Ironscan - RT Study Material - Final

IRONSCAN Institute of Non-Destructive testing and services
RADIOGRAPHY TESTING
1. Introduction:
 Radiographic Testing (RT), or industrial radiography, is a non-destructive testing

(NDT) method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws by using the ability of short
wavelength electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons) to penetrate various
materials.
 Either an X-ray machine or a radioactive source, like Ir-192, Co-60, or in rare cases
Cs-137 are used in a X-ray computed tomography machine as a source of photons.
 Neutron radiographic testing (NR) is a variant of radiographic testing which uses
neutrons instead of photons to penetrate materials. This can see very different
things from X-rays, because neutrons can pass with ease through lead and steel but
are stopped by plastics, water and oils.
2. Principle: Differential absorption
 RADIOLOGY is the general term given to material inspection methods that are based
on the differential absorption of penetrating radiation either electromagnetic
radiation of very short wavelength or particulate radiation by the part or test piece
(object) being inspected.
 Because of differences in density and variations in thickness of the part or
differences in absorption characteristics caused by variations in composition,
different portions of a test piece absorb different amounts of penetrating radiation.
These variations in the absorption of the penetrating radiation can be monitored by
detecting the unabsorbed radiation that passes through the test piece.
 Radiography can detect only those features that have an appreciable thickness in a
direction parallel to the radiation beam. This means that the ability of the process to
detect planar discontinuities such as cracks depends on proper orientation of the
test piece during inspection.
 Discontinuities such as voids and inclusions, which have measurable thickness in all
directions, can be detected as long as they are not too small in relation to section
thickness. In general, features that exhibit a 1% or more difference in absorption
compared to the surrounding material can be detected.
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 Three basic elements of radiography include a radiation source, the test piece or
object being evaluated, and a sensing material. These elements are shown
schematically in Figure.
 The test piece in Figure is a plate of uniform thickness containing an internal flaw
that has absorption characteristics different from those of the surrounding material.
 Radiation from the source is absorbed by the test piece as the radiation passes
through it; the flaw and surrounding material absorb different amounts of radiation.
 The intensity of radiation that impinges on the sensing material in the area beneath
the flaw is different from the amount that impinges on adjacent areas. This produces
an image, or shadow, of the flaw on the sensing material.
3. Radiograph and photography:

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 There are several characteristics of the photographs and x-ray photographs that are
similar, and yet, there are very distinct differences. Radiography and photography both
often use some type of film to record the image.
 The principle difference is in how the image is recorded on the film.
a) In photography, the image on the film is produced due to the reflection of light.
When you want to take a picture, you use a camera, which has a shutter that opens
and closes allowing light to enter and strike the film. The amount of light that
interacts with the film determines how the image appears on the film.
b) In radiography, the process to produce an image is quite different. The camera is
actually a radiation source and it operates quite differently than a photographic
camera. The film is not placed inside the camera but instead is placed on the
opposite side of the object being imaged. The radiation is not reflected to the film,
but rather passes through the object and then strikes the film. The image on the film
is dependent upon how much of the radiation makes it through the object and to the
film. The amount of material that the X-rays must travel through also affects how
many X-rays reach the film. Differences in the type of material and the amount of
material that the X-rays must penetrate are responsible for the details in the image.
4. The discovery of radioactivity:

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 In 1895, a German physicist, W. C. Roentgen was working with a cathode ray tube in
his laboratory. He was working with tubes similar to our fluorescent light bulbs. He
evacuated the tube of all air, filled it with a special gas, and passed a high electric
voltage through it. When he did this, the tube would produce a fluorescent glow.
Roentgen shielded the tube with heavy black paper, and found that a green colored
fluorescent light could be seen coming from a screen setting a few feet away from
the tube.
 He realized that he had produced a previously unknown "invisible light," or ray, that
was being emitted from the tube; a ray that was capable of passing through the
heavy paper covering the tube. Through additional experiments, he also found that
the new ray would pass through most substances casting shadows of solid objects
on pieces of film.
 He named the new ray X-ray, because in mathematics "X" is used to indicated the
unknown quantity.
 In his discovery Roentgen found that the X-ray would pass through the tissue of
humans leaving the bones and metals visible. The news of Roentgen’s discovery
spread quickly throughout the world.
 In 1896 Henri Becquerel was using naturally fluorescent minerals to study the
properties of x-rays, which had been discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Roentgen. He
exposed potassium uranyl sulphate to sunlight and then placed it on photographic
plates wrapped in black paper, believing that the uranium absorbed the sun’s
energy and then emitted it as x-rays. This hypothesis was disproved on the 26 th-27th
of February, when his experiment "failed" because it was overcast in Paris.
 Becquerel decided to develop his photographic plates with uranium compounds. To
his surprise, the images were strong and clear, proving that the uranium emitted
radiation without an external source of energy such as the sun. Becquerel had
discovered radioactivity.
 The term radioactivity was actually coined by Marie Curie, who together with her
husband Pierre, began investigating the phenomenon recently discovered by
Becquerel. The Curies extracted uranium from ore and to their surprise, found that
the leftover ore showed more activity than the pure uranium. They concluded that
the ore contained other radioactive elements. This led to the discoveries of the
elements polonium and radium. It took four more years of processing tons of ore to
isolate enough of each element to determine their chemical properties.
 Scientists everywhere could duplicate his experiment because the cathode tube was
very well known during this period. In early 1896, X-rays were being utilized
clinically in the United States for such things as bone fractures and gunshot wounds.
 For the discovery of radioactivity, Becquerel was awarded the 1903 Nobel Prize for
physics.
 For the work on radioactivity, the Curies were awarded the 1903 Nobel Prize in
physics.
 In 1910, Marie Curie was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for her discoveries of
radium and polonium, thus becoming the first person to receive two Nobel Prizes.
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 Since these discoveries, many other radioactive elements have been discovered or
produced. Today many artificial radioactive materials are produced and put to use in
various ways ranging from medical to industrial.
5. Atoms and elements
 All matter, such as solids, liquids and gases, is composed of atoms.

 Any material that is composed of only one type of atom is called a chemical
element, a basic element, or just an element.
 An atom is the smallest particle of any element that still retains the
characteristics of that element.
 A piece of an element that we are able to see or handle is made of many,
many atoms and all atoms are the same, they all have the same number of
protons.
 The atoms of different elements are different from each other because they
have different numbers of protons.
 Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of an atom. All protons are
identical to each other, and all neutrons are identical to each other.
 Protons have a positive electrical charge, so they are often represented with
the mark of a "+" sign. Neutrons have no electrical charge and are said to help
hold the protons together (protons are positively charged particles and should
repel each other).
 The number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus give the atoms their
specific characteristics.
 The number of protons in the nucleus of every atom of an element is always
the same, but this is not the case with the number of neutrons. Atoms of the
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same element can have a different number of neutrons. Atoms want to have
the same number of neutrons and protons but the number of neutrons can
change.
5.1 Atomic Number:
 The atomic number of a chemical element (also known as its proton number)
is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom of that element,
and therefore identical to the charge number of the nucleus.
 It is conventionally represented by the symbol Z.
 The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element. In an uncharged
atom, the atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons.
5.2 Mass Number:
 The mass number (A), also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is
the total number of protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons) in an
atomic nucleus.
 Because protons and neutrons both are baryons, the mass number A is
identical with the baryon number B as of the nucleus as of the whole atom or
ion.
 The mass number is different for each different isotope of a chemical element.
 This is not the same as the atomic number (Z) which denotes the number of
protons in a nucleus, and thus uniquely identifies an element.
 The difference between the mass number and the atomic number gives the
number of neutrons (N) in a given nucleus: N=A−Z
 The mass number is written either after the element name or as a superscript
to the left of an element's symbol.
 For example, the most common isotope of carbon is carbon-12, or 12C, which
has 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
 The full isotope symbol would also have the atomic number (Z) as a subscript
to the left of the element symbol directly below the mass number: 12
6C.[2] This is technically redundant, as each element is defined by its atomic
number, so it is often omitted.
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6. Radioactivity:
 In radioactive processes, particles or electromagnetic radiation are emitted

from the nucleus.
 The most common forms of radiation emitted have been traditionally
classified as alpha (a), beta (b), and gamma (g) radiation.
 Nuclear radiation occurs in other forms, including the emission of protons or
neutrons or spontaneous fission of a massive nucleus.
 There are approximately 270 stable isotopes and 50 naturally occurring
radioisotopes (radioactive isotopes). Thousands of other radioisotopes have
been made in the laboratory.
 Radioactive decay will change one nucleus to another if the product nucleus
has a greater nuclear binding energy than the initial decaying nucleus.
 The difference in binding energy (comparing the before and after states)
determines which decays are energetically possible and which are not.
 The excess binding energy appears as kinetic energy or rest mass energy of
the decay products.
6.1 Radioactive Nuclide:
 A radionuclide or radioactive nuclide is a nuclide that is radioactive. It also

referred as a radioisotope or radioactive isotope; it is an isotope with an
unstable nucleus, characterized by excess energy available to be imparted
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either to a newly created radiation particle within the nucleus or via internal
conversion.
 During this process, the radionuclide is said to undergo radioactive decay,
resulting in the emission of gamma ray(s) and/or subatomic particles such as
alpha or beta particles.
 These emissions constitute ionizing radiation. Many radio nuclides occur
naturally, and others are produced artificially, for example in nuclear reactors
and cyclotrons.
 Radio nuclides with suitable half-lives play an important part in a number of
technologies, for example ionization smoke detectors and nuclear medicine.
 A pharmaceutical drug made with radio nuclides is called a
radiopharmaceutical, and an imaging tracer made with radio nuclides is called
a radiotracer.
 Nuclear medicine makes use of these drugs and tracers for radiation therapy
such as brachytherapy and imaging.
7. Gamma Radiation
 Gamma radiation is one of the three types of natural radioactivity radiation.

 Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation, like X-rays.
 The other two types of natural radioactivity are alpha and beta radiation,
which are in the form of particles.
 Gamma rays are the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation, with a
very short wavelength of less than one-tenth of a nanometer.
 Gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms. Depending upon the
ratio of neutrons to protons within its nucleus, an isotope of a particular
element may be stable or unstable.
 When the binding energy is not strong enough to hold the nucleus of an atom
together, the atom is said to be unstable.
 Atoms with unstable nuclei are constantly changing as a result of the
imbalance of energy within the nucleus.
 Over time, the nuclei of unstable isotopes spontaneously disintegrate, or
transform, in a process known as radioactive decay. Various types of
penetrating radiation may be emitted from the nucleus and/or its surrounding
electrons.
 Nuclides which undergo radioactive decay are called radio nuclides.
 Any material which contains measurable amounts of one or more radio
nuclides is a radioactive material.
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8. Nuclear Chain Reactions
 The most commonly known chain reactions are nuclear chain reactions. A
nuclear reaction, in general, occurs when two isotopic nuclei collide,
producing molecules different from the reactants, usually different species.
 A nuclear chain reaction occurs when consequent nuclear reactions happen
after an initial reaction.
 There are two types of nuclear reactions:
 Nuclear fission reactions
 Nuclear fusion reactions.
8.1 Nuclear Fission Reaction:
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 Fission can occur when a nucleus of a heavy atom captures a neutron, or it

can happen spontaneously.
 The most common is a fission chain reaction (involving heavier isotopes like
uranium-235), in which there is a continuous release and absorption of
neutrons until the products are self-sustaining (Figure).
 When a nucleus fissions, it splits into several smaller fragments. These
fragments, or fission products, are about equal to half the original mass. Two
or three neutrons are also emitted.
 The sum of the masses of these fragments is less than the original mass. This
'missing' mass (about 0.1 percent of the original mass) has been converted
into energy according to Einstein's equation.
 A neutron absorbing element must be present to control the amount of free
neutrons in the reaction space. Most reactors are controlled by means of
control rods that are made of a strongly neutron-absorbent material such as
boron or cadmium.
 In addition to the need to capture neutrons, the neutrons often have too
much kinetic energy. These fast neutrons are slowed through the use of a
moderator such as heavy water and ordinary water.
 In Some reactors graphite was used as a moderator, but this design has
several problems. Once the fast neutrons have been slowed, they are more
likely to produce further nuclear fissions or be absorbed by the control rod.
 The spontaneous nuclear fission rate is the probability per second that a given
atom will fission spontaneously--that is, without any external intervention. If a
spontaneous fission occurs before the bomb is fully ready, it could fizzle.
Plutonium 239 has a very high spontaneous fission rate compared to the
spontaneous fission rate of uranium 235. Scientists had to consider the
spontaneous fission rate of each material when designing nuclear weapons.
8.2 Nuclear Fusion Reaction:
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 Nuclear fusion is a process where two or more nuclei combine to form an

element with a higher atomic number (more protons in the nucleus). Fusion is
the reverse process of nuclear fission. Fusion reactions power the Sun and
other stars.
 Fusion releases energy. The energy released is related to Einstein's famous
equation, E=mc2.
 For a fusion reaction to occur it is necessary to bring the nuclei so close
together that nuclear forces become important and "glue" the nuclei
together.
 The nuclear force only acts over incredibly small distances and has to
counteract the electrostatic force where the positively charged nuclei repel
each other. For these reasons fusion most easily occurs in a high density, high
temperature environment.
 Fusion chain reactions involve lighter isotopes like hydrogen and helium and
require a very high temperature and pressure to form heavier elements. An
example of this is the sun; it fuses hydrogen atoms together and forms helium
atoms and initiates a chain reaction (Figure).
8.3 Type of Radiations Produced by Radioactive Decay:
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 When an atom undergoes radioactive decay, it emits one or more forms of radiation
with sufficient energy to ionize the atoms with which it interacts.
 Ionizing radiation can consist of high speed subatomic particles ejected from the
nucleus or electromagnetic radiation (gamma-rays) emitted by either the nucleus or
orbital electrons
8.3.1 Alpha Particles:
 Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a
particle identical to a helium nucleus.
 They are generally produced in the process of alpha decay, but may also be
produced in other ways.
 Certain radio nuclides of high atomic mass (Ra226, U238, Pu 239) decay by the
emission of alpha particles.
 These alpha particles are tightly bound units of two neutrons and two protons each
(He4 nucleus) and have a positive charge.
 Emission of an alpha particle from the nucleus results in a decrease of two units of
atomic number (Z) and four units of mass number (A).
 Alpha particles are emitted with discrete energies characteristic of the particular
transformation from which they originate.
 All alpha particles from a particular radionuclide transformation will have identical
energies.
 Some smoke detectors contain a small amount of the alpha emitter americium-241.
The alpha particles ionize air between a small gap.
 A small current is passed through that ionized air. Smoke particles from fire that
enter the air gap reduce the current flow, sounding the alarm.
 The isotope is extremely dangerous if inhaled or ingested, but the danger is minimal
if the source is kept sealed
8.3.2 Beta Particles:
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 Beta particles are high-energy, high-speed electrons or positrons emitted by

certain types of radioactive nuclei such as potassium-40.
 The beta particles emitted are a form of ionizing radiation also known as beta
rays. The production of beta particles is termed beta decay.
 A nucleus with an unstable ratio of neutrons to protons may decay through
the emission of a high speed electron called a beta particle.
 This results in a net change of one unit of atomic number (Z).
 Beta particles have a negative charge and the beta particles emitted by a
specific radionuclide will range in energy from near zero up to a maximum
value, which is characteristic of the particular transformation.
 An unstable atomic nucleus with an excess of neutrons may undergo β− decay,
where a neutron is converted into a proton, an electron, and an electron
antineutrino.
 Unstable atomic nuclei with an excess of protons may undergo β + decay, also
called positron decay, where a proton is converted into a neutron, a positron,
and an electron neutrino.
8.3.3 Gamma-rays:
 A nucleus which is in an excited state may emit one or more photons (packets of
electromagnetic radiation) of discrete energies.
 The emission of gamma rays does not alter the number of protons or neutrons in the
nucleus but instead has the effect of moving the nucleus from a higher to a lower
energy state (unstable to stable).
 Gamma ray emission frequently follows beta decay, alpha decay, and other nuclear
decay processes.
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Industrial Gamma ray sources and applications
Isotopes Practical thickness Limits and Applications

