know…

What I Can Do
Chemical Reactions on the Go
Directions: Write down at three (3) processes that you have observed in our daily life that either
speeds up or slows down chemical reactions. Explain what reaction is being affected and what factor
is used in the process. See the example for guidance. Copy the table and write your answers on your
answer sheet.
Processes/Situation Explanation
Ex. applying red lead to metals before painting Red lead is used as an inhibitor. The red lead
on its surface will increase the activation energy thus, it will
slow down the corrosion or rusting of metals.
1.

2.

3.

Rubric for Rating each answer.

Statement of the The introduction did The introduction The introduction The introduction presents
Main Idea not present the presents overview presents overview of the detailed overview of the
(5pts) overview of the of the concept with concept with more concept and has
concept. less discussion. discussion comprehensive discussion.
(2 pts) (3 pts) (4 pts) (5 pts)
Content and The concept is not The concept The concept contains The concept is thoroughly
Development well presented. contains discussion discussion on the topic discussed and contains all
(4 pts) on the topic with with more details. supporting details and
few details. (8 pts) relevant information on the
(6pts) topic.
(10 pts)
Conclusion The conclusion/ The conclusion/ The conclusion/ The conclusion/ summary is
summary is summary is clear. summary is clear and clear and contains the
unclear. (3 pts) contains supporting supporting information in real
(2 pts) information. life situations.
(4 pts) (5 pts)
Mechanism of Seven (7) or more Five (5) errors Two (2) errors identified. No errors identified.
writing (grammar, errors are identified. (4 pts) (5 pts)
spelling, identified. (3 pts)
punctuations and (2 pts)
correct use of words)
Physical Science
Quarter 3 - Module 6
WEEK 6 – CHEMICAL CHANGES: REACTANT-PRODUCT RELATIONSHIP

What I Need to Know

Changes…changes…changes. It is always a wonder to talk about changes. We are still going
to talk about chemical change in this module but this time at a different perspective. The focus for this
module is to demonstrate an understanding of how much reactants are needed and how much
products are formed in a reaction. Once you have accomplished that, you are expected to make a
poster, a flyer or a brochure on a product (such as fuels, household, or personal care products)
indicating its uses, properties, mode of action, and precautions. Thus, we have divided this module
into three lessons namely:
Lesson 1: Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
Lesson 2: Mole Concept
Lesson 3: Reactant-Product Relationship

In going through this module you are expected to:

1. Write chemical equations from narrative descriptions of chemical reactions.
2. Write and balance a chemical equation.
3. Use the mole concept in determining the amount of product/s formed in a chemical reaction.
4. Calculate the amount of substances used or produced in a chemical reaction.
5. Determine the limiting reactant in a reaction and calculate the amount of product formed
(S11/12PS-IIIh-27).
6. Solve problems related to reactant-product relationship systematically and neatly.

LESSON 1: WRITING AND BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

“Life is a constant change…” as the line of a song goes. Every minute, every second we are
surrounded with changes. There are changes in matter that happens so fast that we could hardly
detect it. There are also changes in matter that take a long time to take place that we find it already
ordinary. For a chemist, every change in matter is worth recording. To be able to write down chemical
changes he must find a way of recording it at the most efficient method possible. Thus, every
chemical change is expressed in a way that everything had been written down. This is one of our
lessons in this module.
What’s In
Changes in Matter Checklist
Directions: Copy the table below in your answer sheet. Then, determine if each situation listed is a
physical change or a chemical change. Put a tick (/)mark on the proper column.

Situation/process Physical Change Chemical Change

1. bleaching a stain
2. fermenting coconut sap
3. breaking glass
4. chopping a tomato
5. inflating a balloon

What’s New
The alchemists, the forerunners of chemistry, had represented the names of the substances
and the processes that took place in the substances (even life itself) through symbols or icons. In this
next activity, try to find out what some of the symbols stood for according to the alchemists. I know
you can do it! Let us get started.

Symbols Paint a Word

Directions: Name the substance that is represented by each symbol. Write your
answer sheet.

If you are going to look in the net, you will find out that there are substances that carries more than
one symbol. Gladly, nowadays there is already a uniform symbol for each element, and these are the
ones used to come up with a chemical formula to represent each compound. This way it is easier and
more effective in working with chemical reactions.

