CHPATER 3.

Establishment and Management of Orchards

3.1. Orchards site selection
• Planting a fruit orchard is a long-term investment, usually taking 3 years to
bear a commercial crop and then continuing economic production for
another 15 - 30 years
• Careful planning results in optimum production, high returns and long tree life

• In selecting a site for an orchard, choose a good area for the fruit to be grown

• Any attempt to grow a new or different fruit crop of high quality and good
yields in an area that has not been proved increases the grower's risk
• When choosing a potential site for an orchard, issues relating to the land, such as
soil type, topography, slope and water supply need to be considered carefully
 A) Climate
• Site selection for an orchard must take into account local and regional weather
patterns
• Climatic factors for the chosen site including temperature, rainfall, wind, hail
and frost potential also need to be taken into consideration
• Frosts can injure flowers and affect fruit set and shoot growth

• Rain can increase the risk of fungal and bacterial diseases

• Where as hail and strong winds can cause physical damage to fruit and limbs

• To avoid the risk of sunburn on fruit and limbs, covering trees with shade
cloth, sunburn protection sprays and painting of tree limbs may be necessary
 B) Water supplies
• An adequate supply of water throughout the growing season, is vital

• This water is supplied from underground aquifers or surface water from

streams, rivers, or canals; most orchards use a combination of these sources
• In spite of its availability, the cost of water can be a factor in fruit production

• Water must be free from excessive/ injurious salts, such as Na, B, and Cl

• Without proper drainage of water, trees will lack aeration, develop root
diseases, become weakened and non-productive and even die
• Water drainage is poor on some soils, e.g. clayish soil, therefore, such soils
are not suitable for orchard planting
C) Past crops, diseases; The crop previously grown on a potential site may influence future
productivity
•Orchards planted on old orchard soil reduce vigor and productiveness
•To overcome these effects, soil fumigation is necessary before planting on old orchards or
vineyards
•Soil fumigation helps to rid soil of nematodes left there from the previous crop
•Consider residual soil diseases before planting fruits
D) Salinity and Sodicity: Fruit and nut crops generally have a low tolerance to salt
•A sodic soil (soils high in sodium) will:
Restrict moisture penetration to the soil,
Set hardpans and
Limiting the movement of water, oxygen and the growth of tree roots
•Over years of crop production and irrigation, many of our horticultural soils have
accumulated salt in the soil profile
E) Soil management: Fruit tree crops tend to be planted on light-textured soils such
as sandy loams or loams
•Field assessments of soil include texture, rooting depth of vegetation, presence of
lime or gravel, hardpans and water-tables
•Soil analysis in the laboratory may include pH, water-holding capacity, organic
matter, nutrient status, salt content, cation-exchange capacity (nutrient retention)
•A soil test is essential before planting to allow application of soil treatments and
amendments which cannot effectively be carried out after planting
•Many tree crops are sensitive to poor drainage (waterlogging) of the soil profile
•Shallow top soils (15-20cm deep) can provide good drainage and when managed
carefully will support a healthy root system
•Growing cover crops and adding organic mulch
Increases Porosity and Firmness of the soil
Allowing frequent irrigation with a reduced risk of water logging and disease of tree roots
3.2. Land preparation: once you have selected a site, you must prepare it
•When starting a new orchard, you may want to consider the lab test of organic matter level in
your soil
•Because organic matter is an important consideration in determining how fertile your soil is
•If you are replacing an existing orchard/clearing the land for a new one take the soil sample
•Examine the field for the presence of perennial weeds before working the ground
•If the site has been open pasture or field cropland, be sure to take a nematode sample
•After the field crop has been plowed down, take a soil test before doing the final disking and
leveling
• Incorporate any needed amendments, such as lime, phosphorus or potassium
•Orchard sod/ grass should be planted before trees are planted
•Grass establishes itself rapidly and is a durable cover crop, although it does require frequent
mowing during the growing season
 3.3. Field lay out and planting system
• Any method of layout should aim at providing maximum number of trees/ ha

• Adequate space is important for proper development of the trees and ensures conveniences
in orchard cultural practices

• The system of layout can be grouped under two broad categories;

A) Vertical row planting pattern and B) Alternate row planting pattern

A)Vertical row planting pattern

1. Square system: is the most commonly used system and is very easy to layout
 In this system, trees are planted at each corner of a square

 The central place between four trees may be advantageously

used to raise short lived trees/ inter cropping
2. Rectangular system: in this system, trees are planted on each
corner of a rectangle
 The distance between two rows is more than the distance
between two trees in a row,
Wider spaces available between rows of trees permit easy
intercultural operations and use of mechanical operations
B) Alternate row planting pattern
1. Triangular system
 Triangular system is based on the principle of iso-lateral triangles
 The distance between any two adjacent trees in a row is equal to the
perpendicular distance between any two adjacent rows
 When compared to square system, each tree occupies more area and
hence it accommodates few trees per hectare than the square system
2. Hexagonal System/ 'septule': In this method, the trees are planted in each corner of an
equilateral triangle, this system provides equal spacing between plants
 In this system six trees form a hexagon with the seventh tree in the center