Thulium 170 Plastic , wood, light alloys,0.5 inch steel or Equivalent
Iridium 192 1.5 to 2.5 inch steel or Equivalent
Caesium 137 1 to 3.5 inch steel or Equivalent
Cobalt 60 2.5 to 9 inch steel or Equivalent
9. List of commercially available radio nuclides:

1. Gamma emission only
Isotope Activity Half-life Energies (keV)
Barium-133 9694 TBq/kg (262 Ci/g) 10.7 years 81.0, 356.0
Cadmium-109 96200 TBq/kg (2600 Ci/g) 453 days 88.0
Cobalt-57 312280 TBq/kg (8440 Ci/g) 270 days 122.1
Cobalt-60 40700 TBq/kg (1100 Ci/g) 5.27 years 1173.2, 1332.5
121.8, 344.3,
Europium-152 6660 TBq/kg (180 Ci/g) 13.5 years
1408.0
Manganese-54 287120 TBq/kg (7760 Ci/g) 312 days 834.8
Sodium-22 237540 Tbq/kg (6240 Ci/g) 2.6 years 511.0, 1274.5
Zinc-65 304510 TBq/kg (8230 Ci/g) 244 days 511.0, 1115.5
1.95×104 TBq/g (5.27 × 107

Technetium-99m 6 hours 140
Ci/g)
2. Beta emission only
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Strontium-90 5180 TBq/kg (140 Ci/g) 28.5 years 546.0
Thallium-204 17057 TBq/kg (461 Ci/g) 3.78 years 763.4
Carbon-14 166.5 TBq/kg (4.5 Ci/g) 5730 years 49.5 (average)
Tritium (Hydrogen-3) 357050 TBq/kg (9650 Ci/g) 12.32 years 5.7 (average)
3. Alpha emission only
Polonium-210 166500 TBq/kg (4500 Ci/g) 138 days 5304.5
Uranium-238 12580 KBq/kg (0.00000034 Ci/g) 4.468 billion years 4267
4. Multiple radiation emitters
Isotope Activity Half-life Radiation types Energies (keV)
G: 32, 661.6 B:
Caesium-137 3256 TBq/kg (88 Ci/g) 30.1 years Gamma & beta
511.6, 1173.2
G: 59.5, 26.3, 13.9

Americium-241 129.5 TBq/kg (3.5 Ci/g) 432.2 years Gamma & alpha
A: 5485, 5443
10. Properties of gamma rays:
 Gamma radiation is very high-energy ionizing radiation.

 Gamma photons have about 10,000 times as much energy as the photons in
the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
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 Gamma photons have no mass and no electrical charge they are pure
electromagnetic energy.
 Because of their high energy, gamma photons travel at the speed of light and
can cover hundreds to thousands of meters in air before spending their
energy. They can pass through many kinds of materials, including human
tissue. Very dense materials, such as lead, are commonly used as shielding to
slow or stop gamma photons.
 Their wave lengths are so short that they must be measured in nanometres,
billionths of a meter. They range from 3/100ths to 3/1,000ths of a nanometer.
11. Isotope Decay Rate (Half-Life):
 Each radionuclide decays at its own unique rate which cannot be altered by any
chemical or physical process.
 A useful measure of this rate is the half-life of the radionuclide. Half-life is defined as
the time required for the activity of any particular radionuclide to decrease to one-
half of its initial value.
 In other words one-half of the atoms have reverted to a more stable state material.
 Half-lives of radio nuclides range from microseconds to billions of years.
 More exacting calculations can be made for the half-life of these materials; however,
these times are commonly used.
 It was numerically calculated by using the following expression,
λ = 0.693 / t1/2
where,
t ½ - half life time of radioactive isotope
λ – Radioactive decay constant
 Alternatively Radioactive Decay Formula is expressed by
N= N0 e - λT
Where,
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N = Decay Rate,
N0 = Initial Number of Atoms,
λ = Decay Constant
T = Time taken
Isotopes Half life time Gamma ray energy Gamma ray Dosage rate
(Mev) (Roentgens per hour at 1 M)
Thulium 170 127 days 0.084 and 0.54 -

Iridium 192 70 days 0.137 to 0.651 0.55
Caesium 137 33 years 0.66 0.39
Cobalt 60 5.3 Years 1.17 and 1.33 1.35
12. Gamma ray camera:
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13. X-Rays:
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 The form of energy which emitted and absorbed by charged particles is known as
Electromagnetic radiation or EM radiation or EMR.
 Electromagnetic radiation has both electric and magnetic field components, which
oscillates perpendicular to each other as well as perpendicular to the direction of
energy and wave propagation.
 They travel with the speed of light in vacuum that is 3 x 108 cm/sec. The refraction of
electromagnetic light produced a band of colour like in a rainbow is termed as
electromagnetic spectrum.
 The electromagnetic spectrum started from radio wave ended at gamma radiation of
the short-wavelength and high-frequency end; hence it covers the wavelengths from
thousands of kilometres down to a fraction of the size of an atom.
Different electromagnetic radiations with their frequencies and wave length us as follows.
Region of the spectrum Frequency (Hz) Wavelength (Ã…)
Radio waves 3 x 1014 to 3 x 1017 3 x 1014 to 3 x 1017
Microwaves 3 x 107 to 6 x 106 1 x 109 to 5 x 1011
Infrared 5 x 1011 to 3.995 x 1014 6 x 106 to 7000
Visible 3.95 x 1014 to 7.9 x 1014 7000 to 4000
Ultraviolet 7.9 x 1014 to 2 x 1016 4000 to 150
X-rays 2 x 1016 to 3 x 1019 150 to 0.1
Gamma rays 3 x 1019 to 3 x 1020 0.1 to 0.01
Cosmic rays 3 x 1020 to infinite Less than 0.01
14. Properties of X-Rays:

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 X-rays are electromagnetic radiation; which can travel in a straight line with
the speed of visible light that is 1, 86,000 miles/sec.
 X-rays are invisible; it cannot be heard or smelt.
 They do not show any deflection, reflection or diffraction in magnetic or
electric field. Just like visible light, they show wave properties like
interference, diffraction and refraction.
 They have tendency to produce electric field and magnetic field which is
perpendicular to their path of propagation.
 X-rays can travel in vacuum and not required an medium. They have enough
penetration power and can penetrate liquids, solid and gases.
 The penetration power depends upon the quality, intensity and wavelength of
light beam.
 They can be easily absorbed by matter and absorption power depends on the
atomic structure as well as wavelength of X-rays.
 Because of their penetration power, they can ionized any matter and can
emitted visible light when interact with a certain material. This phenomenon
is known as Fluorescence.
 Certain substance like Methylene blue gets bleached with X-rays. Due to high
energy, X-rays produced active free radical during any chemical reaction.
 X-rays have wide applications in biological field also. They used in the
treatment of malignant lesions. They have germicidal effect and can cause the
destruction of enzymes
15. Generation of X-ray:
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 X-rays are generated when free electrons give up some of their energy when
they interact with the orbital electrons or nucleus of an atom.
 The energy given up by the electron during this interaction appears as
electromagnetic energy known as X-radiation.
 There are two different atomic processes that can produce x-ray photons.
1. Bremsstrahlung – useful for medical and industrial applications.
2. K-shell emission.
15.1 Bremsstrahlung:
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 Bremsstrahlung is a German term that means "braking rays."

 It is an important phenomenon in the generation of X-rays. In the
Bremsstrahlung process, a high speed electron travelling in a material is
slowed or completely stopped by the forces of any atom it encounters.
 As a high speed electron approaches an atom, it will interact with the negative
force from the electrons of the atom, and it may be slowed or completely
stopped.
 If the electron is slowed down, it will exit the material with less energy.
 The law of conservation of energy tells us that this energy cannot be lost and
must be absorbed by the atom or converted to another form of energy.
 The energy used to slow the electron is excessive to the atom and the energy
will be radiated as x-radiation of equal energy.
 If the electron is completely stopped by the strong positive force of the
nucleus, the radiated x-ray energy will have energy equal to the total kinetic
energy of the electron.
 This type of action occurs with very large and heavy nuclei materials. The new
x-rays and liberated electrons will interact with matter in a similar fashion to
produce more radiation at lower energy levels until finally all that is left is a
mass of long wavelength electromagnetic wave forms that fall outside the x-
ray spectrum.
15.2 K-shell Emission Radiation:
 Atoms have their electrons arranged in closed "shells" of different energies.

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 The K-shell is the lowest energy state of an atom.

 An incoming electron can give a K-shell electron enough energy to knock it out
of its energy state.
 About 0.1% of the electrons produce K-shell vacancies; most produce heat.
 Then, a tungsten electron of higher energy (from an outer shell) can fall into
the K-shell.
 The energy lost by the falling electron shows up in an emitted x-ray photon.
Meanwhile, higher energy electrons fall into the vacated energy state in the
outer shell, and so on.
 K-shell emission produces higher-intensity x-rays than Bremsstrahlung, and
the x-ray photon comes out at a single wavelength.
 When outer-shell electrons drop into inner shells, they emit a quantized
photon "characteristic" of the element. The energies of the characteristic X-
rays produced are only very weakly dependent on the chemical structure in
which the atom is bound, indicating that the non-bonding shells of atoms are
the X-ray source.
 The resulting characteristic spectrum is superimposed on the continuum. An
atom remains ionized for a very short time (about 10 -14 second) and thus an
atom can be repeatedly ionized by the incident electrons which arrive about
every 10-12 second.
16. X-ray generator
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 X-rays generator consists of a tube, the high voltage generator, the control
console, and the cooling system. A stream of high speed electrons strikes at a
target material like tungsten.
 The interaction between high speed electron and heavy metal produce X-rays.
This process accomplished in an X-ray tube which is a main component of an X-
ray generator.
 The tube contains the cathode filament which is heated with a low-voltage
current. The heating of the filament produces free electrons.
 Since there is a large electrical potential between the cathode and the anode
due to high-voltage generator so electrons are strongly attracted to the anode
target. The movement of electrons between the cathode and the anode
creates current in tube.
 As the temperature increases, the number of electrons increases in tube.
 The control console regulates the filament temperature, which corresponds to
the intensity of the X-ray output.
17.Principles of Shadow Formation:
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 The image formed on a radiograph is similar to the shadow cast on a screen by

an opaque object placed in a beam of light. Although the radiation used in
radiography penetrates an opaque object whereas light does not, the
geometric laws of shadow formation are basically the same. X-rays, Gamma
rays, and light all travel in straight lines.
 Straight-line propagation is the chief characteristic of radiation that enables
the formation of a sharply discernible shadow.
 The geometric relationships among source, object, and screen determine the
three main characteristics of the shadow, the degrees of enlargement,
distortion, and unsharpness (Refer Figure).
 This theoretical unsharpness is added to the scattering from the atomic
attenuation processes (photoelectric effect, Rayleigh and Compton scattering,
and pair production, as mentioned in the previous section) to obtain the total
unsharpness and blurring of the image.
(a) Image enlargement, (b) image distortion, and (c) image overlap for point sources of radiation. (d) Degree of image
unsharpness from a radiation source of finite size. Lo, source-to object distance; Li, source-to-image distance; So, size
of object; Si, size of image; Ug, geometric unsharpness; F, size of focal spot; t, object-to-image distance
18. Newton's Inverse Square Law
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 Any point source which spreads its influence equally in all directions without a limit
to its range will obey the inverse square law.
 This comes from strictly geometrical considerations. The intensity of the influence at
any given radius (r) is the source strength divided by the area of the sphere.
 Being strictly geometric in its origin, the inverse square law applies to diverse
phenomena. Point sources of gravitational force, electric field, light, sound, and
radiation obey the inverse square law.
 As one of the fields which obey the general inverse square law, a point radiation
source can be characterized by the diagram whether you are talking about
Roentgens, rads, or rems.
 All measures of exposure will drop off by the inverse square law. For example, if the
radiation exposure is 100 mR/hr at 1 inch from a source, the exposure will be 0.01
mR/hr at 100 inches.
In industrial radiography, the intensity at one distance is typically known and it is necessary
to calculate the intensity at a second distance. Therefore, the equation takes on the form
of:
Where:
I1 = Intensity 1 at D1
D1 = Distance 1 from source
Note: This is the commonly found form of the equation. However, for some it is easier to
remember that the intensity time the distance squared at one location is equal to the
intensity time the distance squared at another location. The equation in this form is:
I1 x D12 = I2 x D22
19. Half-Value Layer:

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 The thickness of any given material where 50% of the incident energy has been
attenuated is known as the half-value layer (HVL). The HVL is expressed in units of
distance (mm or cm).
 Like the attenuation coefficient, it is photon energy dependant. Increasing the

penetrating energy of a stream of photons will result in an increase in a material's
HVL.
 The HVL is inversely proportional to the attenuation coefficient.
HVL = ln (2) / μ
 Therefore, the HVL are related as follows:
HVL = 0.693 / μ
Where, µ = The linear attenuation coefficient
19.1 Tenth value layer:
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 The thickness of any given material where 10% of the incident energy has
been attenuated is known as the tenth -value layer (TVL). The HVL is
expressed in units of distance (mm or cm).
 The TVL is inversely proportional to the attenuation coefficient.
TVL = ln (10) / μ
 Therefore, the HVL are related as follows:
TVL = 2.3026 / μ
Where, µ = The linear attenuation coefficient
 1 TVL = 3.3 HVL
19.2 HVL and TVL Values for X-rays and gamma rays
X-rays:
Values are in centi meters
X-Rays Concrete Steel Lead

HVL TVL HVL TVL HVL TVL
100 Kv 1.6 5.5 0.12 0.38 0.025 0.084
150 Kv 2.2 7.0 0.23 0.76 0.029 0.096
200 Kv 2.6 8.0 0.38 1.27 0.042 0.14
250 Kv 2.8 9.0 0.54 1.77 0.086 0.29
300 Kv 3.0 10 0.65 2.15 0.170 0.57
Gamma rays:
Isotopes Concrete Steel Lead Uranium
HVL TVL HVL TVL HVL TVL HVL TVL
Iridium-192 4.6 1.4 1.25 4.00 0.48 1.60 0.31 1.00
Cobalt -60 6.6 21.8 2.0 6.60 1.20 4.00 0.70 2.20
20. The Linear Attenuation Coefficient (µ):

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 The linear attenuation coefficient (µ) describes the fraction of a beam of x-rays
or gamma rays that is absorbed or scattered per unit thickness of the
absorber.
 This value basically accounts for the number of atoms in a cubic centimetre
volume of material and the probability of a photon being scattered or
absorbed from the nucleus or an electron of one of these atoms.
 Using the transmitted intensity equation above, linear attenuation coefficients
can be used to make a number of calculations.
These include:
 The intensity of the energy transmitted through a material when the incident
x-ray intensity, the material and the material thickness are known.
 The intensity of the incident x-ray energy when the transmitted x-ray
intensity, material, and material thickness are known.
 The thickness of the material when the incident and transmitted intensity, and
the material are known.
 The material can be determined from the value of µ when the incident and
transmitted intensity, and the material thickness are known.
20.1 Sources of attenuation:

 The attenuation that results due to the interaction between penetrating
radiation and matter is not a simple process. A single interaction event
between a primary x-ray photon and a particle of matter does not usually
result in the photon changing to some other form of energy and effectively
disappearing.
 Several interaction events are usually involved and the total attenuation is the
sum of the attenuation due to different types of interactions.
 These interactions includes
1. photoelectric effect,
2. scattering,
3. pair production,
4. Photodisintegration.
20.1.1. Photoelectric (PE)
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 Absorption of x-rays occurs when the x-ray photon is absorbed, resulting in the
ejection of electrons from the outer shell of the atom, and hence the ionization
of the atom. Subsequently, the ionized atom returns to the neutral state with the
emission of an x-ray characteristic of the atom.
 This subsequent emission of lower energy photons is generally absorbed and
does not contribute to (or hinder) the image making process. Photoelectron
absorption is the dominant process for x-ray absorption up to energies of about
500 KeV.
 Photoelectron absorption is also dominant for atoms of high atomic numbers.
20.1.2. Scattered Radiation:
 When a beam of x-rays or gamma rays strikes a test piece, secondary radiation
is scattered in all directions.
 This causes a haze over all or part of the image, thus reducing contrast and
visibility of detail.
 The types of scattering are
1. Compton scattering
2. Thomson scattering
20.1.2.1 Compton scattering (C)

 Compton scattering occurs when the incident x-ray photon is deflected from its original path
by an interaction with an electron. The electron is ejected from its orbital position and the x-
ray photon loses energy because of the interaction but continues to travel through the
material along an altered path.
 The energy shift depends on the angle of scattering and not on the nature of the scattering
medium. Since the scattered x-ray photon has less energy, it has a longer wavelength and
less penetrating than the incident photon.
 The event is also known as incoherent scattering because the photon energy change
resulting from an interaction is not always orderly and consistent.
20.1.2.2 Thomson scattering (R),
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 It also known as Rayleigh, coherent, or classical scattering, it occurs when the x-ray
photon interacts with the whole atom so that the photon is scattered with no change
in internal energy to the scattering atom, nor to the x-ray photon.
 Thomson scattering is never more than a minor contributor to the absorption
coefficient. The scattering occurs without the loss of energy. Scattering is mainly in
the forward direction.
20.1.3. Pair production (PP)

 It occur when the x-ray photon energy is greater than 1.02 MeV, but really only
becomes significant at energies around 10 MeV. Pair production occurs when an
electron and positron are created with the annihilation of the x-ray photon.
 Positrons are very short lived and disappear (positron annihilation) with the
formation of two photons of 0.51 MeV energy.
 Pair production is of particular importance when high-energy photons pass through
materials of a high atomic number.
20.1.4. Photodisintegration (PD)

 It is the process by which the x-ray photon is captured by the nucleus of the atom
with the ejection of a particle from the nucleus when all the energy of the x-ray is
given to the nucleus.
 Because of the enormously high energies involved, this process may be neglected for
the energies of x-rays used in radiography.
21. Secondary (Scatter) Radiation:
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 Secondary or scatter radiation must often be taken into consideration when

producing a radiograph.
 The scattered photons create a loss of contrast and definition. Often secondary
radiation is thought of as radiation striking the film reflected from an object in the
immediate area, such as a wall, or from the table or floor where the part is resting.
 It is often called backscatter when it comes from objects behind the film.
 Industry codes and standards often require that a lead letter "B" be placed on the
back of the cassette to verify the control of backscatter. If the letter "B" shows as a
"ghost" image on the film, a significant amount of backscatter radiation is reaching
the film.
 The image of the "B" is often very nondistinct. The arrow points to the area of
backscatter radiation from the lead "B" located on the back side of the film.
 The control of backscatter radiation is achieved by backing the film in the cassette
with a sheet of lead that is at least 0.010 inch thick.
 It is a common practice in industry to place a 0.005" lead screen in front and a 0.010"
screen behind the film.
21.1. Internal scatter
 It occurs within the test piece being radiographed (Figure (a)).
 Internal scatter is fairly uniform throughout a test piece of uniform thickness, but
adversely affects definition by diffusing or obscuring the outline of the image.
21.2. Side scatter
 It consists of secondary radiation generated by walls, internal holes in the test piece
as shown in Figure(b), or objects near the test piece.
 This radiation may pass through the test piece and may obscure the image of the
test piece.
21.3. Back scatter
 It consists of rays that are generated from the floor or table (Figure(c)) or from any
other object that is located on the opposite side of the imaging surface from the test
piece and source.
 Back scatter increases the background noise and therefore reduces contrast and
definition in the recorded image.
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22. Geometric Unsharpness:
 Geometric unsharpness refers to the loss of definition that is the result of

geometric factors of the radiographic equipment and setup. It occurs because
the radiation does not originate from a single point but rather over an area.
 In the first image, the radiation originates at a very small source. Since all of
the radiation originates from basically the same point, very little geometric
unsharpness is produced in the image.
 In the second image, the source size is larger and the different paths that the
rays of radiation can take from their point of origin in the source causes the
edges of the notch to be less defined.
 The three factors controlling unsharpness are source size, source to object
distance, and object to detector distance.
 The source size is obtained by referencing manufacturer’s specifications for a
given X-ray or gamma ray source. As the source size decreases, the geometric
unsharpness also decreases.
 For a given size source, the unsharpness can also be decreased by increasing
the source to object distance, but this comes with a reduction in radiation
intensity.
 The object to detector distance is usually kept as small as possible to help
minimize unsharpness.
 However, there are situations, such as when using geometric enlargement,
when the object is separated from the detector, which will reduce the
definition.
 The area of varying density at the edge of a feature that results due to
geometric factors is called the penumbra.
 These values refer to the degree of penumbra shadow in a radiographic
image. Since the penumbra is not nearly as well defined as shown in the image
it is difficult to measure it in a radiograph.
 Therefore it is typically calculated. The source size must be obtained from the
equipment manufacturer or measured. Then the unsharpness can be
calculated using measurements made of the setup.
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 The following formula is used to calculate the maximum amount of

unsharpness if the detector is placed next to the object as shown in above
figure,
Ug = f * b/a
Where, f = source focal-spot size
a = distance from the source to front surface of the object
b = the thickness of the object
 For the case when the detector is not placed next to the sample as shown in
the following figure, such as when geometric magnification is being used, the
calculation becomes:
Ug = f* b/a
Where,f = source focal-spot size.
a = distance from x-ray source to front surface of material/object
b = distance from the front surface of the object to the detector
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23. Geometric Magnification:
 Sometimes the distance between test specimen and image detector is

increased to obtain magnification in the image.
 Magnification is especially useful when parts being inspected and their details
are very small.
 The farther the test specimen is from the image detector, the greater the
magnification achieved.
 The amount of magnification can be calculated using the following formula
Magnification factor M = (a + b) / a
Where: M = magnification
a = distance from source to object
b = distance from object to detector
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24. Image Conversion:
 The most important process in radiography is the conversion of radiation into

a form suitable for observation or further signal processing.
 This conversion is accomplished with either a recording medium (usually film)
or a real-time imaging medium (such as fluorescent screens or scintillation
crystals).
 The imaging process can also be assisted with the use of intensifying or
filtration screens, which intensify the conversion process or filter out scattered
radiation.
24.1 Recording media :
 It provide a permanent image that is related to the variations in the intensity

of the unabsorbed radiation and the time of exposure.
 With a recording medium such as film, for example, an invisible latent image is
formed in the areas exposed to radiation.
 These exposed areas become dark when the film is processed (that is,
developed, rinsed, fixed, washed, and dried), with the degree of darkening
(the photographic density) depending on the amount of exposure to radiation.
 The film is then placed on an illuminated screen so that the image formed by
the variations in photographic density can be examined and interpreted.
24.2 Intensifying and filtration screens:
 These are used to improve image contrast, particularly when the radiation
intensity is low or when the radiation energy is high.
 The screens are useful at higher energies because the sensitivity of films and
fluorescent screens decreases as the energy of the penetrating radiation
increases.
24.3 Latent Image:
 A latent image is an invisible image produced by the exposure to light of a

photosensitive material such as photographic film.
 When photographic film is developed, the area that was exposed darkens
and forms a visible image.
 In the early days of photography, the nature of the invisible change in the
silver halide crystals of the film's emulsion coating was unknown, so the
image was said to be "latent" until the film was treated with photographic
developer.
 The latent image is formed by interactions of the electromagnetic
radiation with the silver bromide crystals.
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 When solid silver bromide is formed in the manufacture of film, the
silver atoms give up an orbital electron to a bromine atom. Since the
silver atoms have given up an electron, they have a positive electrical charge
and are silver ions (Ag+).
 The bromine atoms have acquired this negative electron and have
become bromide ions (Br-).
 The silver bromide crystal is a cubical array of the silver and bromine ions.
 The cubical crystalline structure of the silver bromide crystal is not perfect; if
it were, the photographic process could not exist.
 Within the crystal lattice structure are extra silver ions called interstitial
ions; these do not occupy a lattice position in the crystal.
 There are also foreign molecules or dislocations (distortions) of the crystal
array within the crystal, all of which form latent image sites.
24.4 Lead Screens:
 It is the combination of filtration and intensification that makes lead screens the
most widely used in industrial radiography.
 High-energy (short wavelength) radiation passes through lead much more readily
than low-energy radiation; in other words, low-energy radiation is more readily
absorbed by a lead screen than high-energy radiation.
 Because scattered radiation from a test piece is always of a lower energy than the
incident beam passing through a test piece, a lead screen will absorb a relatively high
percentage of unwanted scattered radiation, but will absorb a somewhat lower
percentage of the image forming radiation.
 The screen that faces the top of the film is referred to as the front screen, and the
screen behind the film toward the table or floor is referred to as the back screen.
 The main function of the beam screen is to absorb unwanted back scatter; back
screens can be of any thickness that performs this function adequately, although
usually they are of the same thickness as the front screen.
 In the radiography of thin-gage or low-density materials, in which low photon
energies are used, care must be exercised to ensure that the front screen does not
excessively filter the image-forming radiation.
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 Excessive filtration affects subject contrast and tends to reduce radiographic

sensitivity.
 This effect is known as filtration, and lead screens are sometimes referred to as lead-
filter screens or intensifying screens.
Screen Thickness as per BS 2600 Part-I

Thickness in mm
Energy Screen
Front Back
Below 120 Kv Lead - 0.1
120Kv – 250 Kv Lead 0.025-0.125 0.1
250Kv – 400 Kv Lead 0.05-0.16 0.1
Iridium 192 Lead 0.05-0.16 0.16
Cobalt 60 Lead 0.05-0.16 0.16
Cobalt 60 Steel or copper 0.5-2.0 0.25-1.0
24.5 Lead Oxide Screens
 A variation of lead screens is lead oxide screens, which are made by evenly
coating a paper base with lead oxide.
 The result is an extremely flexible screen, equivalent to about 0.013 mm
(0.0005 in.) of lead foil that is lightweight and free of antimony segregation.
 Lead oxide screens are available only in light tight envelopes containing
screens on both sides of the film.
 The principle of lead oxide screens is essentially the same as for lead screens.
The main differences are a lesser degree of filtration than lead screens and a
greater intensification below 140 keV as well as slightly lesser intensification
at 300 keV than with 0.13 mm (0.005 in.) thick lead screens.
 Although lead oxide screens are particularly advantageous for the radiography
of light alloys or thin material, they can also be used in the radiography of
heavier material.
24.6 Screens of Metals Other Than Lead:
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 Foils of many of the heavier metals can be as effective as lead for radiographic
screens, but usually are not as practical, either because the foils are not as
flexible or because of cost.
 Gold screens perform as well or better than lead screens, but gold costs
considerably more and tends to work harder when bent, which eventually
cracks the screen.
 Tantalum screens exhibit slightly lower filtration but higher intensification
than lead. However, tantalum foil is stiff and springy, which does not allow it
to be shaped to fit around a test piece. Tantalum foil can be used in solid
cassettes, can be polished, and is quite resistant to minor abrasion, but is
expensive to use.
 Depleted-uranium screens exhibit greater filtration than lead screens.
However, uranium is brittle, is somewhat difficult to obtain in thin sheets, and
is also expensive to use.
 Copper screens have been used, especially with cobalt-60 radiography.
Copper has a lower degree of filtration than lead and a lower intensification
factor, but copper provides greater radiographic sensitivity.
 Composite screens of lead, copper, and aluminum (and sometimes other
metal foils) to control the radiation reaching the film have occasionally been
used with super voltage x-ray machines for the inspection of thick steel test
pieces.
24.7 Fluorescent Intensifying Screens:
 The efficiency of film and paper radiography can be improved by fluorescent

intensifying screens, which emit radiation in the ultraviolet, blue, or green
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
 These screens are called fluorescent intensifying screens because they
fluoresce, or produce light, when excited by x-rays or gamma rays.
 Compounds, such as calcium tungstate or barium lead sulfate, often
containing trace elements of some other chemical or phosphor, have the
property of emitting light immediately upon excitation by short-wavelength
radiation.
 Crystals of these chemicals are finely powdered, mixed with a binder, and
coated on some mildly flexible support such as cardboard or plastic to make a
fluorescent screen.
 A thin, tough, transparent overcoat is applied to the sensitized surface of the
screen to prevent damage to the crystals during use.
Page 39 of 111
Intensification factor due to metallic screens depends on,