What Is It
WRITING AND BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
If the shorthand for elements is the chemical symbol and for compounds chemical/molecular formula,
then, for chemical changes it would be a chemical equation. A chemical equation is a symbolic
representation of a chemical change or chemical reaction using symbols and formula. How do we
write a chemical equation? In writing the chemical equation aside from getting to know how to write
chemical symbols and chemical formula you need to familiarize with some other symbols as shown in
the table below:
Symbol Meaning Symbol meaning
→ Yields/produced Subscript g Gas
Δ Heat/fire Subscript l Liquid
↓ Formation of Subscript s Solid
precipitate/solid
↑ Gas released Subscript aq aqueous
+ Add/combine Subscript ppt Formation of
precipitate
 The reactants are the substances that take part in the chemical reaction and are found on the
left side of the arrow whereas the products are the substances produced in the chemical reaction. For
example, when we added the eggshell to the vinegar we can say that the bubbles that went out of the
eggshell is a gas that is evolved in the reaction. We can write it this way:
Reactant → Product
eggshell + vinegar → bubbles + white solid + liquid
CaCO3 + CH3COOH → CO2(g) + Ca(CH3COO)2(s) + H2O
However, there are certain laws that we need to remember in writing chemical reactions into
chemical equations. We must not forget the law of conservation of mass. It states that the mass of
the reactants is equal to the mass of the products in a chemical reaction. The chemical equation must
be consistent with this law. If we are to look at the chemical equation above without getting into their
masses, what takes place during the chemical reactions actually is just the regrouping of atom/ions .
There are also times that atoms/ions group into one in the case of synthesis reactions or a molecule
is broken down into atoms/ions in the case of decomposition reactions.
Further, to be consistent with the law of conservation of mass, we must check if we have a
balanced equation. When we say balanced equation, the atoms found in the reactant side must also
be found on the product side and the number of atoms of each element in the reactant side must also
be equal to the number of atoms of each element in the product side. Let us go back to our example.
By simple inspection, we can say that the chemical equation above is not balanced. How did I know
that? Let us start:
Step 1: Count the number of atoms in the reactant side and the product side.
CaCO3 + CH3COOH → CO2 + H2O + Ca(CH3COO)2
reactant product
1- Ca -1
3- C -5
5- O -7
4- H -8
Step 2: Determine which atoms needed to be balanced. In this case, these are C, O, and H.
Step 3: Balance each element by trial and error, by writing a coefficient in front of the chemical
formula (if a compound) or the symbol (if an element).
CaCO3 + 2CH3C OOH → CO2+ H2O + Ca(CH3COO)2

Step 4: Recheck the number of atoms in the two sides of the equation.
Repeat if still that is not yet balanced.
CaCO3 + 2CH3C OOH → CO2+ H2O + Ca(CH3COO)2
reactant product
1- Ca -1
53- C -5
75- O -7
8 4- H -8
Thus, the balanced equation is:
CaCO3 + 2CH3C OOH → CO2+ H2O + Ca(CH3COO)2
Let us have another example:
Nitrous oxide is prepared by thermal decomposition of ammonium nitrate. Another product in the
reaction is water. So, if we are to write the chemical equation we can say:
ammonium nitrate → nitrous o ide + water
NH4NO3 → N2O +H2O
Is this a balanced equation? Let us check.
Step 1-2: NH4NO3 → N2O +H2O
2- N -2
4- H -2 Not balanced
3- O -2 Not balanced
Step 3-4: NH4NO3 → N2O +2H2O
2- N -2
4- H -2 4
3- O -2 3
Thus, the balanced equation is NH4NO3 → N2O +2H2O

What’s More
Balancing Act
Directions: Write and balance the chemical equations below on your answer sheet.
Ex. n-Heptane, an important component of gasoline, undergoes combustion to produce carbon
dioxide and water.

1. Zinc added to hydrochloric acid produces zinc chloride and hydrogen gas.
______________________________________________________________________
2. Ethanol (C2H5OH) reacts with oxygen gas to produce carbon dioxide and water.
_______________________________________________________________
3. Sugar (C12H22O11) when overheated yields a black substance carbon and water.
_____________________________________________________________
4. Methane, also known as marsh gas, a colorless, odorless gas when it reacts with oxygen it will
produce carbon dioxide and water. _____________________
5. Iron reacts with oxygen in air to form iron (III) oxide. _____________________

LESSON 2: MOLE CONCEPT

Mass, volume, length are some examples of physical quantities. Physical quantities are
properties of a material or system that can be measured. One very important physical quantity in
chemistry is the “mole”. This time we will master mole concepts to better understand how we
measure chemical reactions.

What’s In
Balanced or Not Balanced
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is an important chemical in industries, but it is also the culprit in what is called
“acid rain”. It is formed through the following series of reactions. Determine if each reaction is
balanced or not. Put a check (/) on the for balanced, X mark for not balanced. Copy and answer on
your answer sheet.
What’s New
COLLECTIVE COUNTING NOUN-CHEMISTRY VERSION
Directions: Complete table B and table C below. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

A B C
substance Collective Counting Word Number of particles
Example

pack 30

Photocredit:
https://world.openfoodfacts.org/product/00340002
02379/chocolate-candy-assortment-reeses-kit-kat

1.

Photo credit: Kippen C. 2020. Foottalk Blog

Retrieved from https://foottalk.blogspot.com
2.

Photo credit: https://www.netclipart

.com/isee/bTmmJi_eggs-image-dozen-eggs-png/
3.

Photo credit: https://www.amazon. de/Coca-

Kiste-Mehrweg-inkl-Pfand/dp/B00U84NV5O
4.

