WHOLE BRAIN LEARNING SYSTEM

OUTCOME-BASED EDUCATION

SCIENCE GRADE
GENERAL PHYSICS 2 12

LEARNING 4
QUARTER
MODULE WEEK 8

WBLS-OBE MELC-Aligned Self-Learning Module GENERAL PHYSICS 2 0

 MODULE IN
GENERAL PHYSICS 2

QUARTER 4
WEEK 8

Photoelectric Effect and

Radioactive Decay

Development Team
Writers: Roque N. Rabang Loida A. Rabang
Teresa A. Cudal
Editors/Reviewers: Elizabeth H. Domingo Hamilton C. Remigio
Flenie A. Galicinao
Lay-out Artist: Flenie A. Galicinao
Management Team
Vilma D. Eda, CESO V
Arnel S. Bandiola Lourdes B. Arucan
Juanito V. Labao Flenie A. Galicinao

WBLS-OBE MELC-Aligned Self-Learning Module GENERAL PHYSICS 2 1

 What I Need to Know

Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELC):

1. Explain the photoelectric effect using the idea of light quanta or photons.
(STEM_GP12MPIVh-45)
2. Explain qualitatively the properties of atomic emission and absorption spectra using the
concept of energy levels. (STEM_GP12MPIVh-46)
3. Calculating radioisotope activity using the concept of half-life. (STEM_GP12MPIVh-i-47)

Lesson 1 The Photoelectric Effect

Note: All answers to activities and assessments must be written on a separate sheet of paper.

What I Know

Directions: Read and analyze each item. Write only the letter of the correct answer in a
separate sheet of paper.

1. The neutral atoms of all isotopes of the same element contain the same number of
__________.
A. Electrons B. Protons
C. Mass numbers D. Masses

2. The atomic number is not changed by which type of radioactive decay?

A. Alpha
B. Beta
C. Gamma
D. The atomic number is affected by all forms of radioactive decay.

3: Photocell is a device to
A. Store photons.
B. Measure light intensity.
C. Convert photon energy to mechanical energy.
D. Store electrical energy for replacing storage batteries.

4. Which of the following statement is incorrect

A. Threshold frequency does not depend on the metal used.

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 B. The emission of photoelectrons is an instantaneous process.
C. Photoelectric emission does not occur below the threshold frequency.
D. The photoelectric current increases with the frequency of incident light.

5. How many neutrons is in this isotope of uranium; 238

92𝑈 ?
A. 92 neutrons B.119 neutrons C. 146 neutrons D. 238 neutrons

Lesson
The Photoelectric Effect
1

What’s In

Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect was discovered in 1887 by the German physicist Heinrich
Rudolf Hertz. In connection with work on radio waves, Hertz observed that, when ultraviolet
light shines on two metal electrodes with a voltage applied across them, the light changes the
voltage at which sparking takes place. This relation between light and electricity (hence
photoelectric) was clarified in 1902 by another German physicist, Philipp Lenard. He
demonstrated that electrically charged particles are liberated from a metal surface when it is
illuminated and that these particles are identical to electrons, which had been discovered by
the British physicist Joseph John Thomson in 1897.

It is a phenomenon in which electrically charged particles are released from or within

a material when it absorbs electromagnetic radiation. The effect is often defined as the ejection
of electrons from a metal plate when light falls on it. In a broader definition, the radiant energy
may be infrared, visible, or ultraviolet light, X-rays, or gamma rays; the material may be a solid,
liquid, or gas; and the released particles may be ions (electrically charged atoms or molecules)
as well as electrons. The phenomenon was fundamentally significant in the development of
modern physics because of the puzzling questions it raised about the nature of light—particle
versus wavelike behavior—that were finally resolved by Albert Einstein in 1905. The effect
remains important for research in areas from materials science to astrophysics, as well as
forming the basis for a variety of useful devices.

Further research showed that the photoelectric effect represents an interaction

between light and matter that cannot be explained by classical physics, which describes light
as an electromagnetic wave. One inexplicable observation was that the maximum kinetic
energy of the released electrons did not vary with the intensity of the light, as expected
according to the wave theory, but was proportional instead to the frequency of the light. What
the light intensity did determine was the number of electrons released from the metal

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(measured as an electric current). Another puzzling observation was that there was virtually
no time lag between the arrival of radiation and the emission of electrons.