 This system accommodates 15% more trees than the square system

This system is generally followed where the land is costly and very fertile with ample
provision of irrigation water

Limitations; its difficulty to layout and the cultivation is not so easily done as square
3. Diagonal/quincunx system: is the square method but with one more plant in the
center of the square, the central (filler) tree chosen may be a short lived one
The number of plants per acre by this system is almost doubled than the square
system
This system can be followed when the distance b/n the permanent trees is more than 10m

As there will be competition b/n permanent and filler trees, the filler trees
 Cont.
4. Contour system: is followed on the hills where the plants
are planted along the contour across the slope

 It particularly suits to land with steep topography, where

there is greater danger of erosion and irrigation is difficult
 The planting distance under the contour system may not be uniform

 The main purpose of this system is to minimize land erosion, to conserve soil
moisture and to make the slope fit for growing fruits and plantation crops

 The contour line is graded in such a way that water flow in the irrigation
channel becomes slow and penetrate into the soil without causing erosion
The total number of trees per hectare for various crops and systems are given below:
No. of trees per hectare
Crop Planting distance (in m) Square system Hexagonal Triangular
system system
Mango 10 x 10 100 115 89

Guavas 5x5 400 461 357

Coconut 7.5 x 7.5 177 205 159

Note that: the hexagonal system accommodates 15% more number

of plants while triangular system accommodates 11% lesser
number of plants
Planting distance: The minimum vertical distance between any two
trees or plants is referred to us the planting distance and this varies
depending upon many factors;
1. Kind of fruit trees - mangoes are planted at 10m*10m, guavas at 5m*5m while papay as of
2m*2m

2. Rainfall - wider spacing should be given for trees grown in low RF areas than the high RF
areas

3. Soil type and soil fertility - in heavy soils less spacing should be given because the top &
root growth are limited, while on fertility, wider spacing should be given on fertile soil

4. Pruning and training - trees trained on head system requires closer spacing

5. Irrigation system: heavily irrigated fruit plants need to have wider space
 Cont.
• In general, if the spacing is too wide, it is obvious that the yield per unit area
would be greatly reduced whereas, too close planting results in a greater yield
per unit area in the early life of the tree but less yield per unit area in later years
• It is more profitable to plant the trees closer together and supply the needed
water and food materials; fertilizers
• If fruit trees are too close together,
 The trees grow tall,
 Cultivation, spraying and harvesting will become so difficult
 There is root competition and inadequate of nutrition occurs and
 Trees give less yield and produce smaller fruits of poor color
 High density planting system
 Planting of fruit trees rather at a closer spacing than the recommended using
certain special techniques with the only objective of obtaining maximum
productivity per unit area without sacrificing quality is referred as 'High
density planting' or HDP Characteristics of HDP are:
Advantages of HDP are: a) The trees of HDP should have maximum number of fruiting
branches and minimum number of structural branches
(i)Early cropping and higher
b) The trees are generally trained with a central leader surrounded by
yields for a long time; nearly horizontal fruiting branches
c) Fruiting branches should be arranged and pruned in such a way that
(ii)Reduced labor costs and
each branch casts a minimum amount of shade on other branches
(iii) Improved fruit quality d) The height should be one and half its diameter at the base (if D= 2m;
H= 3m)
 A key to successful HDP depends upon the control of tree size
 3.4. Staking and digging holes for field planting
 The need to stake newly-planted trees is for support or anchorage
 Install the stakes either in the hole before it is filled with soil or
outside the hole after planting
 If a tree seems too weak or not very straight, place a strong stick in
the ground close to the seedling and tie a piece of old plastic wrapper
between the stick and the seedling
Digging holes for field planting
•If possible planting holes should be dug before rainy season begins
• Dig a hole 30 cm*30 cm or 45 cm*45 cm or 60 cm*60 cm (in dry areas)
•However the size of the hole will also depend on the size of the seedling
•The purpose of digging planting hole is to soften the soil so that the roots of the seedling can
easily penetrate and the lose soil can contain more moisture
Planting process
 Water the seedling before transporting them from the nursery to the planting site
 While transporting seedlings if the planting site is far use boxes or bags
 Always carry the seedlings upright
 Transferring seedlings from the nursery to the field needs great care
 If the seedlings were raised in polythene tubes or tins; Chose strong seedlings
Pack the seedlings by arranging them skillfully
 If ready to plant, re-fill ¼ of the holes with wet top soil around the holes or with the soil removed
when preparing the holes
 Remove the polythene bag by tearing it while holding the seedling up-right
 Remove the seedling from the tube with its soil by holding it under the stem
 Put the seedling in the hole and cover it with the top soil
 Place the seedlings in the hole without removing the pot soil or bending roots
 Fill the hole with top soil from the forest or the best soil you have nearby
 If possible this soil can be mixed with manure to provide the plant with more nutrition
• Make sure the seedlings sits in the ground at the same level it sat in the container or
nursery
• When the hole is filled, push gently the soil with your hands and your feet to firm the
soil Firm it into the shape of a basin so that it catches rain water and irrigated water
• Water the seedlings immediately after planting, if the rain is not enough
• If planting is in dry season, water two times a day-early morning and later in the
evenings or at least once but in the evenings
• If the plant is not safe, build a fence of sticks or thorns around the seedling to protect
the plant from goats and wild animals
• Avoid clods that may bend roots down and possibly weaken tree anchorage
• If the side of the hole is "glazed" break the side into the hole to make it easier for
water to penetrate and for roots to grow into the surrounding area
• Lightly irrigate newly planted trees soon after planting to settle soil around roots and
to remove air pockets
• Final filling of the hole can be completed after the water soaks in around the root system
 3.5. Irrigation
• Commercial orchards must have reliable supply of water to produce optimum
yields
• Amount and frequency of the irrigation water to be applied is very important