Photo credit: https://cliparting.com/ free-paper-

clip-art-14241/
What Is It
MOLE CONCEPT
How do bank tellers find a way of determining how much is the coins that you want to deposit
in a bank? Aside from counting each coin, the bank will just weigh the coins because for a
corresponding piece of coin it is equivalent to a certain mass. How about for chemist? How much
each of every reacting substance weigh? That is what we are going to find out today.
In chemical reactions, what is important is the number of moles of reacting substances. A
mole is a quantity of any substance that contains 6.02 x 1023 particles. The number 6.02 x 1023 is
also called as Avogadro’s number in honor of Italian chemist and physicist Amadeo Avogadro. The
particles may be atoms or ions or molecules. The mass of a mole of a substance varies with different
substances but the number of particles is always fixed. It is just like having a dozen of eggs or a
dozen of t-shirts. They have different masses, but they have the same number of pieces.
Molar Mass
Molar mass is the mass in grams of a mole of a substance. Its unit of measurement is g/mole.
The molar mass of an element is equal to its atomic mass. For example, neon’s atomic mass is 0
amu so its molar mass is 0 g/mole if it exists as a monoatomic molecule. What if the element exists
as a diatomic molecule like hydrogen gas? If hydrogen’s atomic mass is amu and there are atoms in
a hydrogen gas, then you have to multiply the number of atoms with the atomic mass. Therefore, the
molar mass of H2 is 2g/mole.
In other words, the molar mass of molecules is equal to its formula mass (ionic compounds) or
molecular mass (covalent compounds). Let us take sugar (C12H22O11) as the example:
Element Atomic No. of Atoms
Mass
C 12 X 12 =144 g/mol
H 1 X 22 =22 g/mol
O 16 X 11 =176 g/mol
Molecular Mass = 342 g/mol
Thus, molar mass of sugar is 342 g/mol.
Molar Volume
Molar volume is the volume of a gas at standard temperature and pressure (STP). The molar
volume of all gases is 22.4L at STP. So, the molar volume of H2 at STP is 22.4L; O2 at STP is also
22.4L.
Mole-Mass Relationship:
We are now going to draw out the relationship between mole and mass with this equation:

Let us now use the following equations:

Example 1: Calculate the no. of moles in 70g Cl2.
• First compute for the molar mass of Cl2
Cl = 2 x 35 g/mol = 70 g/mol
• Then, you can now compute for the needed no. of moles Cl2

Example 2: What is the number of moles present in 9 grams H20?

• Molar mass of H20
H= 2 x 1 g/mol = 2g/mol
O= 1 x 16g/mol = 16g/mol
18 g/mol
Example 3: How many grams are present in 10 mols NaCl?
• Molar mass of NaCl: Na = 1 x 23 g/mol = 23 g/mole
Cl = 1 x 35 g/mol = 35 g/mole
58 g/mole
g of NaCl = moles x molar mass =10 mols x 58 g/mol = 580g
Example 4: How many grams are there in 0.5 moles of C6H12O6?
• Molar Mass of C6H12O6 = 190 g/mol

g C6H12O6 = 0.5 mol x 190 g/mol = 95 g

What’s More
PLAYING WITH MOLES
Directions: Copy and complete the table below and answer the guide question that follows on a
separate answer sheet.
Material/ Chemical Molar Mass Mass Moles
substance Symbol/ (g/mol) (g) (mol)
Formula
Copper Wire Cu 2
Iron Nails Fe 2
Acetone C3H6O 1.5
Vinegar CH3COOH 1.5
MSG C₅H₈NO₄Na 1.5
• Does one mole of a substance have the same mass? Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________

LESSON 3: REACTANT-PRODUCT RELATIONSHIP

In chemistry, we have what we call stoichiometry. Stoichiometry is the quantitative
relationships of reactants and products based on the laws of chemical combination. While mass
calculations are very important in chemical reactions, but we always go back to the mole concept in
looking at the reactant-product relationship.

What’s In
WHAT DO BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATIONS TELL US
The symbol of an element represents not only the name of the element, but it also tells us
that it is an atom of the element. The formula not only represents the compound, but it also tells us
that it is a molecule of that compound. Now what about in a chemical equation? What is the
information that we can get from a balanced chemical equation?
A balanced chemical equation tells us that it is consistent with the law of conservation of
mass. We can see in a balanced chemical equation that atoms are neither created nor destroyed in
the chemical reaction. What happens is that atoms rearrange themselves to form a new identity
after the reaction. Further, we can draw out information such as:
2NH4NO3 → N2O +H2O
2molecules of NH4NO3 → molecule of N2O + 1 molecule H2O
2mols of NH4NO3 → mol of N2O + 1 mol H2O
It is not only that the total number of molecules of the reactant is equal to the total number
of molecules in the product but also, the total number of moles of the reactant is equal to the total
number of moles of the product.

What’s New
One of the most sought-after snacks in Philippines is banana cue. It is deep fried with brown
sugar. A stick has 2 pieces of fried caramelized banana. Let us look at the one week banana cue
production of Nana from barangay Bacue.
 NANA’S BANANA CUE STAND
Directions: Copy and complete the table below with the necessary information. Then, answer the
question below the table. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

Day Material/Ingredient No. of Banana Excess material Which material

No. of No. of Cue Stick determines the no.
sticks fried Produced of banana cue to
available bananas be produced?
Mon 75 100 50 stick banana
Tues 80 150
Wed 60 100
Thur 100 200
Fri 90 183
Sat 75 160
Sun 50 55

• Is it alright that there are excess materials/ ingredients in your food business? Why?
____________________________________________
• Which excess material/ ingredient is less damaging to Nana’s Banana Cue business?
Why? _____________________________________
• If you were Nana, what should you do to assure that you will have profit at the end of the
day? Explain your answer. ____________________________________________________________

What Is It
REACTANT-PRODUCT RELATIONSHIP
In manufacturing products, the goal is to produce the maximum quantity of a useful product
from the starting materials one of which is an excess material. The production must be cost-
effective that in such a way it will minimize the wastage of materials. To do that they have to make
it sure that the expensive materials will be used up first in the reaction. It is called the limiting
reactant or limiting reagent because the amount of this material limits the amount of product that
can be formed by the reaction. Once all the limiting reactant is used up, the product will stop to
form. The material that is left in the reaction is called the excess reactant.