The energy E of each quantum, or each photon, equals Planck’s constant h times the
radiation frequency symbolized by the Greek letter nu, ν, or simply E = hν.

Devices based on the photoelectric effect have

several desirable properties, including producing a current
that is directly proportional to light intensity and a very fast
response time. One basic device is the photoelectric cell, or
photodiode. Originally, this was a phototube, a vacuum tube
containing a cathode made of a metal with a small work
function so that electrons would be easily emitted. The
current released by the plate would be gathered by an anode
held at a large positive voltage relative to the cathode.
Phototubes have been replaced by semiconductor-based
photodiodes that can detect light, measure its intensity,
control other devices as a function of illumination, and turn
light into electrical energy. These devices work at low
voltages, comparable to their bandgaps, and they are used
in industrial process control, pollution monitoring, light
detection within fiber optics telecommunications networks,
solar cells, imaging, and many other applications. Figure 1

Solar Cell
When sunlight strikes a solar cell, an electron is freed by the photoelectric effect. The
two dissimilar semiconductors possess a natural difference in electric potential (voltage),
which causes the electrons to flow through the external circuit, supplying power to the load.
The flow of electricity results from the characteristics of the semiconductors and is powered
entirely by light striking the cell.

What’s New

Predictions Based on Light As A Wave.

To explain the photoelectric effect, 19th-century physicists theorized that the oscillating
electric field of the incoming light wave was heating the electrons and causing them to vibrate,
eventually freeing them from the metal surface. This hypothesis was based on the assumption
that light traveled purely as a wave through space. Scientists also believed that the energy of
the light wave was proportional to its brightness, which is related to the wave's amplitude. To
test their hypotheses, they performed experiments to look at the effect of light amplitude and
frequency on the rate of electron ejection, as well as the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons.

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 Based on the classical description of light as a wave, they made the following
predictions: The kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons should increase with the light
amplitude.

The rate of electron emission, which is proportional to the measured electric current,
should increase as the light frequency is increased.

To help us understand why they made these predictions, we can compare a light wave
to a water wave. Imagine some beach balls sitting on a dock that extends out into the ocean.
The dock represents a metal surface, the beach balls represent electrons, and the ocean
waves represent light waves.

Figure 2

If a single large wave were to shake the dock, we would expect the energy from the
big wave would send the beach balls flying off the dock with much more kinetic energy
compared to a single, small wave. This is also what physicists believed would happen if the
light intensity was increased. Light amplitude was expected to be proportional to the light
energy, so higher amplitude light was predicted to result in photoelectrons with more kinetic
energy.

Classical physicists also predicted that increasing the frequency of light waves (at a
constant amplitude) would increase the rate of electrons being ejected, and thus increase the
measured electric current. Using our beach ball analogy, we would expect waves hitting the
dock more frequently would result in more beach balls being knocked off the dock compared
to the same sized waves hitting the dock less often.

What is It

Solving problems involving the photoelectric effect

Using the experimental apparatus shown in Figure 3, when ultraviolet light with a
wavelength of 240 nm shines on a particular metal plate, electrons are emitted from plate 1,
crossing the gap to plate 2 and causing a current to flow through the wire connecting the two

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plates. The battery voltage is gradually increased until the current in the ammeter drops to
zero, at which point the battery voltage is 1.40 V.

Figure 3. A diagram of the experimental apparatus for carrying out the photoelectric effect experiment.

(a) What is the energy of the photons in the beam of light, in eV?
(b) What is the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons, in eV?
(c) What is the work function of the metal, in eV?
(d) What is the longest wavelength that would cause electrons to be emitted, for this
particular metal?
(e) Is this wavelength in the visible spectrum? If not, in what part of the spectrum is this light
found?

SOLUTION

(a) Assuming that the wavelength corresponds to the wavelength in vacuum, we can first
convert the wavelength to the frequency using

F = c/ƛ = (3.0 x 108 m/s) ÷ (2.40 x 10-7 m) = 1.25 x 1015 Hz

Now, to find the photon energy.

E = hf = (4.136 x 10-15 eV s) (1.25 x 1015 Hz) = 5.17 eV

(b) The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is related to the minimum voltage
across the two plates needed to stop the electrons from reaching the second plate (this
is known as the stopping potential). In this case, the stopping potential is 1.40 V, so
the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons is 1.40 eV.