1. Foil element
2. Thickness of Foil
3. Energy of radiation
4. Specimen Thickness
25. Film Radiography:
 Film selection and exposure time are two major factors in film radiography.
 The selection of radiographic film for a particular application is generally a
compromise between the desired quality of the radiograph and the cost of exposure
time.
 The quality of the radiograph depends mainly on film density, gradient, graininess,
and fog, which are functions of film type and development procedure.
 Exposure time depends mainly on film speed and on radiation intensity at the film
surface.
Page 40 of 111
25.1 X-ray film:
 It is constructed of a thin, transparent plastic support called a film base, which

is usually coated on both sides (but occasionally on one side only) with an
emulsion consisting mainly of grains of silver Bromide salts dispersed in
gelatin.
 These salts are very sensitive to electromagnetic radiation, especially x-rays,
gamma rays, and visible light.
 Substratum or binding layer was used to bind emulsion and film base.
 The film base is usually tinted blue and is about 175 μ size thick.
 The most common material used for film base was polyester
 An adhesive undercoat fastens the emulsion to the film base for about 10-15
μ size.
 A very thin but tough coating of gelatin called a protective overcoat covers the
emulsion to protect it against minor abrasion its thickness was about 1 μ size.
 The total thickness of the x-ray film is approximately 230μ size, including film
base, two emulsions, two adhesive undercoats, and two protective overcoats.
 The presence of emulsions on both sides of the base effectively increases the
speed of the x-ray film because penetrating radiation affects each emulsion
almost equally.
 In addition, thin emulsions allow development, fixing, and washing of the
exposed film to be accomplished effectively and in a reasonably short time.
 Where two emulsions are used, two images are produced--one in the front
emulsion and one in the back emulsion.
 Viewing these images with the unaided eye causes no problems, because the
images are separated by only a few hundredths of a millimeter of film base.
 If magnification is used, parallax can cause the two images to be seen slightly
separated, which sometimes hampers interpretation.
 X-ray film with only one emulsion (single-coated x-ray film) can be used to
avoid parallax.
 When electromagnetic radiation and certain forms of particulate radiation
(namely, electrons) react with the sensitive emulsion of x-ray films, they
produce a latent image in the emulsion, which cannot be detected visually or
by ordinary physical measurements.
 To produce a visible image, the exposed film must be chemically processed.
When the film is treated with a developer, selective chemical reaction
converts the exposed silver halide grains in the latent image into black
metallic silver.
 The metallic silver remains suspended in the gelatin and is responsible for
blackening or shades of gray in the developed (visible) image.
 After development, the film is treated with a chemical called a fixer, which
converts unexposed silver halide grains into a water-soluble compound.
 The reaction products of development and fixing are washed off, and the film
is dried.
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 Although x-ray film is sensitive to light, the characteristics of its emulsion are
different from those of emulsions used in photography.
 Industrial x-ray film is of two general types, that used for direct exposure
(called direct-exposure, no-screen, or non screen film) and that used with
fluorescent screens (often called screen-type film).
 Most industrial x-ray film is of the direct-exposure type and is available in
various combinations of film speed, gradient, and graininess.
 The choice of film for a given application depends on the type of radiography
to be performed.
 Screen-type films, which are marketed primarily for medical radiography, are
only occasionally used for industrial applications--for example, when a low-
power x-ray machine is used and exposure time is excessive with direct-
exposure x-ray film.
 Screen-type films are more sensitive to light than to x-radiation and are
particularly sensitive to the wavelengths emitted by the fluorescent screen
with which they are used.
 Although blue-sensitive emulsion types are the ones most often used for
industrial radiography, other emulsions sensitive to ultraviolet and to green
screen light are available.
Page 42 of 111
25.2 Film Types:

 The classification of radiographic film is complicated; however a simple classification
was adopted by ASTM. According to ASTM E-94 radiographic films are grouped in to
four types as follows,
Film Characteristics
Film Type Speed Gradient Graininess
Type 1 Low Very high Very fine
Type 2 High High Fine
Type 3 Medium Medium Coarse
Type 4 (a) Very high (b) Very High (b) (c)
Very medium (d) Very Medium (d) Medium
(a) Normally used with Fluorescent Screen
(b) When used with Fluorescent Screens
(c) Graininess is mainly a characteristic of the Fluorescent screen
(d)When used for direct exposure or with Lead screens.
25.3 Characteristics of X-Ray Film:
 Three general characteristics of film--speed, gradient, and graininess--are primarily

responsible for the performance of the film during exposure and processing and for
the quality of the resulting image.
 Film speed, gradient, and graininess are interrelated.
 Film speed and gradient are derived from the characteristic curve for a film
emulsion, which is a plot of film density versus the exposure required for producing
that density in the processed film.
 Graininess is an inherent property of the emulsion, but can be influenced somewhat
by the conditions of exposure and development.
 There are other characteristics of x-ray film that can be used to produce special
effects.
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25.4 Film Density:
 The quantitative measure of the blackening of a photographic emulsion is

called density.
 Density is usually measured directly with an instrument called a densitometer.
 There are two kinds of density

1. Transmission density - which is associated with transparent-base
radiographic film
2. Reflection density - which is associated with opaque-base imaging
material such as radiographic paper
Transmission density is defined by:
Where,
D is the density,
I0 is the intensity of light incident on the film,
It is the intensity of light transmitted through the film.
Reflection density is defined by:
Where,
Dr is the reflection density,
I0 is the light intensity incident on the radiographic image,
Ir is the light intensity reflected from the image.
Density, (D) Transmission Density Opacity

0 1.00 1
0.3 0.50 2
0.6 0.25 4
1.0 0.10 10
2.0 0.01 100
3.0 0.001 1000
4.0 0.0001 10000
Page 44 of 111
25.5 Exposure:
 It is the intensity of radiation multiplied by the time during which it acts, that is, the amount
of energy that reaches a particular area of the film and that is responsible for producing a
particular density on the developed film.
 Exposure can be specified either in absolute units (such as ergs per square centimeter or
roentgens) or in relative units (where one particular exposure is used as a reference and all
others are specified in terms of that reference).
 Unless equipment and time are available for making the precise radiation measurements
that are required for defining exposure in absolute units, relative exposure is much more
convenient than absolute and is equally as useful.
 Exposure chart for Iridium-192 was as follows,
Calculation of Exposure time:
Where,
S.F.D = Source to film distance
R.H.M = Roentgen / hour/ meter
n = Job Thickness in HVL
Page 45 of 111
25.6 Film speed:
 The term speed is used in radiography refers to the sensitivity of the X-ray film
to X-ray or gamma rays.
 It is inversely related to the time required for a given intensity of radiation to
produce a particular density on the film; the shorter the exposure, the faster
the film.
 In absolute units, film speed is inversely proportional to the total energy
(roentgens) of a particular radiation spectrum (wavelength distribution at a
given kilo voltage) that produces a given density on the film.
 For most practical applications, it is convenient and effective to deal with
relative speeds. In using relative speeds, film speeds are expressed in terms of
the speed of one particular film whose relative speed is arbitrarily assigned a
value, for example, 100.
 Thus, if film A requires half the exposure of film B, the slower film (film B) is
chosen as the standard and assigned an arbitrary speed of 100.
 Film A, which is twice as fast, would have a relative speed of 200. To avoid
making absolute measurements to determine film speed, it is convenient to
refer to a group of film curves such as those in Figure (a).
 Curves positioned to the left of the chart require less exposure for a given
density; those to the right, more exposure. Thus, for a density of 2.0, film C in
Figure (a) is faster than film A, and both are faster than film B.
 Their relative speed is calculated by determining the differences in log relative
exposure and converting to the antilog.
 Another advantage of using groups of characteristic curves is that the visual
assessment of relative speeds can be easily made.
 For example, although films A and B have similarly shaped curves running
almost parallel, the curve for film C is radically different.
 As calculated above, film C has a relative speed of 800 at a density of 2.0;
however, at greater densities, the relative speed of film C is lower than 800,
and at lesser densities (down to a density of 1.0), the relative speed of film C is
greater than 800.
 Therefore, whenever relative speeds are used, the density at which they were
determined must be given.
Page 46 of 111
Source Type of Film Film Factor with double lead

screens
Agfa D2 9.5 Roentgens
Agfa D4 or D5 4.0 Roentgens
Iridium 192
Dupoint NDT-55 3.8 Roentgens
Agfa D4 or D5 8.0 Roentgens
Cobalt 60
25.7 Film gradient:
 It is also called film contrast is a measure of the slope of the characteristic

curve. If the difference is great, the gradient (contrast) is said to be high. If the
difference is slight, the gradient is said to be low.
 The contrast seen on a radiograph is known as radiographic contrast and is
composed of two factors:
1. Subject contrast, which is the result of variations in the amount of
radiation absorbed by the test piece and which causes variations in
radiation intensity impinging on the film
2. Film gradient (or film contrast), which is a measure of the response of
the emulsion to the intensity of impinging radiation and is a
characteristic of a given film
 Film gradient is determined from the characteristic curve by finding the slope
of the curve at a given density.
 The slope of the characteristic curve changes continuously over its entire
length, as indicated in Figure (a).
 The steeper the slope of the curve over a range of relative exposures, the
greater the difference in density and therefore the greater the resolution of
detail; thus, high gradient is important for good radiography.
 In Figure (b) tangents to a characteristic curve for a typical x-ray film have
been drawn at two points, and the two corresponding gradients (a/b and c/d)
have been evaluated.
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 Note that the gradient varies from 0.8 in the shallow portion of the curve
(called the toe) to 5 in the steeper portion of the curve.
 Two regions of a test piece that are slightly different in thicknesses will
transmit slightly different intensities of radiation to the film. On the
characteristic curve, this would represent a small difference in the log relative
exposure.
 For example, assume that at a given kilo voltage the thinner section transmits
20% more radiation than the thicker section.
 The difference in log relative exposure is 0.08 and is independent of tube
current, exposure time, or source-to-film distance.
 In the toe of the characteristic curve where, the gradient is only 0.8, the
density difference is only 0.06, as indicated in Figure(c).
 However, in the steeper portion of the curve where the gradient is 5, the
density difference is 0.40.
 This effect of film gradient is the main reason why it is best to use high
exposures, obtaining the highest density that can be viewed on a given
illuminator for the greatest resolution of minor differences in transmitted
radiation.
 It is often more convenient to express gradient as an average over a given
useful range of densities than for a single density. This is a simple calculation
in which the difference between the two densities is divided by the difference
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between the log relative exposures for these densities; this ratio, known as
the average gradient, is shown in Figure (d).
25.8 Graininess:
 The silver halide grains that are contained in the emulsion of x-ray film are minute
and can be seen only with a high-power microscope, such as an electron microscope.
Even though the emulsion on each side of the film is only about 0.013 mm (0.0005
in.) thick, the grains are piled on top of each other in countless numbers.
 When the exposed-and processed radiograph is viewed, these small individual silver
grains appear grouped together in relatively large masses.
 This clumping, which is visible to the unaided eye or at low magnification, produces
the visual impression called graininess.
 All films exhibit some degree of graininess. In general, slower films have less
graininess than faster films.
 This general relation is reflected in Table, which is an old classification scheme
specified by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) in the earlier
1984 edition of ASTM E 94.
 Although this classification scheme is somewhat arbitrary, it is still sometimes
specified in codes and specifications. Type 1 films have the least graininess, type 3
films exhibit the most graininess, and type 2 films are intermediate.
Table - General characteristics of the four types of radiographic film specified

in the earlier (1984) edition of ASTM E 94
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Film Type Film Characteristics
Speed Gradient Graininess
1 Low Very high Very fine
2 Medium High Fine
3 High Medium coarse
4 (a) Very high (b) Very high (b) (c)
(a) Normally used with fluorescent screens.