LIMITING REACTANT AND EXCESS REACTANT

A limiting reactant, also known as limiting reagent, is the substance that is completely used
up in a chemical reaction. It limits the amount of products to be formed whereas the excess
reactant, also known as excess reagent, is the substance that is not completely used up after the chemical
reaction. In other words, the excess reactant is the substance in excess. Let us go back to Nana’s Banana Cue stand.
Which should be our limiting reactant? Correct, it should be the fried banana because it is way more expensive than the
stick. But we are talking here about chemical reactions. How are we going to determine which is the limiting reactant in
an equation? Which is the excess reactant? Let us work together the example in the box below:

To determine the limiting reactant let us follow each step below:

Step1: Write the balance chemical equation.

• The equation tells us that 1 mol of O3 reacted with 1 mol NO to produce 1 mol NO2.
Step 2: Calculate the number of moles NO2, that could be produced if all the
144g of O3 reacted.

• Molar mass O3 = 48g/mole

Step 3: Calculate the number of moles NO2, that could be produced if all the
120 g of NO reacted.

• Molar mass NO = 30g/mol

Step 4: Determine which is the limiting reagent.
The limiting reagent is the one having the least amount in moles of NO 2 produced. Therefore,
the limiting reactant is O3.
But we were asked how much in grams is NO2 produced in the reaction? All we need to do is
calculate the mass in grams NO2 produced by the limiting reactant O3. If there are 3 mols of NO2
produced by O3 then the equation will be:

We are also asked how much the excess reagent is. The amount of NO leftover is the
difference between the initial amount and the amount that reacted.
How?
Step 1: Using the number of moles of NO2 produced from O3 we can determine
the mass of NO that reacted:

Step 2: Subtract the amount that reacted,90 g, with the initial amount 120 g.

Would you like to have another example? Here it is.

Step 1: Balance the equation:

3NaOH + H3PO4 → Na3PO4 + 3H2O
Step 2: Calculate the no. of mols Na3PO4 that could be produced by 60g NaOH.

Step 3: Calculate the mols Na3PO4 that could be produced by 98g H3PO4.

Step 4: Limiting reactant is NaOH since it produced the smallest amount of Na3PO4
Step 5 Calculate grams of Na3PO4 formed from limiting reactant.
Step 6: Calculate the mass of H3PO4 reacted from mols of Na3PO4 produced by
the limiting reactant.

Step 6: Get the difference from initial with the one used in the reaction:
Excess H3PO4 = 98 g H3PO4 – 49 g H3PO4 = 49 g excess H3PO4

Percent Yield
Regardless, if it is business or not, it is not good that there are excess materials in a chemical
reaction. Chemical reactions must be highly efficient. The efficiency of a chemical reaction can be
affected by the following factors:
1. incomplete reaction;
2. impure reactants;
3. competing side reactions; and
4. loss of product during filtration in transferring between containers

The efficiency of a chemical reaction is measured in terms of percent yield. Percent yield is the
ratio of the theoretical yield to the actual yield multiplied by 100. Theoretical yield is the
maximum amount of a given product that can be formed when the limiting reactant is completely
consumed whereas the actual yield is the amount of product that is experimentally obtained from
given amounts of reactants. Mathematically we will say,

Let us work out this example: “The combustion of carbon monoxide (CO) in air produces carbon
dioxide (CO2). Let us say 56 g of CO react completely with oxygen gas (O 2) to from CO2. What is the
percent yield of CO2 if 85 g of CO2 was collected?”

Step 1: Write a balanced equation.

2CO + O2 → 2CO2
Step 2: Compute for the theoretical yield.
(Note: There is no need in determining which is the limiting reactant since it is stated that CO
reacts completely so, it is the limiting reactant.)

Step 3: Compute for the percent yield.

It is very important that we get to determine the limiting reactant so that we can ma imize
the efficiency of a reaction. I now believe that this is your turn. Don’t worry, you can always go back
to our samples for reference.
What’s More
REACTANT-PRODUCT EXERCISE
Directions: Answer each problem and show your solution. You may use a periodic
table.
Basis for giving of points:
5 points – correct answer with complete solutions
3 points – answer was provided with partial solutions
1 point - Answers with incorrect solutions

1. 10.0g of sucrose (C12H22O11) reacted with 10 g of oxygen to produce CO2 and water. Which is the
limiting reactant? How much is the excess reactant?
2. Limestone (CaCO3) is decomposed to CaO and CO2 by heating. Calculate how many grams of CaO can
be produced from 1.0 kg of limestone. How much is the percentage yield of the reaction if the CaO
obtained is 0.5kg?
3. When 1.87g of aluminum reacts with 9.65g copper (II) sulfate (CuSO4), 3.65 g of Cu was produced.
What is the percent yield of Cu?