(c) Now that we know the photon energy and the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons,
to find the work function of the metal

Wo = hf – Kmax = 5.17 eV – 1.40 eV = 3.77 eV

(d) The maximum wavelength that would cause electrons to be emitted corresponds to the
threshold frequency for this situation. Let’s first determine the threshold frequency, f 0

Wo = hfo so fo = 3.77 eV / 4.136 x 10-15 eV s = 9.12 x 1014 Hz

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 Converting the threshold frequency to wavelength, assuming the light is traveling in
vacuum, gives

ƛmax = c/fo = (3.0 x 108 m/s) ÷ 9.12 x 1014 Hz = 3.29 x 10-7 m

(e) This wavelength is 329 nm, less than the 400 nm (violet) wavelength that marks the
lower bound of the visible spectrum. This light is beyond violet, in the ultraviolet.

Emission and absorption spectra

Emission spectra

In the early 1900s, scientists found that a liquid or solid heated to high temperatures
would give off a broad range of colours of light. However, a gas heated to similar temperatures
would emit light only at certain specific wavelengths (colours). The reason for this observation
was not understood at the time.

Scientists studied this effect using a discharge tube.

The tube is filled with a gas. When a high enough

voltage is applied across the tube, the gas ionizes and acts
like a conductor, allowing a current to flow through the
circuit. The current excites the atoms of the ionized gas.
When the atoms fall back to their ground state, they emit
photons to carry off the excess energy.

Figure 4. Diagram of a discharge tube.

A discharge tube as shown in Figure 3, is a gas-filled, glass tube with a metal plate at
both ends. If a large enough voltage difference is applied between the two metal plates, the
gas atoms inside the tube will absorb enough energy to make some of their electrons come
off, i.e. the gas atoms are ionized. These electrons start moving through the gas and create a
current, which raises some electrons in other atoms to higher energy levels. Then as the
electrons in the atoms fall back down, they emit electromagnetic radiation (light). The amount
of light emitted at different wavelengths, called the emission spectrum, is shown for a
discharge tube filled with hydrogen gas in Figure 5 below. Only certain wavelengths (i.e.
colours) of light are seen, as shown by the lines in the picture.

Figure 5. Diagram of the emission spectrum of hydrogen in the visible spectrum.

In Figure 5, Four lines are visible, and are labelled with their wavelengths. The three
lines in the 400400–500500 nm range are in the blue part of the spectrum, while the higher
line (656656 nm) is in the red/orange part.

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 Eventually, scientists realize that these lines come from photons of a specific energy,
emitted by electrons making transitions between specific energy levels of the atom. When an
electron in an atom falls from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, it emits a photon
to carry off the extra energy. This photon's energy is equal to the energy difference between
the two energy levels (ΔE).

ΔE electron=Ef−Ei

As we previously discussed, the frequency of a photon is related to its energy through

the equation E=hf. Since a specific photon frequency (or wavelength) gives us a specific color,
we can see how each colored line is associated with a specific transition.

Figure 6. The electron energy levels for the hydrogen atom

The arrows show the electron transitions from higher energy levels to lower energy
levels. The energies of the emitted photons are the same as the energy difference between
two energy levels. You can think of absorption as the opposite process. The arrows would
point upwards, and the electrons would jump up to higher levels when they absorb a photon
of the right energy.

Figure 7. Wavelengths of light

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 Figure 7 shows the wavelengths of the light that is emitted for the various transitions.
The transitions are grouped into a series based on the lowest level involved in the transition.
Visible light is not the only kind of electromagnetic radiation emitted. More energetic or less
energetic transitions can produce ultraviolet or infrared radiation. However, because each
atom has its own distinct set of energy levels (its fingerprint!), each atom has its own distinct
emission spectrum.

Absorption Spectra
Atoms do not only emit photons; they also absorb photons. If a photon hits an atom
and the energy of the photon is the same as the gap between two electron energy levels in
the atom, then the electron in the lower energy level can absorb the photon and jump up to
the higher energy level. If the photon energy does not correspond to the difference between
two energy levels, then the photon will not be absorbed (it can still be scattered).