• Advances in irrigation technology have improved water use efficiency through

the use of micro-jet/drip irrigation
• Micro-jets produces uniform distribution of water and reduces structural
breakdown but there is potential for more water loss due to evaporation
• In drip irrigation soil is saturated under the dripper and lateral movement of
water is determined by soil properties
 3.6. Mulching, Cultivation and Weed control
Mulching: is one of the most important soil management practices

 Crop residues like straw, cotton stems, leaves, saw dust, polythene films, special kinds
of paper are spread in the tree basins and in inter spaces between trees

 Conservation of soil moisture and control of weed growth are the main objectives of
mulching;

 The other advantages of mulching are:

1. Keeps soil cool in day; warm at night time 2. Reduces surface run-off
3. Adds humus to the soil 4. It reduces irrigation frequency
5. Allows the absorption of more rain water 6. Prevents soil erosion and

7. Fruits are protected and kept clean since they fall on the mulches
 Cont.
• The following are some of the disadvantages of mulching:

1.Dry materials can be used as mulches; so that encourage the risk of fire and
consequently damage our trees

2. Thick mulches may act as places for mice and rodents to live and multiply
 They may cause damage to tree trunks by eating the bark and roots by
digging to the ground

Note: The mulching materials should be placed too close to the tree trunk and it
should be spread in such a way that they give a good cover to the root system of
the trees
 Cultivation
• Orchard cultivation refers to the careful management of the orchard soil in
such a way that the soil is maintained in a good condition to the needs of the tree
with least expenses
• This involves maintenance of the physical condition of the soil, its moisture and
nutrient content
• A good system of orchard cultivation should ensure:

l. Good weed control 2. Saving of soil moisture and nutrients

3.Very little disturbance to soil 4. Preventing soil erosion and

5. Reduced cost of farming/production

 Methods of soil Cultivation
1. Clean culture: involves regular ploughing and removal of weeds
 Has many disadvantages;

i. Humus will be completely depleted rapidly due to frequent cultivation

ii. Frequent cultivation causes injury to the feeding roots as a result the trees may
be short lived or stunted in growth

iii. Hard pan is created in the soil

iv. Frequent cultivation causes more soil erosion

1. The above mentioned defects in clean cultivation can be minimized by avoiding

deep and frequent cultivation and also cultivation when the soil is too wet
 2. Clean culture with cover crops Clean culture
 This type of cultivation involves growing of a cover crop or green manure
after removing the weeds
 So it is probably best to plant a green manure crop between the trees early in
the rains and plough it into the soil towards the end of rainy season
Weed control
• Perennial weeds, such as Bermuda grass, must be eradicated before fruit trees
are planted
• Before planting, frequent disking or disturbing the soil, especially during
summer, help to eliminate perennial weeds
• Spraying on established weeds with a systemic herbicide and disking, following
irrigation, help to reduce weeds
• Spraying pre-emergence herbicides help to control germinating weed seeds
 3.7. Fertilization program
• For normal function and growth, plants obtain most of the mineral nutrients from the soil-water
solution
• The major nutrients needed are Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium
• Secondary nutrients are Calcium, Magnesium and Sulphur
• Whereas micronutrients are iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron and chlorine
• Soil texture, minerals and organic matter that make up the soil mass have a strong influence on
the buffering capacity to hold nutrients and resist the loss of nutrients due to leaching