What I Have Learned

EXIT TICKET
Have you learned much from this module? What are the things you found interesting? What question
is still running in your mind? Write your answers on your answer sheet. (5 pts per item)

What I Can Do
Chemical Reactions on the Go
(Performance Task No. 3)
There are a lot of chemical reactions around us. Create a poster showing the importance of trees to
our environment. Cite the chemical reactions or processes involved with the presence of the trees. Rubric is
shown below:

Criteria Poor Good Better Best

Ideas Few original ideas Some original ideas Several original ideas Many original ideas
(15 pts) in material or in material or display in material or display in material and
display are evident are evident to attract are evident to attract display are evident
to attract interest some interest much interest and attract a great
(6 pts) (9 pts) (12 pts) deal of interest (15
pts)
Relevance of Little material Some material Material selected is Material selected is
material selected is relevant selected is relevant mostly relevant and all relevant and
(15 pts) and rarely and somewhat connected to the main could get high
connected to main connected to the idea (12 pts) approval. (15pts)
idea (6 pts) main idea (9pts)
Visual Impact Overall visual Overall visual impact Overall visual impact Overall visual
(10 pts) impact is less is attractive. is very attractive. impact exceptionally
attractive (6 pts) (8 pts) attractive.
(4 pts) (10 pts)
Variety of Limited variety of Adequate variety of Good and presentable Excellent variety
Pictures (10pts) pictures used to pictures used to variety of pictures and presentable
develop the main develop the main used to develop the pictures used to
idea. (4 pts) idea (6 pts) main idea develop the main
(8 pts) idea (10 pts)
Physical Science
Quarter 3 - Module 7
WEEK 7 ENERGY IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
What I Need to Know
Good day everyone! Yes, we are not yet done with chemical changes. In this module we will
talk about another aspect of chemical changes which is how much energy is involved in a
reaction and how energy is harnessed. To make it easy for us to investigate those aspects of
chemical changes or chemical reactions, this module is divided into two lessons namely:
• • Lesson 1: Energy in Chemical Reactions
• • Lesson 2: Energy Resources

Therefore, you are expected to:

1. differentiate endothermic reaction from exothermic reaction; and
2. describe how energy is harnessed from different sources: fossil fuels, biogas, geothermal,
hydrothermal, batteries, solar cells and biomass (S11/12PS-IIIi-29).

LESSON 1: ENERGY IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Energy is the ability to do work. In chemical reactions, energy is needed to break the bonds
of the reactants and to form bonds of the products. Let us always remember the Law of
Conservation of Energy which states that energy is neither created nor destroyed.

What’s In
DIAL A CHANGE
Direction: Identify the words by dialing the numbers on the keypad. Decoding the numbers will
reveal the terms you have learned previously. Use the clues to reveal your answers. Number 1
serves as an example. Write your answer on your answer sheet.
What’s New
IT’S GETTING… HOT? COLD?
Directions: Listed below are different processes. Try to recall your observation on each
process with regards to a change in temperature. Copy and complete the table on your
answer sheet by checking (/) the proper column.

What Is It
ENERGY IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
We have found out that for a chemical reaction to take place particles must collide. For a
chemical reaction to take place successfully colliding particles must have the correct molecular
orientation and must have sufficient energy for a reaction to take place. For a chemical reaction to
start it needs enough energy which is called activation energy. Some reactions require a high
activation energy while others require low activation energy. Heat, light, or electricity can supply
energy of activation.
Since molecules are constantly moving this often results to a chemical reaction. We may not
be able to see the constant motion of these particles, but it is manisfested in the form of heat
energy. Heat is a measure of the random kinetic energy of atoms and molecules in motion. The
temperature indicates the amount of heat possessed by molecules in motion.
What did you feel after applying alcohol on your body? Yes, you feel cold. Have you wondered why
do you feel cool after applying alcohol on your body? Alcohol absorbs the heat from your body as it
vaporizes. Why do you feel the heat after eating? This is because while your body is digesting the
food, heat is being released into the surrounding. These two examples show that energy (in the form
of heat) is either absorbed or released during a change in matter.
There are two types of chemical reactions according to the flow of heat energy. These are
exothermic reaction and endothermic reaction. Digestion of food is an exothermic reaction. What
happens here is that the energy in the breaking of bonds of the reactants (food) is greater than the
energy of the formation of bonds of the products (glucose, amino acid, etc). Thus, heat energy is
being released into the surrounding that is why you feel warm after eating. Photosynthesis is an
example of endothermic reaction. During photosynthesis, the reactants (CO2 and H2O) have lower
energy to form the products (C6H1206 & O2). That is why it absorbs energy from the surrounding,
that is from the sun. The difference between exothermic and endothermic reactions are shown in
table 1.
What’s More
LESSON 2: ENERGY RESOURCES
The Earth is unique because life thrives in it. As a planet it is a unique system since the
atmosphere, biosphere, geosphere, and hydrosphere interact. The interaction is seen when energy
flow from one subsystem to another. In this lesson, we are going to focus on energy as an important
resource in our lives.
What’s In
Forms of Energy
Directions: Write down the forms of energy present in each picture on your answer sheet.
What’s New
ENERGY RESOURCES
Directions: Study the picture below and list all the possible sources of energy that you can find.
Write your answers on your answer sheet.
What Is It
Harnessing Energy Resources
Energy is a vital part for all life processes. The food that
we eat supplies the body with the necessary energy requirement
for biochemical reactions to take place and allow us to function
properly. Moreover, we rely on other energy resources for our
daily activities. Energy resources power life. They are something
that can create heat, light and electricity and enables objects to
move. Energy resources are classified into nonrenewable energy
resources and renewable energy resources. Non-renewable
energy resources take a long period of time to be replenished.
The consumption of this resource is faster than its being formed
back. Coal, natural gas, oil and nuclear power are nonrenewable
energy resources. Renewable energy resources, on the other
hand, can be replenished in a short period of time. The
replenishment of this energy resource is faster than our
consumption.
Biogas, geothermal, hydrothermal, solar, biomass and
wind are renewable energy resources.