Using this effect, if we have a source of photons of various energies, we can obtain
the absorption spectra for different materials. To get an absorption spectrum, just shine
white light on a sample of the material that you are interested in. White light is made up of all
the different wavelengths of visible light put together. In the absorption spectrum there will be
gaps. The gaps correspond to energies (wavelengths) for which there is a corresponding
difference in energy levels for the particular element.

The absorbed photons show up as black lines because the photons of these
wavelengths have been absorbed and do not show up. Because of this, the absorption
spectrum is the exact inverse of the emission spectrum. Look at the two figures below.

In Figure 8 you can see the line emission spectrum of hydrogen. Figure 9 shows the
absorption spectrum. It is the exact opposite of the emission spectrum! Both emission and
absorption techniques can be used to get the same information about the energy levels of an
atom.

Figure 8. Emission spectrum of Hydrogen.

Figure 9. Absorption spectrum of Hydrogen.

The dark lines correspond to the frequencies of light that have been absorbed by the
gas. As the photons of light are absorbed by electrons, the electrons move into higher energy
levels. This is the opposite process of emission.

The dark lines, absorption lines, correspond to the frequencies of the emission
spectrum of the same element. The amount of energy absorbed by the electron to move into

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a higher level is the same as the amount of energy released when returning to the original
energy level.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
ABSORPTION
I have an unknown gas in a glass container. I shine a bright white light through one
side of the container and measure the spectrum of transmitted light. I notice that there is a
black line (absorption line) in the middle of the visible red band at 642642 nm. I have a hunch
that the gas might be hydrogen. If I am correct, between which 2 energy levels does this
transition occur? (Hint: look at Figure 6, 7 and the transitions which are in the visible part of
the spectrum.)

What is given and what needs to be done?

We have an absorption line at 642642 nm. This means that the substance in the glass
container absorbed photons with a wavelength of 642 nm. We need to calculate which 2
energy levels of hydrogen this transition would correspond to. Therefore, we need to know
what energy the absorbed photons had.

Calculate the energy of the absorbed photons.

E=hcλ
= (6,63×10−34) × (3×108) / 642×10−9
E=3,1×10−19 J

The absorbed photons had an energy of 3,1×10−19J.

Find the energy of the transitions resulting in radiation at visible wavelengths.

Figure 6 and 7 shows various energy level transitions. The transitions related to visible
wavelengths are marked as the transitions beginning or ending on Energy Level 2. Let us find
the energy of those transitions and compare with the energy of the absorbed photons we have
just calculated.

Energy of transition (absorption) from Energy Level 2 to Energy Level 3:

ΔEelectron =E2,3=E2−E3
=(16,3×10−19) – (19,4×10−19)
=−3,1×10−19 J
Therefore, the energy of the photon that an electron must absorb to jump from Energy
Level 2 to Energy Level 3 is 3,1×10−19J. (NOTE: The minus sign means that absorption is
occurring.)

This is the same energy as the photons which were absorbed by the gas in the
container! Therefore, since the transitions of all elements are unique, we can say that the gas
in the container is hydrogen. The transition is absorption of a photon between Energy Level 2
and Energy Level 3.

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Radioactivity
It is the property exhibited by certain types of matter of emitting energy and subatomic
particles spontaneously. It is, in essence, an attribute of individual atomic nuclei.

An unstable nucleus will decompose spontaneously, or decay, into a more stable

configuration but will do so only in a few specific ways by emitting certain particles or certain
forms of electromagnetic energy.

Types of Radioactivity
The early work on natural radioactivity associated with uranium and thorium ores identified
two distinct types of radioactivity: alpha and beta decay.

1. Alpha decay
In alpha decay, an energetic helium ion (alpha particle) is ejected, leaving a daughter
nucleus of atomic number two less than the parent and of atomic mass number four less than
the parent.

An example is the decay (symbolized by an arrow) of the abundant isotope

of uranium, 238U, to a thorium daughter plus an alpha particle.

Given for this and subsequent reactions are the energy released (Q) in millions of electron
volts (MeV) and the half-life (t1⁄2). It should be noted that in alpha decays the charges, or
number of protons, shown in subscript are in balance on both sides of the arrow, as are the
atomic masses, shown in superscript.