• Organic matter plays an important part in controlling the availability of nutrients, especially
nitrogen, phosphorous and sulphur

• Soil pH affects both the availability and absorption of mineral nutrients

• A soil analysis will indicate the level of nutrients present, but not necessarily available to the
 3.8. Pruning
• Newly planted trees must be pruned back carefully to knee height, so that the new
shoots that form future scaffold limbs will be properly positioned

• Side branches below this point should be trimmed back to one or two buds; so that
new shoots will grow and the tree can be properly trained in the following year

• For pruning to be done on time, hand pruners and pruning saws with well-
sharpened blades for clean cuts are satisfactory

• Removal of larger branches is more costly because it may require trained personnel
for using power saws

• It also creates larger wounds that heal more slowly, and it causes greater stress on the
plant which may sometimes become un-economical and cause death on the fruit tree
 3.9. Pest management in orchards
Insects: there are few serious insect pests on mature trees

•Pink hibiscus mealy bugs, Bumble bees, Wasps, ants, termites cutting ants or bachacs (Atta sp)
should be controlled from the orchard site

Diseases, Fruit rot: Rots are the major fruit disease problem in many orchard, caused by two
pathogens

•These pathogens can be controlled by ensuring that the orchard is well drained and that the tree
canopies are pruned for proper air circulation

•Field sanitation is important, therefore, infected branches should be pruned

•Diseased fruits from trees and orchard floor, should be removed from the field and burned in order to
reduce the inoculum load

•Applications of copper fungicides with a mist blower at the onset of the rainy season and during fruit
development can reduce the incidence of the disease
 Integrated pest and disease management
• All fruit and nut crops will have some potential insect and disease problems

• Crop monitoring is carried out by visual inspection of the crop for the presence of
insect, diseases, crop damage and beneficial insects, monitoring can also be done by
setting up traps for specific pests and these will need to be inspected regularly

• Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an effective combination of chemical, cultural

and biological methods to keep, insect pest numbers, disease pressure and other crop
production problems low enough to prevent significant economic loss

• Implementation of IPM helps protection of the environment resulted from

chemical use, may be reduced, or replaced by less toxic chemicals and the
introduction of natural predators
 3.10. Harvesting and post-harvest handling
Harvesting: fruits should be harvested at the stage of maturity that is comfortable for
consumption
•This requires some knowledge of the maturity indices like fruit size, skin color, skin
texture and absence or presence of latex on the skin
Harvesting procedures:
•Harvesting should be done early in the morning when air temperature and field-heat
in the fruit are still low
•A harvesting method that minimizes damage to the fruits should be used because any
damage will reduce their marketability
•During the entire harvesting process, fruit of different cultivars should be kept
separate
• A single person may harvest fruits by hand on shorter/younger trees, but as
the trees grow taller, a harvesting aid/ fruit picker consisting of a bag attached
to a long pole can be used
• Harvested marketable fruits, are placed in crates for transport to
the packing house in covered and well-ventilated vehicles to
remove field heat
• Fruits may also be transported to longer distance in large
containers with cold water or in trucks equipped with cooling
facilities
• Avoid damage due to bruising during transportation, b/c this will;
1) Encourage Infection,
2) Shorten Shelf-life and
3) Reduce Marketability
 Postharvest handling and cooling requirements
• Post harvest cooling and refrigerated storage of fruit is important to maintain
shelf-life and preserve quality
• The crates are off-loaded at a packaging facility that is covered and well-
ventilated
• The fruits should be washed to remove dirt and field debris in cool water
containing 150 ppm sodium hypochlorite and with pH 6.5 to prevent post-
harvest disease infection, then air-dried on a flat surface
• All fruits must be examined to ensure that they meet market specifications –
cultivar, stage of maturity, size, freedom from blemishes, damage and disease
 Cont.
• Fruits for export should be graded for size, so that fruit of different sizes
should be placed in separate cartons

• Fruits for the local market should also be graded and packed in durable crates

• If fruit must be stored before delivery, a storage temperature of 12.5 to 13°C

must be maintained; b/c lower temperatures will cause chilling injury, while at
higher temperatures the fruit will ripen more quickly

• Ideal RH of storage is 90-95% to prevent water and weight loss and shriveling

• The storage time between packing and delivery should be as short as possible to
ensure that the fruit still has a reasonable shelf life when it reaches the consumer
 Cont.
• The key to successful fruit production is careful planning, particularly site
selection, choice of cultivar and tree spacing and arrangement, consistent
and proper implementation of all cultural operations, harvesting and
postharvest handling
• Well-maintained fruit orchards with good canopy cover can benefit the
environment by minimizing soil erosion, increasing water infiltration and
recycling nutrients
• Therefore, such commercial fruit production can be sustainable because it can
be financially viable for producers, environmentally friendly and can
contribute to food and nutrition security for the country