(b) When used with fluorescent screens.
(c) Graininess is mainly a characteristic of the fluorescent screens.
(d) When used for direct exposure or with lead screens
26. Image Quality indicators:
 Penetrameters, or image-quality indicators, are of known size and shape and

have the same attenuation characteristics as the material in the test piece.
 They are placed on the test piece or on a block of identical material during
setup and are radiographed at the same time as the test piece.
 Penetrameters are preferably located in regions of maximum test piece
thickness and greatest test piece-to-detector distance and near the outer
edge of the central beam of radiation.
 Because of this location, the degree to which features of the penetrameter
are visible in the developed image is a measure of the quality of that image.
 The image of the penetrameter that appears on the finished radiograph is
evaluated during interpretation to ensure that the desired sensitivity,
definition, and contrast have been achieved in the developed image.
 Penetrameters of different designs have been developed by various
standards-making organizations; several of the standard designs most widely
used are shown in Fig.
 Regardless of the design, all penetrameters have the following in common:
 Material used for penetrameters is the same as that of the test piece or
has the same absorption characteristics. Suitable penetrameter
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materials for various metallic test pieces are grouped in ASTM E 1025
and E 142 as shown in Table.
 In use, the penetrameter is normally placed directly on the surface of
the test piece that faces the source.
 Alternatively, when the test piece is small or when its shape is
unfavorable, the penetrameter is placed on a block or shim of the same
nominal composition and thickness as the test piece, with the upper
surface of the block at the same distance from the recording plane as
the upper surface of the test piece.
 In pipe radiography, when permitted by specification, the
penetrameter can be placed on the surface of the pipe that faces the
film.
 This film-side placement of the penetrameter is usually read to a
tighter sensitivity requirement (for example, 2-1T instead of 2-2T)
 The location of the penetrameter should be such that its projected
image does not coincide with any area of interest in the image of the
test piece
 The image of the penetrameter is viewed at the same time as the
image of the test piece; the two images appear simultaneously on the
recording medium.
 The image of the penetrameter is evaluated separately from the image
of the test piece and is used solely as a direct check on the quality of
the recorded image
 Image-quality levels are usually expressed as the size of the smallest
penetrameter feature (such as hole size or wire size) that is clearly
visible in the processed image
 A penetrameter is never used as a size standard against which flaw
sizes are compared
Table : ASTM penetrameter material grades for the material groups in ASTM E 1025 and E 142
Material groups of test pieces Suitable penetrameter grade and material
Group Mg: magnesium Penetrameter grade 000: made of all magnesium, or

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magnesium being the predominant constituent

Penetrameter grade 00: made of all aluminum, or
Group Al: aluminum
aluminum being the predominant constituent
Penetrameter grade 0: made of all titanium,
Group Ti: titanium
or titanium being the predominant constituent
Group 1: all carbon steels, all low-alloy steels, all
Penetrameter grade 1: carbon steel or type 304
stainless steels, manganese-nickel aluminum
stainless steel
bronze
Penetrameter grade 2: may be aluminum bronze
Group 2: all aluminum bronzes, all nickel-aluminum (Alloy No. 623 of ASTM Specification B 150) or
bronzes, Haynes alloy IN-100 equivalent, or nickel-aluminum bronze (Alloy No. 630
of Specification B 150) or equivalent
Group 3: nickel-chromium-iron alloys and 18% Ni
maraging steel. Some specific alloys include: Haynes
alloy No. 713C, Hastelloy alloy D, G.E. alloy SEL, Penetrameter grade 3: nickel-chromium-iron alloy
Haynes Stellite alloy No. 21, GMR-235 alloy, Haynes UNS N06600 or equivalent
alloy No. 93, Inconel X, Inconel 718, Haynes Stellite
alloy No. 6 S 816
Group 4: nickel, copper, all the nickel-copper series or
copper-nickel series of alloys, all the brasses (copper-
zinc alloys) exclusive of leaded brasses. There is no Penetrameter grade 4: may be 70Ni-30Cu alloy
restriction on using grade 4 penetrameters for the (Monel) (Class A or B of ASTM Specification B 164) or
leaded brasses, because they are more attenuating of equivalent, or 70Cu- 30Ni alloy (Alloy G of ASTM
radiation, the degree depending on the lead content. Specification B 161) or equivalent
This would be equivalent to using a lower grade
penetrameter, which is permissible.
Group 5: tin bronzes including gun metal and valve
bronze, but excluding any leaded tin bronzes of
higher lead content than valve bronze. There is no
restriction on using grade 5 penetrameters for
Penetrameter grade 5: tin bronze (Alloy D of ASTM
bronzes of higher lead content, because they become
Specification B 139) or equivalent
more attenuating of radiation with increasing lead
content. This would be equivalent to using a lower
grade penetrameter, which is
permissible.
26.1 Plaque-type penetrameters:
 It consists of strips of materials of uniform thickness with holes drilled through

them.
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 There are two general types of plaque penetrameters specified by ASTM and
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME): rectangular plaque
penetrameters, and circular plaque penetrameters.
 The rectangular plaque design is specified by ASTM and ASME for plaque
thicknesses of 0.13 to 1.3 mm (0.005 to 0.050 in.).
 The holes in rectangular plaque penetrameters are T, 2T, and 4T in diameter,
where T is the thickness of the plaque.
 A notch system is also used to identify the ASTM grade of the penetrameter.
 The circular plaque design is larger than the rectangular plaque design and is
specified for plaque thicknesses of 1.5 to 4 mm (0.060 to 0.160 in.).
 Sensitivity is usually expressed in terms of penetrameter thickness (as a
percentage of test piece), and resolution is determined by the smallest hole
size visible in the radiograph.
 For example, an image-quality level of 2-2T indicates that the thickness of the
penetrameter equals 2% of section thickness and the 2T hole is visible. If
image quality of 1-1T were required, a radiograph would be acceptable if the
outline of a 1% penetrameter were distinguishable.
 Alternatively, image quality can be expressed as a percentage only. In the
ASTM or ASME systems, the equivalent sensitivity in percent is based on
visibility of the 2T hole. The following Table lists equivalent sensitivities for
various standard image-quality levels.
Image-quality level Penetrameter thickness, Smallest visible hole size Equivalent sensitivity, %
% of test piece thickness
1 – 1T 1 1T 0.7
1 – 2T 1 2T 1.0
1 – 4T 1 4T 1.4
2 – 1T 2 1T 1.4
2 – 2T 2 2T 2.0
2 – 4T 2 4T 2.8
4 – 1T 4 1T 2.8
4 – 2T 4 2T 4.0
4 – 4T 4 4T 5.6
Page 53 of 111
Sensitivity calculation for Plague type penetrameter:

Page 54 of 111
 Radiographic sensitivity is calculated using the following formula
Equivalent sensitivity:
 It is defined as the thickness of IQI expressed in % in which 2T hole

would be visible under the same conditions, in which the radiograph was
made.
 It was expressed as
Where,
n = IQI Thickness expressed as % of specimen thickness
T= IQI Thickness
26.2 Wire-type penetrameters:

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 These are widely used in Europe, and a standard design is used in the United
Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia and by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Institute of Welding
(IIW).
 In the United States, the penetrameter design specified in ASTM E 747 is widely
used.
 The ISO design of wire-type penetrameters has a group (typically seven) of straight
30 mm (1.2 in.) wires made of the same material as the test piece.
 This ISO standard is similar to the standard of Deutsche Industrie Norm (DIN 54109),
which consists of sixteen wire sizes of three metals--steel, aluminum, and copper.
 The wire sizes on a wire penetrameter consist of different groupings.
 In ASTM system, for example, a wire penetrameter may have one of four groupings
of six wire sizes:
1. First group (ASTM set A) contains wire numbers 1 through 6, which
correspond to wire diameters of 0.08 through 0.25 mm (0.0032 through
0.010 in.)
2. The second group (ASTM set B) contains wire numbers 6 through 11, which
correspond to wire diameters of 0.25 through 0.81 mm (0.010 through 0.032
in.)
3. The third group (ASTM set C) contains wire numbers 11 through 16, which
in.)
4. The fourth group (ASTM set D) contains wire numbers 16 through 21, which
in.)
Page 56 of 111
Page 57 of 111
 In DIN system, a wire penetrameter may have one of three groupings of seven wire
sizes:
1. First group (DIN set 1) contains wire numbers 1 through 7, which correspond
to wire diameters of 3.20 through 0.80 mm.
2. The second group (DIN set 2) contains wire numbers 6 through 12, which
correspond to wire diameters of 1.00 through 0.25 mm.
3. The third group (DIN set 3) contains wire numbers 10 through 16, which
correspond to wire diameters of 0.40 through 0.10 mm.
Sensitivity calculation for Wire type penetrameters:
 Radiographic sensitivity is calculated using the following formula and all the
radiograph shall have a minimum 2% sensitivity.
Page 58 of 111
26.3 Step wedge penetrameters:
 It usually has either arithmetic or a geometric progression of step thicknesses.

 A plain step wedge penetrameter is useful only for determining the ability of a
radiograph to resolve variations in test piece thickness; it cannot be used to
evaluate the effect of imaging unsharpness, which is often the chief factor
that determines image quality.
 However, if a plain step wedge is modified by drilling holes in each step, it
becomes sensitive to imaging unsharpness.
 This type of design is used by the British Welding Research Association
(BWRA) and the French Navy (AFNOR). In the BWRA design (Fig. 54d), the
holes in a given step wedge are all of the same size--0.635 mm (0.025 in.)
diameter for the step wedge ranging from 0.13 to 1.0 mm (0.005 to 0.040 in.)
in step thickness and 1.3 mm (0.050 in.) diameter for the step wedge ranging
from 1.0 to 2.0 mm (0.040 to 0.080 in.) in step thickness. AFNOR step wedges
(Fig. 54e and f) have holes that are the same in diameter as the step thickness.
 The BWRA standard specifies a uniform increment between step thicknesses;
the AFNOR standard specifies a constant ratio between successive thicknesses
(similar to that of successive wire diameters in the DIN standard).
 The BWRA standard incorporates only two penetrameters, both of which are
shown in Fig. 54(d). The AFNOR standard specifies penetrameters having four
different series of step thicknesses, as follows:
Series Step thicknesses, mm

1 0.125, 0.16, 0.20, 0.25, 0.32, 0.40
2 0.32, 0.40, 0.50, 0.63, 0.80, 1.00
3 0.80, 1.00, 1.25, 1.60, 2.00, 2.50
4 2.00, 2.50, 3.20, 4.00, 5.00, 6.30
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26.4 Identification Markers:

 Identification markers are made of lead or lead alloy and are usually in the
form of a coded series of letters and numbers. The markers are placed on the
test piece or on the film adjacent to the test piece during setup.
 When the test piece is radiographed, a distinct, clear image of the
Radiographically dense identification markers is produced at the same time.
Identification markers must be located so that their projected shadows do not
coincide with the shadows of any regions being inspected in the test piece.
Because markers are Radiographically dense, their images will obscure any
coinciding image of the test piece.
 Both view identification and test piece identification almost always appear in
coded form. View identification is usually a simple code (such as A, B, C, or 1,
2, 3) that relates some inherent feature of the test piece or some specific
location on the test piece to the view used; the term sequence numbering,
which is used in some specifications, refers to view identification.
 Often, the location of view markers is handwritten in chalk or crayon directly
on the test piece so that the radiographic image can be correlated with the
test piece itself during interpretation and evaluation of the radiograph.
Sometimes, the locations of markers are steel-stamped on the surface of the
part being radiographed and become a permanent reference.
 It is advisable always to mark the location of view markers because it may be
necessary to recheck the setup procedure against specifications. Although the
specific location of view markers is largely a matter of personal preference,
several suggested arrangements are discussed in this section. It is required
only that the markers be placed so that their images on the radiograph are
legible and do not obscure any area being inspected.
 View markers need not be different if identical viewing directions are used for
radiographing a series of test pieces of the same type and size.
 Most radiographers adopt standard methods of identifying views and indicate
the type of view markers to be used on the specification sheet for the
radiographic procedure, which is commonly called a radiographic standard
shooting sketch.
 The code for identification of the test piece is usually more complex than the
code used for identification of viewing direction. Each radiographic laboratory
must adopt a system of identification that is suited to its specific
requirements.
 As a minimum requirement, the identification code must enable each
radiograph to be traced to a particular test piece or section of a test piece.
 Identification codes can be based on part number, lot number, inspection
date, customer code, or manufacturing code; or they can be merely a series of
consecutive multiple-digit numbers, with the pertinent data concerning test
piece identification recorded in a logbook opposite the corresponding test
piece number.
Page 60 of 111
26.5 Placement of Identification Markers and Penetrameters
 The location of identification markers with respect to the test piece is

important only to the extent that shadows cast by the identification markers
should not obscure shadows cast by the test piece itself.
 This is accomplished most easily by attaching the lead letters or numbers to
the film holder in a region outside the area being inspected, usually along the
edges of the holder.
 When it is important to ensure that identification markers do not obscure the
image of some well defined region of the test piece, such as a weld, it may be
desirable to attach the identification markers to the test piece adjacent to that
region.
 When several views of the same test piece are to be shot, it is good practice to
attach an identification (view) marker to the test piece at each end of the area
to be inspected in each view.
 These markers should be left in place until after the adjacent exposures have
been shot. Each view marker should be visible in two adjacent radiographs; if
it is not, incomplete coverage has been obtained. In some codes and
specifications, this practice (known as sequence numbering) is required.
 It is desirable to mark the test piece with chalk, crayon, or a metal stamp to
indicate the exact location of identification markers.
 This can avoid possible difficulties either in identifying defective test pieces or
in correlating radiographs with test pieces.
 The placement of penetrameters is important because incorrect placement
with respect to the test piece can result in an incorrect assessment of image
quality.
 On simple shapes, especially flat plates and similar shapes of uniform
thickness, it is seldom necessary to be concerned about factors other than
placing the penetrameter where it will properly represent maximum
unsharpness, will not obscure any region being inspected, and will be located
in the outer cone of the radiation beam.
 When the shape of a test piece is complex or when there is a large variation in
the thickness of the test piece, placement of penetrameters can be critical.
Several suggested means of achieving proper placement of penetrameters are
shown in Figure, for welds between plates of different thickness and for
circumferential welds in pipe.
 When no level test piece surface is available for placement of the
penetrameter, penetrameter blocks placed beside the test piece are the only
reasonable alternative.
 It is sometimes advantageous to use a stepped wedge as a penetrameter
block, with the penetrameter on each step.
Page 61 of 111
Page 62 of 111
27. Collimators:
 Side scatter from walls, equipment, and other structures in the x-ray room can
be greatly reduced by improving the directionality of the x-ray beam.
Directionality can be improved by the use of a collimator, which is often a
thick lead diaphragm with a small hole through the middle.
 A collimator absorbs most of the diverging radiation that surrounds the

central beam, thus eliminating most of the rays that could be scattered from
nearby surfaces.
 Although considered good practice, removing all unnecessary equipment and

other material from the x-ray room is sometimes impossible or impractical. In
such cases, a collimator placed at the exit port of the radiation source can
substantially reduce, if not eliminate, unwanted side scatter.
Page 63 of 111
28. Filtration:
 In addition to the filtering effect of lead screens, secondary x-rays can be

filtered by using thin copper or lead sheets between the test piece and the
cassette or film holder.
 Filtration is never used in gamma radiography, because of the essentially

monochromatic nature of the beam.
 When the test piece has very thin sections adjacent to thick sections or when
the direct beam can strike the detector after passing around the test piece,
undercutting may be encountered.
 If undercutting occurs, additional filtration (that is, more than can be achieved
with conventional lead screens) is necessary.
 Additional filtration is accomplished by placing a filter at or near the x-ray

tube, as shown in Figure.
 This may adequately eliminate overexposure in thin regions of the test piece
and also along the perimeter of the test piece.
 Such a filter is particularly useful for reducing undercutting when a lead mask
around the test piece is impractical or when the test piece may be damaged
by masking with liquid absorbers or metallic shot.
 Filtration of the incident radiation beam reduces undercut by selectively

attenuating the long-wavelength portion of the x-ray spectrum.
 Long wavelengths do not contribute significantly to the detection of flaws but

only produce secondary radiation that reduces radiographic contrast and
definition.
 Secondary radiation originating in sources outside the test piece is most
serious for test pieces that have high absorption for x-rays (most metals)
because secondary radiation from external sources may be large compared
with the image-forming radiation that reaches the film through the test piece.
 Often, the most satisfactory method of reducing this secondary radiation is by
the use of cutout lead masks or some other form of lead-sheet mask mounted
over or around the test piece.
Page 64 of 111
29. Radiographic Film Processing:
Page 65 of 111
29.1. Development:
 The invisible latent image is converted into a visible image by the chemical
process of development.
 The developer solution supplies electrons that migrate into the sensitized
grains and convert the other silver ions into black metallic silver.
 This causes the grains to become visible black specks in the emulsion.
 Radiographic film is generally developed in an automatic processor. A
schematic of a typical processor is shown below.
 The four components correspond to the four steps in film processing. In a
conventional processor, the film is in the developer for 20 to 25 seconds. All
four steps require a total of 90 seconds.
a) Reducer:
 Chemical reduction of the exposed silver bromide grains is the process that
converts them into visible metallic silver. This action is typically provided by
two chemicals in the solution: Phenidone and hydroquinone. Phenidone is the
more active and primarily produces the mid to lower portion of the gray scale.
Hydroquinone produces the very dense, or dark, areas in an image.
b) Activator:
 The primary function of the activator, typically sodium carbonate, is to soften

and swell the emulsion so that the reducers can reach the exposed grains.
c) Restrainers:
 Potassium bromide is generally used as restrainers. Its function is to moderate

the rate of development.
d) Preservative:
 Sodium sulphite, a typical preservative, helps protect the reducing agents

from oxidation because of their contact with air. It also reacts with oxidation
products to reduce their activity.
e) Hardener:
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 Glutaraldehyde is used as a hardener to retard the swelling of the emulsion.