2. Beta-minus decay
In beta-minus decay, an energetic negative electron is emitted, producing a daughter
nucleus of one higher atomic number and the same mass number. An example is the decay
of the uranium daughter product thorium-234 into protactinium-234.

In the above reaction for beta decay, ν represents the antineutrino. Here, the number
of protons is increased by one in the reaction, but the total charge remains the same, because
an electron, with negative charge, is also created.

3. Gamma decay
Gamma rays are photons and are without rest mass or charge. Alpha or beta decay
may simply proceed directly to the ground (lowest energy) state of the daughter nucleus
without gamma emission, but the decay may also proceed wholly or partly to
higher energy states (excited states) of the daughter. In the latter case, gamma emission may
occur as the excited states transform to lower energy states of the same nucleus.

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 Radioactive decay is a property of several naturally occurring elements as well as of
artificially produced isotopes of the elements. The rate at which a radioactive element decays
is expressed in terms of its half-life; i.e., the time required for one-half of any given quantity of
the isotope to decay. Half-lives range from more than 1024 years for some nuclei to less than
10−23 second (see below Rates of radioactive transitions). The product of a radioactive decay
process—called the daughter of the parent isotope—may itself be unstable, in which case it,
too, will decay. The process continues until a stable nuclide has been formed.

Radioactive decay is a statistical process. For any sample with a large number of
atoms for a particular radionuclide, there is no way to predict which atom will be the next one
to decay, but the decay characteristics of the entire sample can be described. The number of
atoms that decay per unit of time (i.e., rate of decay) is defined as the activity, A, and is defined
by the fundamental law of radioactivity:

A = −dN/dt = λN

where N is the number of radioactive atoms and λ is the decay constant.

The value of λ is different for each species of radionuclide. An equation describing the
time dependence of the number of atoms of a radionuclide is

N(t) = N0e−λt eq.3

where N0 is the number of radioactive atoms at time t = 0. Therefore, the process of

radioactive decay is an exponential law, and the activity of the nuclide is controlled by a
characteristic property known as the half-life (i.e., the period of time during which half of the
original atoms of that nuclide disintegrate).

Since the activity is proportional to the number of radioactive atoms, it decreases

exponentially with time as well:

A(t) = A0e−λt eq.4

The exponential behavior of the law or radioactivity, as defined by eq. 3 and eq. 4, is
due to the fact that radioactive transmutations are random. Deviations from this behavior are
increasingly smaller as larger numbers of radioactive atoms are monitored.

The half-life is related to the decay constant according to the equation.

t1/2 = ln 2 / λ = 0.693 / λ

The half-lives of radionuclides range from milliseconds to several times the age of the
universe.

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 What’s More

Activity 1. Let us work with Math.

Directions: Analyze the given problem below and answer the provided questions. Show your
complete solution. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.
1. How much energy is released when 1 mole of Uranium undergoes alpha decay?
2. How many Uranium atoms must undergo alpha decay to release 50 joules of energy?
3. What is the total mass of these atoms in u? in kg?

Activity 2. Photoelectric Effect Activity

In order to be able to understand the photoelectric effect: Let’s do some calculations and
make some predictions as a warm up!

Useful equations: 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝑐/𝜆

1. One has a red laser pointer with a wavelength (λ) of 700 nm. What is the energy (E)
per photon emitted by the pointer?
2. If the light source were a UV lamp with a wavelength of 254 nm and the work function
(Φ𝑚etal = ℎ𝑐/ 𝜆0) for a metal gives ƛ0 = 298 nm. Would this source create photoelectrons?
If so, what would be the kinetic energy (K.E.) of an electron ejected from this metal?
3. How could you increase the number of electrons ejected from the metal without
changing the K.E. for individual electrons?

What I Have Learned

1. Based on the wave model of light, physicists predicted that increasing light amplitude
would increase the kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons, while increasing the
frequency would increase measured current.
2. Contrary to the predictions, experiments showed that increasing the light frequency
increased the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons, and increasing the light amplitude
increased the current.
3. Based on these findings, Einstein proposed that light behaved like a stream of particles
called photons with an energy.
4. The work function is the minimum amount of energy required to induce photoemission of
electrons from a metal surface, and the value depends on the metal.
5. The energy of the incident photon must be equal to the sum of the metal's work function
and the photoelectron kinetic energy.