FOSSIL FUELS
Fossil fuels are formed by natural processes out of the remains of buried dead organisms,
containing organic molecules originating in ancient photosynthesis that release energy in
combustion. This is the widely used energy resource that this is called “convenience fuel”. The
chemical energy present in oil and natural gas is converted to heat and light thru combustion
whereas the chemical energy in coal is converted to electrical energy in power plants.
In a fossil fuel power plant, such as a coal-fired thermoelectric power plant efficiently captures the
heat released by combustion to generate electricity. In figure 3, we can see that coal is burned in
the boiler to heat up the water in the condenser to steam. The steam’s pressure runs the turbine
that is connected to a generator. Once the generator runs it will now be able to produce electricity
for distribution to the different consumers.
Natural gas, another fossil fuel, contains different compounds. Natural gas, mainly methane
(CH4), is widely used for heating during winter and cooling during summer. Now it is widely used to
generate electricity.
 BIOGAS
Biogas is a mixture of gases, primarily CH4 and
CO2, produced by the breakdown of organic matter in
the absence of oxygen, anaerobic decomposition.
Biogas can be produced from raw materials such as
agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant
material, sewage, green waste, or food waste. These
materials are placed in a digester to undergo anaerobic
decomposition with the help bacteria. The biogas that
is produced in the process are usually placed in sealed
barrels and special vessels. Biogas is widely used for
homes, restaurants, and farms. Now, they have seen
that biogas can provide a clean, renewable, and
reliable source of baseload power. Baseload power
means that this source can meet the minimum power
demands. Therefore, it can be used as a source of
electricity and fuel for cars.
GEOTHERMAL
The word geothermal comes from the
Greek words “geo” which means earth and
“therme” which means heat. This energy
source refers to the internal heat of the
earth. Thermal energy is the energy that
determines the temperature of matter. The
geothermal energy of the Earth originates
from the original formation of the planet and
from radioactive decay of materials.
Geothermal energy can be harnessed in
various ways from large and complex power
plants to small and relatively simple deep
wells. Holes are drilled in areas where there
is abundant supply of heat such as
volcanoes, geysers, hot springs, or even hot
rocks. After which, water is pumped into the
hole and steam is then pumped out. The
steam now, turns the turbine attached to a
generator so that it generates electricity for
distribution.

HYDROTHERMAL
Moving water is another source of energy.
The kinetic energy in moving water is converted to
electrical energy. Figure 6 shows how hydroelectric
power plants generate electricity. Water in dams or
waterfalls are the most common source of
hydrothermal energy. The water that falls from a
certain height will be used to run a turbine that is
attached to a generator. Once electricity is
generated it will pass through power transmission
cables for distribution to household, commercial,
municipal and industrial use.
 SOLAR CELLS
“Sol” is the Latin word for sun. Solar energy makes use of the
heat and light of the sun for electrical energy generation. One of the
ways to harness sun’s energy is using photovoltaic cells which is
commonly known as solar cells. A solar cell or photovoltaic cell, is an
electrical device that converts the energy of light directly to electricity by
photoelectric effect. Photoelectric effect is a phenomenon wherein a metal
will eject its electrons when a certain intensity of light is directed on it.
Solar cells are made up of silicon, a semiconductor, that is
widely used in electronics. How do solar cells generate electricity?
Figure 8 below shows how electricity is generated by solar cells
in the solar panel. Sunlight which contains photons, particles of light
containing a certain amount of energy of light, hits the solar modules
causes the electrons in each cell to flow. Thus, generating direct current
(DC) electricity. The DC current goes through an inverter to become
alternating current to be used to different consumers of society.

BATTERIES
A battery is a container consisting of one or more
cells, in which chemical energy is converted into electricity
and used as a source of power. It is also called voltaic
cells. It includes dry cells, lead storage batteries and fuel
cells.
Dry cells are the most common batteries available in
the market. It is made up of a thick moist electrolyte paste
of MnO2, ZnCl2, NH4Cl and water. It also has a carbon rod
where at its ends are electrodes out of zinc.
A lead storage battery is used in cars. It is made up
of a group of voltaic cells where each cell produces 2V of
electricity and is made up of grids. One set of grids is
made up of spongy lead to serve as the anode and the
other is made up of lead (IV) oxide as the cathode. The
electrolyte used is sulfuric acid. Electricity is produced when both lead and lead (IV) oxide are
converted to lead sulfate. In the process, the sulfuric acid concentration is decreased meaning it
has already discharged.
 Fuel Cells are devices that convert chemical energy
from fuel into electricity. It requires a continues supply of
fuel and oxygen to sustain its chemical reaction. This is
used as a back-up power for commercial and industrial
use.