This is necessary in automatic processors in which the film is transported by a
system of rollers.
29.2. Fixing:
 After leaving the developer the film is transported into a second tank, which
contains the fixer solution.
 The fixer is a mixture of several chemicals that perform the following
functions.
a) Neutralizer:
 When a film is removed from the developer solution, the development

continues because of the solution soaked up by the emulsion.
 It is necessary to stop this action to prevent overdevelopment and fogging of
the film.
 Acetic acid is in the fixer solution for this purpose.
b) Clearing:
 The fixer solution also clears the undeveloped silver halide grains from the
film. Ammonium or sodium thiosulfate is used for this purpose.
 The unexposed grains leave the film and dissolve in the fixer solution.
 The silver that accumulates in the fixer during the clearing activity can be
recovered.
 The usual method is to electroplate it onto a metallic surface within the silver
recovery unit.
c) Preservative:
 Sodium sulphite is used in the fixer as a preservative .
d) Hardener:
 Aluminum chloride is typically used as a hardener. Its primary function is to

shrink and harden the emulsion.
29.3. Stop bath or wash:

 Film is next passed through a water bath to wash the fixer solution out of the
emulsion.
 It is especially important to remove the thiosulfate.
 If thiosulfate (hypo) is retained in the emulsion, it will eventually react with
the silver nitrate and air to form silver sulphate, a yellowish brown stain.
Page 67 of 111
 The amount of thiosulfate retained in the emulsion determines the useful

lifetime of a processed film.
 The American National Standard Institute recommends a maximum
retention of 30 µg/in2
29.4. Drying:
 The final step in processing is to dry the film by passing it through a chamber
in which hot air is circulating The final step in processing is to dry the film by
passing it through a chamber in which hot air is circulating
29.5. Hanging x-ray film
 X- ray film should be grasped only at the corners and inserted into the clips of
the film hangers and locked in place. The upper corner of the film grasped and
a Hatched to the top clips. The film now ready to be placed in the developing
tank.
 The clips of the film hanger should be cleaned periodically to prevent an
accumulation of chemicals that may rundown on the film during processing
and cause streaks.
 Manufacturers specify the correct type.
 Two forms of safe-light can be used in the radiographic dark room.
1. Direct: a diffused light shines directly over the work point, such as the
dry and wet bench.
2. Indirect: the filtered light is directed up to the ceiling where it is
reflected over the room.
 Safe-light efficiency: Safe-lights should be placed so that the work of the dark
room can be done without fumbling. where the dry and wet benches are
separate , a small direct wall light should be provided for each
 The automatic Film processing unit was as shown in Figure,
29.6. Automatic Film Processing:

Page 68 of 111
 When a film is inserted into a processor, it is transported by means of a roller

system through the chemical developer. Although there are some differences
in the chemistry of developer solutions supplied by various manufacturers,
most contain the same basic chemicals. Each chemical has a specific function
in the development process.
29.7. Control of Temperature and Time:

 The temperature of the processing solutions has such a large influence on their
chemical activity, careful control of temperature particularly for the developer is
extremely important.
 A major rule in processing is to check the developer temperature before films are
immersed in the developer so that the timer can be accurately set for the correct
processing time.
 The developer should be at 20°C (68 °F).
 specific developing temperature shall be given by the film manufacturer.
 At temperatures below 16 °C (60 °F), developer action is significantly retarded and is
likely to result in underdevelopment.
 At temperatures exceeding 24 °C (75 °F), the radiograph may become fogged, and
the emulsion may be loosened from the base, causing permanent damage to the
radiograph.
 Where the water temperature in the master tanks surrounding the solution tanks
may be below 20 °C (68 °F), hot and cold water connections to a mixing valve
supplying the master tank should be used.
 In warm environments, refrigerated or cooled water may be necessary. Under no
circumstances should ice be placed directly into the solution tanks for cooling
purposes, because melting ice will dilute, and may contaminate, the solutions.
 If necessary, ice can be placed in the water bath in the master tanks for control of
the solution temperature.
 Control of time should be done by setting a processing timer at the time the film is
immersed in the developer.
 In most radiographic film processors, the development time is usually fixed and is
approximately 20-25 seconds.
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 The film should be moved to the rinse step as soon as the timer alarm sounds.
29.8. Agitation during Development:
 A good radiograph is uniformly developed over the entire film area.

 Agitating the film during the course of development is the main factor that
eliminates streaking on the radiograph.
 When a film is immersed vertically in the developer and is allowed to develop
without movement, there is a tendency for certain areas of the film to affect the
areas directly below them.
 The reaction products of development have a higher specific gravity than the
developer.
 As these products diffuse out of the emulsion, they flow downward over the surface
of the film and affect the development of the areas over which they pass.
 As a result, uneven development of affected areas forms streaks.
 This is sometimes referred to as bromide drag.
 The greater the film density from which reaction products emanate, the greater the
effect on adjacent portions of the film.
29.9. Processing Quality Control:
 There are many variables, such as temperature and chemical activity that can
affect the level of processing that a film receives. Each type of film is designed
and manufactured to have specified sensitivity (speed) and contrast
characteristics.
 Under processing: If a film is under processed its sensitivity and contrast will
be reduced below the specified values. The loss of sensitivity can usually be
compensated for by increasing exposure but the loss of contrast cannot be
recovered.
 Over processing: Over processing can increase sensitivity. The contrast of
some films might increase with over processing, up to a point, and then
decrease. A major problem with over processing is that it increases fog (base
plus fog density) which contributes to a decrease in contrast.
30. Radiographic techniques:
 Radiographic technique can be affected by the following parameters

1. Radiation source
2. Films
3. Source to film distance
4. Radiation beam alignments
 Radiation source selection based on the job thickness was as follows,
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Maximum steel thickness

Radiation source Energy
High sensitivity Low sensitivity
100 Kev 10 25
150 Kev 15 50
200 Kev 25 75
400 Kev 75 115
X-Rays
1 MeV 125 165
2 MeV 200 250
5 MeV 300 350
30 MeV 325 375
Iridium 192 - 12-62 6-100
Cesium 137 - 25-100 12-112
Cobalt 60 - 40-150 12-190
30.1. Inspection of Tubular Sections
 Although film radiography is not well suited to the inspection of continuously

produced tubular products such as tubing and pipe, the method is suited to
the inspection of tubular sections in a wide variety of products and
assemblies.
 Real-time radiography, on the other hand, is more suited to the inspection of
continuously produced tubular products, but not tubular sections in large,
complex assemblies.
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 Radiography is the method most often specified for the inspection of welded
joints between tubes or pipes or between a tube and a pressure vessel when
the weldments is manufactured to ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
specifications.
 Other hollow sections such as cylindrical bosses on castings and forgings,
brazed tube-and-socket joints, large-diameter transmission pipe (line pipe),
and longitudinally welded square or circular structural tubing, are frequently
inspected by radiography.
 There are three major inspection techniques for tubular sections:
1. The double-wall, double-image technique

2. The double-wall, single-image technique
3. The single-wall, single-image technique
30.1.1. Single wall, single image (SWSI) (Panoramic)
 It is a technique whereby the radiographic source is placed inside the pipe by

some suitable method, the film wrapped around the outside of the pipe and
the exposure made as shown in Figure.
 This may also be known as a panoramic exposure.
 The IQI is placed on the outside of the pipe immediately beneath the film.
 Both X- and gamma-radiography can be used, the source being placed in
position by the use of a pre-placed spider or by means of a crawler unit.
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 This method is most commonly used for the inspection of pipelines where the
weld can be radiographed in one exposure, making the technique rapid and
cost effective
30.1.2. Double wall Single Image Technique (DWSI):
 Where access to the bore is not possible or the pipe diameter is too small to
permit the use of an internal source then the double wall, single image (DWSI)
technique is used.
 Here the film is placed on the outside of the pipe on the farthest side from the
radiographic source, as shown in Figure.
 The source may be offset slightly to avoid an image of the upper part of the
weld to be projected onto the film or directly in line.
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 The source may be close to or a substantial distance from the pipe, the
location being a compromise between a less sharp image but short exposure
time for a small stand-off and sharper image but longer exposure time for a
large stand-off.
 The need to penetrate two wall thicknesses means that the sensitivity will be
poorer than with the single wall single image technique.
 The technique also requires multiple exposures to enable the complete
circumference of the pipe to be examined – specification or contract
requirements frequently specify the minimum numbers of exposures to
ensure complete coverage and images of an acceptable quality.
 The technique is generally used on pipes over 80mm in diameter.
30.1.3. Double wall Double Image (DWDI)
 This technique is generally used only on pipes less than 75-80mm in diameter.
By offsetting the source from the weld centre line and using a long source to
film distance it is possible to project an image onto the film of both the upper
and the lower parts of the weld as shown in Figure.
 As with the DWSI technique multiple exposures are required to achieve
complete coverage.
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30.2. Inspection of weldments:
 The radiographic inspection of weldments is usually intended to cover only

welds and heat-affected zones.
 The quality of the base metal beyond the heat-affected zones is seldom of
interest at this stage of inspection.
 Therefore, the viewing direction is usually selected to reveal clearly the
features of welds and heat-affected zones, regardless of the overall shape of
the weldments.
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 The most favorable view for fillet welds is a direction that roughly bisects the
angle between the legs of the section.
 Views normal to the surface of the weld are not always satisfactory. Flaws in a
weld such as dense inclusions due to the
 deposition of metal from a tungsten electrode, excessive segregation in light
alloys, porosity, and shrinkage can be revealed regardless of view.
 However, cracks or non fusion along the edge of the fusion zone can be best
revealed when the viewing direction is parallel to the face of the joint.
 The detection of centerline cracks or incomplete penetration requires a
normal view.
 Only square-groove butt joints, U-groove joints, and J-groove joints can be
satisfactorily inspected with a normal view; other types of joints, including V-
groove joints, bevel joints, flare joints, and fillets, require two views, one
parallel to each original prepared edge, for correct inspection for cracks or
regions of incomplete fusion.
30.3. Inspection of complex shapes:
 The inspection of complex shapes most often requires multiple exposures,

usually with different viewing directions.
 The selection of view for each exposure depends primarily on the shape of the
section of the test piece to be inspected with that exposure and the probable
orientation of suspected flaws.
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 In principle, the view should be chosen with the objectives of minimizing

geometric unsharpness and of reducing the image to a simple shape for easy
interpretation.
 A small variation in test piece thickness is desirable because this will highlight
subject contrast due to flaws.
 However, the use of high energy sources, multiple radiographs with different
radiation energy levels, or double-film techniques with a single view can
circumvent most problems arising from excessive material-thickness
variations over a given area of coverage.
31. Interpretation of Radiographs:
 Proper identification of both the radiograph and the test piece, clarity of the
penetrameter, suitability of radiographic techniques, adequacy of coverage,
and the techniques of image processing in real-time systems or the precision
and Uniformity of film processing in film radiography all offset the image that
is being interpreted.
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 Film radiographs and real time radiographs are interpreted similarly with
respect to the recognition of flaws and test piece features.
 The primary difference is that film radiographs are negative images, while
real-time radiographs are generally positive images (which may also be
enhanced with image processing).
A qualified interpreter must:
1. Define the quality of the radiographic image, which includes a critical analysis
of the radiographic procedure and the image-developing procedure
2. Analyze the image to determine the nature and extent of any abnormal
condition in the test piece
3. Evaluate the test piece by comparing interpreted information with standards
or specifications
4. Report inspection results accurately, clearly, and within proper administration
channels
 Proper identification of both the radiograph and test piece is an absolute

necessity for correlation of the radiograph with the corresponding test piece.
 Identification includes both identification of the test piece and identification
of the view or area of coverage.
 Poor-quality film radiographs are usually reshot.
 However, reshooting radiographs increases inspection costs, not only because
the original setup must be duplicated and a new exposure made but also
because the test piece must be retrieved and taken to the radiographic
laboratory.
 With on-site radiography, which involves transporting radiographic equipment
to the site and returning the exposed films to the laboratory for processing,
especially high costs may be involved when poor-quality radiographs must be
reshot.
 The following table lists some of the usual causes of poor quality in a
radiographic image and indicates the usual corrective action required to
eliminate each cause.
Artifacts Probable Cause Corrective Action

Density too high View with higher-intensity
light. Check exposure (time
Over exposure and radiation intensity); if as
specified, reduce exposure
30%or more.
Over development Reduce development time or
developer temperature.
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Fog Refer fog below

Check exposure (time and
radiation intensity); if as
Under exposure
specified, Increase exposure
40%or more.
Increase development time or
Density too low
Under development
Replace weak (depleted)
developer.
Material between screen and Remove material.
film
High subject contrast Increase tube voltage.
Contrast too high Use a film with lower contrast
High film contrast
characteristics.
Low subject contrast Reduce tube voltage.
Use a film with higher contrast
Low film contrast
characteristics.
Contrast too low Increase development time or
Under development
Replace weak (depleted)
developer.
If possible, decrease test
Test piece-to-film distance too piece-to-film distance; if not,
long increase source to-
film distance.
Source-to-film distance too Increase source-to-film
short distance.
Poor definition
Focal spot (or gamma ray Use smaller source or
source) too increase source-to-film
large distance.
Screens and film not in close Ensure intimate contact
contact between screens and film.
Film graininess too coarse Use finer-grain film.