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6. The three common radioactive decay processes, ranked according to their capacity to
penetrate matter are (1) alpha decay, (2) beta decay and (3) gamma decay.
7. The total number of nucleons and the total charge remain the same before and after
radioactive decay and other nuclear reactions.
8. All radiation are potentially harmful but small doses can have very small risks that are
easily outweighed by their advantages.

What I Can Do

Error Hunting
A. Directions: The test item below has been answer for you, but your task is to identify which
of the given answers for every item is incorrect.

Sample Test Item:

True or False.
Direction: Write true if the statement is correct and false if the statement is incorrect.
True 1. A group of protons and neutrons can be collectively called nucleons.
True 2. The size of the electron is greater than the neutron.
True 3. The mass of the proton is nearest to that of one atomic mass.
True 4. It is the weak nuclear force that keeps the nucleus of the atoms together.
False 5. Coulomb’s Law and the Law of Universal Gravitation both deal with
attractive and repulsive forces.
False 6. The sun produces heavier nuclei using fusion and in the process releases
energy.
True 7. A substance is deemed radioactive if it spontaneously emits particles from
its nucleus.
False 8. Gamma decay is characterized by photons with high levels of energy, but
no mass is removed from the atom.
True 9. Radioactive cobalt is used in killing cancer cells.
True 10. A bacterium that causes food spoilage is propagated by irradiation.

B. Directions: If there are errors on the given examination above do the following:
1. Copy the error and explain why this is wrong.
2. Write a correction of the identified error.
3. Then explain why your correction is right.

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Table B.
Identified Error and Correction of Error Explanation of Error
Explanation

You will be graded based on the given Rubric below:

COMPONENT ACCEPTABLE PARTIALLY NOT RATING
2 ACCEPTABLE 1 ACCEPTABLE
0
ERROR Errors are Errors are No errors are
IDENTIFICATION correctly and correctly but not corrected or
completely completely identified.
identified identified.
EXPLANATION Reasons for Reasons for Does not
OF ERROR errors are errors are provide any
logical. confusing. reasons.
CORRECTION Correction is well Correction is well Does not
AND ITS done. Reason for done. However, provide any
EXPLANATION correction is reasons for correction or
logical. corrections are explanation.
confusing. May
also include
some wrong
corrections.
TOTAL
Rapatan 2020

Assessment

Directions: Read and analyze each item. Write only the letter of the correct answer in a
separate sheet of paper.

1. In a photoelectric experiment for 4000 Å incident radiation, the potential difference to stop
the ejection is 2 V. If the incident light is changed to 3000 Å, then how much potential is
required to stop the ejection of electrons?
A. 2 V C. zero
B. less than 2 V D. greater than 2 V

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2. Photoelectrons stopping potential depends on __________.
A. Nature of cathode material.
B. The intensity of the incident light.
C. The frequency of the incident light.
D. Frequency of incident light and nature of the cathode material.

3.During Eistein’s Photoelectric Experiment, what changes are observed when the frequency
of the incident radiation is increased?
A. The value of Saturation current increases.
B. The value of Saturation current decreases.
C. The value of stopping potential increases.
D. The value of stopping potential decreases.

4. If 4.0X1018 atoms decay with a half-life of 2.3 years, how many are remaining after 3.7
years?
A. 2.5X1018 C. 1.3X1018
18
B. 1.7X10 D. 1.1X1018

5. What happens to the half-life of a radioactive substance as it decays?

A. It remains constant.
B. It increases.
C. It decreases.
D. It could do any of these.

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Answer Key
5. A 5. C
4. C 4. A
3.C 3. B
2. D 2. C
1. D 1. A
Assessment What I Know

References
Physics, Phoenix Science Series

Emission and absorption spectra | Optical phenomena and properties of matter | Siyavula.
(n.d.). Intl.siyavula.com. Retrieved May 10, 2021, from
https://intl.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-12/optical-phenomena-and-properties-of-
matter/12-optical-phenomena-and-properties-of-matter-
03#:~:text=The%20lines%20on%20the%20atomic

Photoelectric effect - Applications. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/science/photoelectric-effect/Applications

Radioactive Decay - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (2019). Sciencedirect.com.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/radioactive-decay

https://switkes.chemistry.ucsc.edu/teaching/CHEM1B/Activities/Photoelec_pre_activ.pdf

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