BIOMASS
Biomass is a renewable energy
resource from plants and animals. It
contains stored energy from the sun.
Plants absorb the sun's energy in a
process called photosynthesis. When
biomass is burned, its chemical energy is
released as heat. This can be burned
directly or converted to liquid biofuels or
biogas that can be burned as fuels. Wood is the most common example of biomass which is widely
used for fuel. Manure or sewage is also used to produce biogas. The most recent is the use of
agricultural wastes like corn, sugar, potatoes and sugar cane to be converted into alcohol which is
then added to diesel or gasoline to produce biofuel like biodiesel.
What’s More
A. Name that Energy Resource
Directions: Determine the word/ words which is being described or defined. Refer to the clues given
in each item. Write your answer on a separate sheet.
B_____s 1. Organic matter used as fuel, in a power station for the generation of electricity.
_y_r_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2. Relating to or denoting the movement of water in the earth’s crust
_ _ot_ _ _ _a_ 3. produced by the internal heat of the earth.
_i_ _a_ 4. gaseous fuel, especially methane, produced by the fermentation of organic matter
s_ _ _ _ c_ _ _ 5. device converting solar radiation into electricity
_ _t_ _r_ 6. mainly made up of electrodes and electrolytes that converts chemical energy to
electrical energy

B. Philippine Power Generation Mix

Power generation mix refers to the various source of energy for electricity in a given country or
place.
Directions: Study the graph below and answer the questions that follow.
 1. Which energy resource is the Philippines heavily reliant on? ____________
2. What kind of energy resource is it? ______________
3. Is the Philippines slowly switching to renewable energy sources? Yes or No?_________ Explain
your answer. ____________________________
4. Which renewable energy resources should the Philippines utilize? ______ Why?
________________

What I Have Learned

What I Can Do
You’re the Best!
(Performance Task No. 4)
You have come to know the different energy resources and how they are harnessed. These energy
resources are also present and utilized in our country. I believe that each of us is an energy
advocate. I am asking you to choose what would be the best energy resource to be used in the
Philippines. On a short size bond paper make a factsheet about your chosen energy resource.
Rubric is found below:
Physical Science
Quarter 3 - Module 8
WEEK 8 – HOUSEHOLD CLEANING MATERIALS
What I Need to Know
With the advancement of technology and further understanding of chemical reactions a lot of
products had been manufactured for the improvement of human lives. In this module the focus is
on understanding the properties and mode of action of consumer products specifically
household cleaning materials. With that in mind you are expected to:
1. give common examples of cleaning materials in one’s household;
2. identify the active ingredients of cleaning products used at home (S11/12PS-IIIi-j-31);
3. give the use of the other ingredients in cleaning agents ((S11/12PS-IIIi-j-32); and
4. explain the precautionary measures indicated in various cleaning products.

What’s In
What’s New

What Is It
HOUSEHOLD CLEANING AGENTS
Proper hygiene and sanitation are associated with good health. To maintain the cleanliness of
our environment, specifically our homes different cleaning materials and products are developed by
our chemists.
Cleaning agents are substances that are used to remove dusts, stains, and foul odor on
surfaces. They are usually liquids, powders, sprays, or granules. Normally they are aqueous
solutions or may be solvent-based or solvent-containing which are called degreasers. Cleaning
products contain a lot of ingredients other than its active ingredients. The different types of cleaning
agents are alkalis, acids, detergents, abrasives, disinfectants, sanitizers, bleaching agent, and spirit
solvents.
Alkalis are soluble salts that are effective in removing dirt without excessive rubbing. They
are commonly found in soaps, detergents, and all-purpose cleaners.

Alkalis vary in strength from mild to strong alkalis. Mild alkalis are mostly used for mild
cleaning. They contain baking soda in water. These solutions are safe around children and pets.
Moderate alkalis are diluted mixture of ammonia and water. They are found in all-purpose
cleaners, window cleaners and oven cleaners. Strong alkalis could destroy bacteria and dissolve
protein. These are washing soda, also called sal soda, because it contains sodium carbonate.
Sodium hydroxide, commonly known as lye, is usually found in soaps and drain cleaners. Strong
alkalis need to be handled and stored properly especially lye since it is very caustic that it can
cause death when swallowed.
 Acids are used to remove mineral deposits, rust stains, hard water deposits and
discoloration of metals. They vary also in strength from very mild to very strong. Very mild acids are
used to dissolve hard water deposits, remove mild rust stains, and eliminate soap film from around
the sink and on shower doors and useful in removing tarnish from brass. Acetic acid (vinegar), citric
acid, cream of tartar and phosphoric acid are examples of very mild acids. Very strong acids are
highly toxic cleaners. They are corrosive meaning it eats away tissues and metal surfaces.
Hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid), hydrofluoric acid (commercial rust remover), oxalic acid
(bleaching agent), sodium bisulfate (aka sodium acid sulfate), sodium hypochlorite (in bleaching
solutions) and sulfuric acid (strongest acid) are examples of very strong acids.