Fog With darkroom unlighted, turn
Light leaks in darkroom on all lights in adjoining
rooms; seal any light leaks.
Reduce safelight wattage.
Exposure to safelight
Use proper safelight filters.
Stored film inadequately Attach strip of lead to loaded
protected film holder and place in film-
from radiation storage area. Develop test
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film after 2 to 3 weeks; if

image of strip is evident,
improve radiation shielding in
storage area.
Film exposed to heat, Store film in a cool, dry place
humidity, or not subject to gases or
gases vapors.
Reduce development time or
Overdevelopment
Developer contaminated Replace developer.
Do not inspect film during
Exposure during processing processing until fixing is
completed.
Finely mottled fog Stale film Use fresh film.
Fog on edge or corner Defective cassette Discard cassette.
Depleted developer Replace developer solution.
Use stop bath, or rinse
Failure to use stop bath or to
Yellow stain thoroughly between
rinse
developing and fixing.
Depleted fixer Replace fixer solution.
Dark circular marks Film splashed with developer Immerse film in developer
prior to immersion with care.
Dark spots or Marble like Use fresh fixer solution and
Insufficient fixing
areas proper fixing time.
Dark branched lines and Un wrap film carefully. Do not
spots rub films together. Avoid
Static discharge
clothing productive of static
electricity.
Dark fingerprints Touching undeveloped film Wash hands thoroughly and
with chemically contaminated dry, or use clean, dry rubber
fingers gloves.
Light fingerprints Touching undeveloped film Wash hands thoroughly and
with oily or greasy fingers dry, or use clean, dry rubber
gloves.

Dark spots or streaks Developer contaminated with Replace developer solution.
metallic salts
Crescent-shaped light Faulty film handling Keep film flat during handling.
areas Use only clean, dry film
hangers.
Light circular patches Air bubbles on film during Agitate immediately upon
development immersion of film in
developer.
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Circular or drop shaped Water or fixer splashed on Avoid splashing film with
light patches film water or fixer solution.
before development
Light spots or areas Dust or lint between screens Keep screens clean.
and
film
Sharply outlined light Non uniform development Agitate film during

or dark areas development.
Reticulation (leather grain Temperature gradients in Maintain all solutions at

appearance) processing solutions uniform, constant
temperature.
Frilling (loosening of emulsion Fixer solution too warm Maintain correct temperature
from film of the fixing solution.
base) Fixer solution depleted Replace fixer solution.
31.1. Viewing of radiographs:
 It should be carried out in an area with subdued lighting to minimize

distracting reflections from the viewing surface.
 Audible distractions, which interfere with concentration, can best be avoided
by locating the work area away from the main production floor or other high-
noise area.
 Radiographic film images are viewed on an illuminated screen.
 The viewing apparatus should have an opal-glass or plastic screen large
enough to accommodate the largest film to be interpreted.
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 The screen should be illuminated from behind with light of sufficient intensity
to reveal variations in photographic density up to a nominal film density of at
least 3.0.
 There may be a need for a smaller, more intensely illuminated viewer for
evaluating small areas of film having densities up to 4.5 or more.
 Viewing screens of high-intensity illuminators should be cooled by blowers or
other suitable apparatus to prevent excessive heat from damaging films and
to extend lamp life.
 When interpreting paper radiographs or x-ray radiographs, specular light as
from a spotlight or high-intensity lamp should be directed onto the radiograph
from the side at an angle of about 30°.
 Background lighting should be heavily subdued.
 A densitometer can be provided for accurate evaluation of small variations in
photographic density or for quantitative evaluation of radiographic and
processing techniques.
 A transmission densitometer is used with films, and a reflection densitometer
is used with paper radiographs.
32. Discontinuities
a. Flaws in Castings
 It is possible in most cases to identify radiographic images of the usual types

of flaws in castings. The main types of foundry flaws that can be identified
Radiographically are as follows,
1. Micro shrinkage
2. Shrinkage porosity
3. Gas porosity
4. Dispersed Discontinuities
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5. Tearing
6. Cold cracks
7. Cold shunt
8. Misruns
9. Inclusions
10. Un-fused chaplets
11. Core shift
12. Shrinkage cavities
13. Center line shrinkage
14. Segregation
15. Surface irregularities
b. Flaws in Weldments
 Most weld flaws consist of abrupt changes in homogeneity and can be readily
detected by radiographic inspection.
 Stresses that are induced in the metal by welding but that are not
accompanied by a physical separation of material will not be detected by
radiography.
1. Undercutting
2. Incomplete fusion
3. Cracks
4. Porosity
5. Slag inclusion
6. Incomplete penetration
32.1. Discontinuities / Artifacts:
Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the
base metal or the previous weld pass material (inter pass cold lap). The arc does not
melt the base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to flow into
the base material without bonding
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Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can take
many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular spots or
specks appearing singularly, in clusters, or in rows. Sometimes, porosity is elongated
and may appear to have a tail. This is the result of gas attempting to escape while the
metal is still in a liquid state and is called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in
the material and it will have a higher radiographic density than the surrounding area.
Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with
moisture. The moisture turns into a gas when heated and becomes trapped in the
weld during the welding process. Cluster porosity appears just like regular porosity in
the radiograph but the indications will be grouped close together.
Slag inclusions are non metallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between
weld and base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the
weld or along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.
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Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the weld
metal fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld
discontinuities. Lack of penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a crack
may propagate. The appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with well-defined,
straight edges that follows the land or root face down the centre of the weldments.
Incomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse
with the base metal. Appearance on radiograph: usually appears as a dark line or
lines oriented in the direction of the weld seam along the weld preparation or joining
area.
Internal concavity or suck back is a condition where the weld metal has contracted
as it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a radiograph it looks
similar to a lack of penetration but the line has irregular edges and it is often quite
wide in the centre of the weld image.
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External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the crown of the
weld. In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the outside edge of
the weld area.
Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces being
welded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image shows a
noticeable difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in density is
caused by the difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by the
failure of the weld metal to fuse with the land area.
Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld

metal deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very easy to
determine by radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement, because the
image density in the area of suspected inadequacy will be higher (darker) than the
image density of the surrounding base material.
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Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal added in excess
of that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on a
radiograph is a localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual inspection will easily
determine if the weld reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the engineering
requirements.
Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in a direction
that produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will
appear as jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appear as
"tails" on inclusions or porosity.
Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the
electrode in tungsten inert gas welding. If improper welding procedures are used,
tungsten may be entrapped in the weld. Radiographically, tungsten is more dense
than aluminium or steel, therefore it shows up as a lighter area with a distinct outline
on the radiograph.
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Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded
(especially aluminium). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding material
and, therefore, appear as dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in the radiograph.
Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to penetrate
the weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld, creating a thick globular
condition on the back of the weld. These globs of metal are referred to as icicles. On
a radiograph, burn-through appears as dark spots, which are often surrounded by
light globular areas (icicles).
Cavity shrinkage appears as areas with distinct jagged boundaries. It may be produced
when metal solidifies between two original streams of melt coming from opposite directions
to join a common front. Cavity shrinkage usually occurs at a time when the melt has almost
reached solidification temperature and there is no source of supplementary liquid to feed
possible cavities.
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Dendrite shrinkage is a distribution of very fine lines or small elongated cavities that may
vary in density and are usually unconnected.
Filamentary shrinkage usually occurs as a continuous structure of connected lines or

branches of variable length, width and density, or occasionally as a network.
Sponge shrinkage shows itself as areas of lacy texture with diffuse outlines, generally
toward the mid-thickness of heavier casting sections. Sponge shrinkage may be dendrite or
filamentary shrinkage. Filamentary sponge shrinkage appears more blurred because it is
projected through the relatively thick coating between the discontinuities and the film
surface.
Cold shuts generally appear on or near a surface of cast metal as a result of two
streams of liquid meeting and failing to unite. They may appear on a radiograph as
cracks or seams with smooth or rounded edges.
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Inclusions are non metallic materials in an otherwise solid metallic matrix. They may
be less or denser than the matrix alloy and will appear on the radiograph,
respectively, as darker or lighter indications. The latter type is more common in light
metal castings.
Core shift shows itself as a variation in section thickness, usually on radiographic

views representing diametrically opposite portions of cylindrical casting portions.
33. Radiation safety:
Sources of Exposure:
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Human exposures to ionizing radiation can be classified broadly according to

whether they result from sources within the work environment (i.e., occupational
exposures) or from sources outside the work environment (i.e., non-occupational
exposures).
Routes of Exposure:
 There are two principal routes by which humans are exposed to ionizing
radiation,
1. External Exposure
2. Internal Exposure
External Exposures:
 External exposures are those which are due to sources located outside of the
body which emit radiation of a type and energy sufficient to reach and
penetrate the body.
 Examples of penetrating radiations include gamma rays, x-rays, and high
energy beta particles (e.g., as from 32P).
 External exposures cannot result from sources which emit only alpha particles
or low energy beta particles since these radiations do not penetrate the dead
outer cell layer of the skin.
 As with all radiation exposures, the size of the dose resulting from an external
exposure is a function of:
1. The activity of the source;
2. The time or duration of the exposure;
3. The distance from the source to the tissue being irradiated;
4. The amount of shielding between the source and the tissue.
 In contrast to the situation for internal exposures, these factors can be
altered for a particular external exposure situation with a resultant increase
or decrease in the dose received.
Internal Exposures
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 Internal exposures are those that result from radioactive material which has
been taken up by the body as a result of ingestion, inhalation, injection, or
absorption through the skin.
 Such exposures are of concern for all radioactive materials regardless of the
type of ionizing radiation emitted.
 However, are radioactive materials which emit alpha and beta particles, these
radiations cause significant damage to tissue when depositing their energy
along highly localized paths.
 In contrast to the situation for external exposures, the source-to-tissue
distance, exposure duration, and source strength cannot be altered for
internal sources.
 Instead, once a quantity of radioactive material has been taken up by the
body, an individual is essentially “committed” to the dose which will result
from the quantities and forms of the particular radio nuclides involved.
Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation Cellular Effects
 The energy deposited by ionizing radiation as it interacts with matter may

result in the breaking of chemical bonds.
 If the irradiated matter is living tissue, such chemical changes may result in
altered structure or function of constituent cells.
Mechanisms of Radiation Damage
 Less than 20% of the energy deposited in cells by ionizing radiation is

absorbed directly by macromolecules. This is due to the fact that such
molecules make up a relatively small proportion of the cell’s mass. More than
80% of the energy deposited in the cell is absorbed by water molecules which
make up the majority of the cell’s mass.
 This results in the formation of highly reactive free radicals:
 These radicals and their products (e.g., hydrogen peroxide) may initiate
numerous chemical reactions which result in damage to macromolecules and
a corresponding alteration of structure or function.
 Damage produced within the cell by the radiation induced formation of free
radicals is described as being by indirect action of radiation.
Changes in Structure and Function
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 As a result of the chemical changes in the cell caused by the direct or indirect
action of ionizing radiation, large biological molecules may undergo a variety
of structural changes which lead to altered function.
 Some of the more common effects which have been observed are inhibition of
cell division, denaturation of proteins and inactivation of enzymes, alteration
of membrane permeability, and chromosome aberrations.
Radio sensitivity
 The cell nucleus is the major site of radiation damage leading to cell death.
This is due to the importance of the DNA within the nucleus in controlling all
cellular function.
 Damage to the DNA molecule may prevent it from providing the proper
template for the production of additional DNA or RNA.
 This hypothesis is supported by research which has shown that cells are most
sensitive to radiation damage during reproductive phases (i.e., during DNA
replication).
 In general, it has been found that cell radio sensitivity is directly proportional
to rate of cell division and inversely proportional to the degree of cell
differentiation.
 Table 1 presents a list of cells which generally follow this principle.
Page 93 of 111
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Radiation Monitoring:
1. In order to ensure that internal and external doses to radiation are kept
ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) , it is essential that:
1. All radioactive materials remain confined to designated storage and
work locations.
2. That radiation levels resulting from the storage and use of these
materials are adequately known and controlled.
2. These objectives can only be met through the routine practice of various
radiation monitoring activities as follows,
1. Dosimeter
2. TLD badge
3. Film Badge
4. Barrication
Occupational exposure
 Occupationally exposed individuals are controlled within the regulatory

framework of the country they work in, and in accordance with any local
nuclear licence constraints.
 These are usually based on the recommendations of the ICRP. The
International Commission on Radiological Protection recommends limiting
artificial irradiation.
 For occupational exposure,
1. An effective dose of 20 mSv per year averaged over five consecutive
years.
2. An effective dose of 50 mSv in any single year
3. An equivalent dose to the lens of the eye of 150 mSv in a year
4. An equivalent dose to the extremities (hand and feet) or the skin of 500
mSv in a year.
 The radiation exposure of these individuals is carefully monitored with the use
of personnel monitoring devices like Film badge, Thermo luminescent
dosimeter (TLD) badge, pocket dosimeters and other radiological protection
instruments which will measure radioactive particulate concentrations, area
gamma dose readings and radioactive contamination.
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 Some human-made radiation sources affect the body through direct radiation,
known as effective dose (radiation) while others take the form of radioactive
contamination and irradiate the body from within. This latter is known as
committed dose
 A legal record of dose is kept.
 Examples of activities where occupational exposure is a concern include:
 Airline crew (the most exposed population)