A detergent is a chemical substance used to loosen dirt, break up and remove grease
and grime. Soap is an example of a detergent. Surfactants are the most important
ingredient in detergents because they would help water loosen and break away the grime
and grease from the soiled surfaces so that it can be washed away. To enhance detergency
of these cleaning products, “builders” are added. Builders are mostly made up of soluble
phosphates. Trisodium phosphate (TSP) and disodium phosphate are commonly used
builders in detergents which are banned due to environmental reasons. Complex or condensed
phosphates are now in use due to its low alkalinity thus, having less negative environmental impact
while maintaining its function of increasing detergency. When a detergent has a builder, the
product is labeled as “heavy duty” or “all-purpose”.
Abrasives are rough or gritty materials that wear off dirt by rubbing off. Any material that is
rough used to remove dirt and stain from a surface is considered as an abrasive. The types of
abrasives are physical abrasives, mineral abrasives, and chemical abrasives. Sandpaper, nylon
meshes, scrubbing pads and steel wool are physical abrasives. Mineral abrasives are made up of
particles which include salt, baking soda and borax and are considered as natural cleaners.
Chemical abrasives are also made up of particles that are commercial products containing bleach.
Chemical abrasives are commonly called as scouring powders.
Disinfectants are more often used in hospitals and clinics. They completely destroy
pathogens. EPA recognizes a substance to be a disinfectant when it destroys 99.999% of pathogens
in 5-10 minutes. Liquid chlorine bleach is a common liquid disinfectant in the home.
Sanitizers are commonly used in restaurant and household products. These products reduce
germs on surfaces. By EPA standards it must destroy 99.99% pathogens within 30 seconds. Many
sanitizers are a combination of detergents and disinfectants. Sanitizers are used on food contact
surfaces like plates, spoons.
Bleaching agents are chemicals used to remove stains. They are also used to lighten and
brighten materials. Since most bleaching agents have broad spectrum antibacterial properties, they
are used as disinfectants. The most common bleaching agents fall into two categories namely
chlorine and its related compounds and peroxygen bleaching agents. Chlorine-based bleaches are
found in many household bleach products as well as in specialized products for hospitals, public
health, water chlorination and industrial processes. The most common chlorine-based bleaches are
sodium hypochlorite in liquid bleach, bleaching powder which is a mixture of calcium hypochlorite,
calcium hydroxide and calcium chloride, chlorine gas as used in water treatment and chloride
dioxide. Peroxide-based bleaches on the other hand are characterized by the peroxide chemical
group. The most common examples are hydrogen peroxide, sodium percarbonate, sodium
carbonate, ozone and many more. Below is a list of ingredients found in bleaching agents.

Spirit solvents are found in polishes and waxes. These are used to dissolve oil, grease, and
oily dirt. The ingredients include acetone, denatured alcohol, and mineral spirits. Paint thinners,
turpentine and kerosene are examples of spirit solvents.

What do cleaning agents contain?

There are a lot of ingredients found in cleaning agents aside from its active ingredient. The
other major ingredients are added to enhance the efficiency of the cleaning agent are found in the
table 4.
Cleaning Action:
Soap is the most common household cleaning material. It is prepared through the
saponification process. Saponification is a chemical reaction, where fats combine with lye (NaOH or
KOH) to form a soap. How do soaps clean?
To remove dirt, water must be able to get to the surface where there is dirt. Water has a high
surface tension thus it would be difficult for soaps or detergents to penetrate and wet the surfaces
where there is dirt. This could only happen if the soap has an added surfactant.
A surfactant will lower the surface tension in water thus increasing the penetrating and
wetting ability of the water. Once soap is added to the water, the hydrophobic end of the soap will
stay away from the water in a circular manner while the hydrophilic end will get attracted to the
water molecules in a circular manner which is called micelle formation (see figure 1). The
hydrophobic end will be able to engulf the nonpolar oil, grease and dirt and loosens it from the
surface and becomes suspended in the water. This suspension is known as emulsification. Because
the dirt and grease are already suspended it is easily washed away.

Wise Use of Cleaning Products:

We use cleaners to keep us safe from diseases and be
healthy. There are ingredients in our cleaning agents that
could bring us harm rather than good. Thus, this calls for
proper handling and storing of cleaning products. The best
way to do that is to be an alert consumer of cleaning
products by reading its labels and familiarizing the safety
symbols found in each cleaning agent. What information do
we get from cleaning product labels?
A product label contains information on (1)
ingredients, (2) directions for use, (3) caution, (4) first aid,
(5) storage, (6) disposal and (7) contact information. Getting
to know what the product contains is not enough but also
how each behaves especially how it reacts with other
substances. Further, it would help us to know whether the
ingredients have harmful effects if not handled properly. The direction for use is important because
it will tell us how to use the product effectively and it would help us save time and effort. The
caution label will tell us the harmful effect of the cleaning products. There are times safety symbols
(see table 5) are also being put in place to add up to the text on caution. With caution, the label on
first aid is a very important part that you need to familiarize so that if an emergency happens you
know what to do.
 There are cleaning products that must not go together or must be placed at a low
temperature. Thus, it is very important to know what would be the proper storage conditions of
every cleaning product that you are to use. One example here is that dry powdered types of cleaners
should be stored in dry areas. If they are stored in moist areas, the powder might clump up and
become useless. Most of our environmental and health problems are caused by improper disposal of
products. Other product label will just put “dispose properly” on its label while others will tell us
not to burn because the container might be pressurized that doing such will cause an explosion.
Lastly the contact information label. We often disregard this information is very helpful information
if you have questions or problems that you need to raise about the product.

What’s More

What I Have Learned

What I Can Do
HOUSEHOLD CHEMICAL SURVEY
Advisory: Perform under strict parental supervision.

Caution:
1. Do not smell or inhale or taste any substances.
2. Wear gloves or any hand protection.
3. Wear mask.

Directions
1. Conduct a survey at home of common chemicals found in household cleaning products.
2. On a separate sheet of paper copy and fill up the table with the needed information.
3. Answer the questions found in the Data and Discussion section.

1. How many chemicals did you find at home? ______________________________

2. In what rooms did you find these chemicals? ____________________________
3. What are the common active or major ingredients found in the listed cleaning materials?
_______________________________
4. Did any chemicals have warning labels? _____ Which ones? ___________
5. How can you prevent from being exposed to toxic or harmful chemicals?
__________________________________________________
6. Using chemicals safety is part of preventing pollution and reducing health effects from exposure.
What are other ways you can prevent pollution at home? __________________________________________