 Industrial radiography
 Medical radiology and nuclear medicine
 Uranium mining
 Nuclear power plant and nuclear fuel reprocessing plant workers
 Research laboratories (government, university and private)
Basic Procedures, Practices, and Rules for the Safe Use of Radioactive
materials
In general, both internal and external exposures to ionizing radiation can be
maintained ALARA through the adherence by radioactive material users to a
number of standard procedures, practices, and rules:
1. Smoking, eating or drinking shall not be permitted in radionuclide

laboratories.
2. Food, beverages and their containers shall not be permitted in the laboratory.
3. Pipetting by mouth shall not be permitted in radionuclide laboratories.
4. Microwave ovens in radionuclide laboratories shall not be used for heating
food or beverages for personal use.
5. Individuals who have not been approved for radionuclide use shall not work
with or handle radioactive materials.
6. A “Caution-Radioactive Material” sign shall be conspicuously posted at each
entrance (e.g. on the door) of a radionuclide laboratory. Such signs or labels
shall also be affixed at locations within the laboratory where radio nuclides
are used or stored (e.g. hoods, refrigerators, microwave ovens, etc.). Also
posted within the laboratory in a conspicuous place shall be a copy of
“Emergency Rules” and the “Notice to Employees.”
7. Radionuclide work areas shall be clearly designated and should, to the extent
possible, be isolated from the rest of the laboratory. The work area shall be
within a hood if the radioactive material to be used is in a volatile form.
Page 96 of 111
8. All work surfaces shall be covered with absorbent paper which should be
changed regularly to prevent the build-up of contamination.
9. Work involving relatively large volumes or activities of liquid radioactive
material should be performed in a spill tray lined with absorbent paper.
10. Procedures involving radioactive materials should be well planned and,

whenever possible, practiced in advance using non-radioactive materials.
11. Protective clothing which is appropriate for the work conditions shall be worn
when working with radioactive materials. This includes laboratory coats,
gloves, and safety glasses. Appropriate footwear must always be worn
(sandals cannot be worn when working with radioactive materials).
12. Dosimeters shall be worn when working with relatively large quantities of
radio nuclides which emit penetrating radiation.
Page 97 of 111
13. All containers of radioactive materials and items suspected or known to be

contaminated shall be properly labeled (i.e. with tape or tag bearing the
radiation logo and the word “radioactive”).
14. All contaminated waste items shall be placed in a container specifically

designated for radioactive waste. Sharp items such as needles or razor blades
shall be placed in a cardboard box, glass bottle or “sharps” container.
15. A radiation survey shall be performed and recorded by the radionuclide user
at the end of each procedure involving radioactive materials (the survey may
be made using a portable survey instrument, wipes, or both depending on the
radio nuclides used). All items found to be contaminated shall be placed either
in the radioactive waste container or an appropriately designated area. Any
Page 98 of 111
surfaces found to be contaminated shall be labeled and decontaminated as

soon as possible. The survey should always include a check of personnel for
possible contamination. The RSO shall be notified immediately if extensive
contamination is found within the laboratory or if any personnel are found to
be contaminated.
16. A record of the types and quantities of radio nuclides possessed by each
principal investigator at a given time shall be maintained.
17. Radioactive materials shall be stored in appropriate area.
18. Radioactive materials shall be protected from unauthorized removal or access

at all times.
Advantages of radiography testing:
 It can be used to inspect virtually all materials.

 Detects surface and subsurface defects.
 Ability to inspect complex shapes and multi-layered structures without
disassembly.
 Minimum part preparation is required.
Dis-advantages of radiography testing:
 Extensive operator training and skill required.

 Access to both sides of the structure is usually required.
 Orientation of the radiation beam to non-volumetric defects is critical.
 Field inspection of thick section can be time consuming.
 Relatively expensive equipment investment is required.
 Possible radiation hazard for personnel.
Page 99 of 111
RADIOGRAPHY TESTING FORMULAE
1. Inverse square law calculation:
Where:
2. Exposure Distance calculation
Where:
E1 = Exposure at D1
E2 = Exposure at D2
Page 100 of 111

3. Film Exposure calculation
Where,
S.F.D = Source to film distance
R.H.M = Roentgen / hour/ meter
n = Job Thickness in HVL
4. Film Density Exposure calculation
Note: This is an approximation and is only valid for the straight line portion of the film characteristic curve. See more info section.
Where:
E1 = Exposure 1
E2 = Exposure 2
FD1 = Film Density at Exposure 1
FD2 = Film Density with Exposure 2
5. Geometric Magnification
Where:
M = Magnification
a = Distance from source to object
b = Distance from object to detector
Page 101 of 111

6. Geometric Unsharpness:
Where:
Ug = Geometric unsharpness
f = Focal spot size
a = Distance from source to object
b = Distance from object to detector
7. Indication Depth:
Where:
D = Defect depth from the film side of the part

t = Thickness of material
SD = Shift of defect image on the film
SM = Shift of surface marker on the film
Page 102 of 111

SOLVED EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
Example 1
Use Newton's Inverse Square Law to calculate the intensity of a radioactive source at a
different distance than the distance it was originally measured. If the intensity of a Iridium
192 source was found to be 62 milli roentgen/hour 100 feet, what is the exposure at a distance
of 1 foot.

Where:
I1 = Intensity at D1
I2 = Intensity at D2
D1 = Distance 1
D2 = Distance 2
Reworking the equation to solve for I2
Substitute in the known values and solve for I2
Page 103 of 111

Example 2
A source is producing an intensity of 456 R/h at one foot from the source. What would be the
distance in feet to the 100, 5, and 2 mR/h boundaries.
Convert Rem per hour to mRem per hour
456R/h x 1000 = 456,000 mR/h
Rework the equation to solve for D2

Plug in the known values and solve

D2= 67.5 feet
Using this equation the 100mR/h boundary would be 68 feet, the 5mR/h boundary would be
301.99 feet, and the 2mR/h boundary would be 477.5 feet.
Example 3
What is the HVL for a material with a attenuation coefficient of 0.4/cm?
Page 104 of 111

Question 3A:
The half life period of yttrium is 20 min. If there are 1000 gm of yttrium present, how much
will be left after 30 min?
Solution:
Given: Initial no of radioactive elements No = 1000 gms,

Half life t1/2 = 20 min,
Time taken t = 30 min,
Decay Constant is given by
λ = 0.693 / t1/2
= 0.693 / 20min
= 0.03465
The Decay rate is given by
Nt = No e-λ t = 1000 e-0.03465(30)
= 1000 × 0.3536 = 353.63 gms.
353.63 gms of atoms will be present after 30 min
Question 3B:
If you are given with 500 gms of radioactive carbon. Calculate the decay rate after 60 min if
the half life period is about 30 min.
Solution:
Initial no of atoms N0 = 500 gms,

Half life period t1/2 = 30 min,
Time taken t = 60 min
The decay constant is λ = 0.693 / t12
= 0.693 / 30min
= 0.0231
The decay rate is given by
Nt = No e-λ t = 500 e-(0.0231)60
= 500 × 0.25
= 125.04 gm
Page 105 of 111

Question 3C:
If 100.0mg of neptunium -239 (239Np) decays to 73.36mg after 24 hours. Find the value of λ
in the growth decay formula for t expressed in days?
Solution:

Since A = 73.36, Ao = 100.0 and t = 1(day) we have to use the equation
73.36 = 100 e λ (1)
0.7336 = e λ
λ = ln 0.7336
λ = -0.309791358
Thus the daily decay rate is approximately 31%
Question 3D:
Carbon-14 used for archeological dating, has a half-life of 5.730 years. Find the decay rate
for carbon-14?
Solution:

If 100mg of carbon-14 (No = 100) is present, we are given that in 5.730 years (t=5.730) there
will be 50mg present (N=50). We we use the formula.
50 = 100e λ (5.730)
0.5 = e 5.730λ
5,730 λ = ln 0.5
λ = ln0.55.730
λ = -0.525
Page 106 of 111

Example 4
An exposure of 560 milli ampere – seconds produces an acceptable radiograph at a source-to-

film distance of 30 inches. What would the exposure need to be if the source-to-film distance
is decreased to 24 inches?
Solve the equation for E2, plug in known values, and solve.
Example 5
An exposure time of 1.86 minutes and an amperage of 5.6 mA produces an acceptable

radiograph at a source-to-film distance of 30 inches. What would the exposure time need to
be to produce a similar radiograph at a source-to-film distance of 24 inches.
Solve for E2 or in this case T2 since only the exposure time will be adjusted. Then plug in the
known values and solve for the new exposure time.
Example 6
An exposure of 5.6 milliamperes with a 30 inch tube to film distance produced a good
radiograph. What would the milliamperes need to be, if the tube to film distance is changed to
24 inches?
Solve for E2 or in this case C 2 since only the exposure current will be adjusted. Then plug in
the known values and solve for the new exposure time.
Page 107 of 111

Example 7
An acceptable radiograph is produced using a current of 5mA and an exposure time of 10

minutes. If it is necessary to use a current of 8mA instead of 10mA, what does the new
exposure time need to be to produce a similar radiograph?
First solve the equation for T2.
Substitute in the known values and solve.
Example 8
If a exposure of 6.2 mA-minutes produces a film density of 1.5, what exposure will produce a
film density of approximately 2.5? Assume that both densities fall on the straightened
portion of the film characteristic curve.
Solve the equation for E2, substitute in known values and solve for E2.
Procedure for Using the Film Characteristic Curve to Adjust the Exposure
1. Locate the measured density (Dm) on the characteristic

curve of film being used.
2. Record the relative exposure corresponding to this
density. Call this value Em.
3. Record the relative exposure that would produce the
target density. Call this value ET
4. Compute the ratio R=EM/ET. This is the amount the actual
exposure needs to be adjusted to produce the target
density.
5. Compute the adjusted exposure by dividing the actual
exposure used to produce the initial radiograph by this ratio (Ea = Ei/R).
Page 108 of 111

Example 9
Calculated the geometric magnification when the source to object distance is 80cm and the
object to detector distance is 30cm.
M = (a + b) / a
Where:
M = magnification
a = distance from source to object

b = distance from object to detector
M = (a + b) / a
M = (80cm + 30cm)/80cm
M = 1.375
Example 10
Calculate the geometric un sharpness when using an X-ray generator with a 3mm spot size and the
test component is 100 cm from the x-ray tube and 50 cm from the detector.
Ug = f * t/d
Where: f = X-ray generator focal spot size

t = the thickness of the material
d = distance from x-ray source to front surface of material/object
Page 109 of 111

First convert all lengths to like units. Then plug the known information into the equation and
solving for Ug.
Ug = f * b/a
Ug = 0.3cm * 50cm/100cm
Ug = 0.15cm
Example 11
When radiographing a component with a thickness of 1.5 inches, a defect is detected. A

second radiograph is produced with sample shifted relative to the center of the source cone
beam. A pentameter on the surface of the component
is found to shift 0.45 inch between the two
radiographs. The defect is found to shift 0.18 inch
between the two radiographs. Determine the depth of
the defect.
Where:
D = Defect depth
t = thickness of the component
SD = Shift of defect in the radiographs
SM = Shift of marker in the radiographs
Substitute known values into the equation and solve for defect depth.
Page 110 of 111

Page 111 of 111

Ironscan - RT Study Material - Final

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IRONSCAN Institute of Non-Destructive testing and services

 Radiographic Testing (RT), or industrial radiography, is a non-destructive testing

2. Principle: Differential absorption

3. Radiograph and photography:

4. The discovery of radioactivity:

5. Atoms and elements

 All matter, such as solids, liquids and gases, is composed of atoms.

5.1 Atomic Number:

5.2 Mass Number:

 In radioactive processes, particles or electromagnetic radiation are emitted

6.1 Radioactive Nuclide:

 A radionuclide or radioactive nuclide is a nuclide that is radioactive. It also

 Gamma radiation is one of the three types of natural radioactivity radiation.

8. Nuclear Chain Reactions

8.1 Nuclear Fission Reaction:

 Fission can occur when a nucleus of a heavy atom captures a neutron, or it

8.2 Nuclear Fusion Reaction:

 Nuclear fusion is a process where two or more nuclei combine to form an

8.3 Type of Radiations Produced by Radioactive Decay:

8.3.1 Alpha Particles:

8.3.2 Beta Particles:

 Beta particles are high-energy, high-speed electrons or positrons emitted by

Industrial Gamma ray sources and applications

Isotopes Practical thickness Limits and Applications

Iridium 192 1.5 to 2.5 inch steel or Equivalent

Caesium 137 1 to 3.5 inch steel or Equivalent

Cobalt 60 2.5 to 9 inch steel or Equivalent

9. List of commercially available radio nuclides:

Isotope Activity Half-life Energies (keV)

Barium-133 9694 TBq/kg (262 Ci/g) 10.7 years 81.0, 356.0

Cadmium-109 96200 TBq/kg (2600 Ci/g) 453 days 88.0

Cobalt-57 312280 TBq/kg (8440 Ci/g) 270 days 122.1

Cobalt-60 40700 TBq/kg (1100 Ci/g) 5.27 years 1173.2, 1332.5

Manganese-54 287120 TBq/kg (7760 Ci/g) 312 days 834.8

Sodium-22 237540 Tbq/kg (6240 Ci/g) 2.6 years 511.0, 1274.5

Zinc-65 304510 TBq/kg (8230 Ci/g) 244 days 511.0, 1115.5

1.95×104 TBq/g (5.27 × 107

2. Beta emission only

Isotope Activity Half-life Energies (keV)

Strontium-90 5180 TBq/kg (140 Ci/g) 28.5 years 546.0

Thallium-204 17057 TBq/kg (461 Ci/g) 3.78 years 763.4

Carbon-14 166.5 TBq/kg (4.5 Ci/g) 5730 years 49.5 (average)

Tritium (Hydrogen-3) 357050 TBq/kg (9650 Ci/g) 12.32 years 5.7 (average)

3. Alpha emission only

Isotope Activity Half-life Energies (keV)

Polonium-210 166500 TBq/kg (4500 Ci/g) 138 days 5304.5

Uranium-238 12580 KBq/kg (0.00000034 Ci/g) 4.468 billion years 4267

4. Multiple radiation emitters

Isotope Activity Half-life Radiation types Energies (keV)

G: 59.5, 26.3, 13.9

10. Properties of gamma rays:

 Gamma radiation is very high-energy ionizing radiation.

11. Isotope Decay Rate (Half-Life):

 It was numerically calculated by using the following expression,

λ – Radioactive decay constant

 Alternatively Radioactive Decay Formula is expressed by

Thulium 170 127 days 0.084 and 0.54 -

12. Gamma ray camera:

Region of the spectrum Frequency (Hz) Wavelength (Ã…)

Radio waves 3 x 1014 to 3 x 1017 3 x 1014 to 3 x 1017

Microwaves 3 x 107 to 6 x 106 1 x 109 to 5 x 1011

Infrared 5 x 1011 to 3.995 x 1014 6 x 106 to 7000

Visible 3.95 x 1014 to 7.9 x 1014 7000 to 4000