BRE 361 Construction Technology and Materials II

2014-2015

Topic 3
Material Methods of assuring quality of Superstructure
materials and/or construction
Concrete Acoustic or ultrasonic UDT Building walls and
Radar and EM wave methods NDT façades

Student Name Student ID

Lam Lok Yiu 14027204D

Ng Tai Fu 14067688D
Sze-to Ka Yi 14026946D
Wan Hoi Ping Kate 14026953D

Submission Date:

1
 Summary of Individual Student’s Contribution

Wan Hoi Ping

Lam Lok Yiu Ng Tai Fu Sze-to Ka Yi
Contribution* Kate
(14027204D) (14067688D) (14026946D)
(14026953D)

Section 1
Introduction

Section 2 Acoustics/ Ultrasonic

Ultrasonic pulse
velocity method
√
Ultrasonic pulse
echo method

Crack Depth
Determination
√
Impact-Echo
Method

Section 3
√
Radar

Section 4
√
EM wave

Section 5
Conclusion

* Text colors are different to the parts the 5 students done.

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2. Acoustics or ultrasonic NDT
Ultrasonic testing is a non-destructive testing using propagation of ultrasonic waves in the
specimen tested. Sound energy is adopted in the test to conduct elevations and examinations to
the specimen tested. The inspection can be used for detection of defects, material characterization
and dimensional measurement etc.

2.1 Ultrasonic pulse velocity method

2.1.1 Fundamental principle

In the Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) test method, an ultrasonic wave pulse is created to a point
on the surface of the test object and transferred through the object, and the time the pulse take to
travel from that point to another through the specimen is recorded.
Pair of transducers, which are the transmitting transducer and the receiving transducer, transmit a
compressional wave pulse into the object and receive the pulse through the object at the opposite
point, at a distance (L). The pulse velocity apparatus displays the transit time (T) indicating the
pulse to travel through the test object. Therefore, the compressional wave pulse velocity (V) can
be calculated as
L
V=
T

2.1.2 Equipment for the test

The test equipment essentially includes an electrical pulse
generator, a set of two transducers, an amplifier and a
time measuring circuit device to sense the arrival of the
pulse and measure the time interval the wave has taken to
travel a known distance between two transducers. The
equipment can be connected to an oscilloscope or other
reading digital display, to display the results about the
received pulse.
A schematic diagram of ultrasonic pulse velocity test
circuit is shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 A schematic diagram of ultrasonic pulse

velocity test circuit
Source: Naik, Malhotra & Popovics(2004)
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The equipment should have the characteristics following. The electrical pulse generator should
produce and introduce a repetitive voltage pulse with a frequency of between 10Hz and 150Hz
for testing concrete.

The pair of transducers is placed in contract with concrete. Each transducer is for transmitting and
receiving the ultrasonic pulse. The transmitting transducer is coupled to concrete and transforms
the pulse into wave through a medium (concrete surface). A receiving transducer is also coupled
to concrete at a known distance from the transmitting transducer. There are various resonant
frequencies of the transducer sets for different applications. High-frequency transducers (over
100 kHz) are used for testing small-size specimens with a relatively short path length, or high-
strength concrete. Low-frequency transducers (below 25 kHz) are used for testing larger
specimens with a relatively longer path length, or concrete with larger size aggregates.
Transducers with a frequency of 50 kHz to 60 kHz are suitable for most common applications.
(Naik, Malhotra & Popovics, 2004)
V-meter and PUNDIT (Portable Ultrasonic Non-destructive Digital Indicating Tester) are the
commercial produced instruments which can satisfy these requirements, as shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 PUNDIT in laboratory

Source: Bungey & Millard (1996)

2.1.3 Determination of pulse velocity

2.1.3.1 Transducer arrangement
There are three basic ways for placing the transducers for UPV testing in which are direct, semi-
direct and indirect transmission, as shown in Figure 2.3. Direct transmission is the most sensitive,
and indirect transmission is the least sensitive.
Since the maximum pulse energy is transmitted at right angles to the face of the transmitter, the
direct method is the most preferable because the transit path is clearly defined and transit time
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can be measured accurately. The semi-direct methods can be use only if the angel and the path
length between the transducers are not too large so that sufficient signal can be received for
analysis.
The indirect method is the least reliable because of the discontinuities of the path. The received
signal amplitude may be less than 3% compared with the direct transmission and cause errors.
(Bungey & Millard, 1996) The exact path length is uncertain. A series of reading of transmitters
and receiver located at several fixed incremental points along a specific radial line should be
collected for the precision of path length.

Figure 2.3 Types of reading, (a) Direct; (b) Semi-direct; (c) Indirect
Source: Bungey & Millard (1996)

2.1.3.2 Coupling the transducer onto the concrete

To ensure the accuracy of the test, the face of transducers must be in full contact with the test
object. Otherwise an air pocket between the test object and transducer may induce an error in the
indicated transit time. This error is introduced because only a negligible amount of wave energy
can be transmitted through air.
A medium such as petroleum jelly, liquid soap or grease can be provided in order to eliminate the
air pockets. The couplant layer should be as thin as possible. Petroleum jelly or liquid soap is
suitable for smooth surfaces, but thicker grease is suggested for relatively rough surfaces. If the
surface is significantly rough, grinding or preparation with plaster or quick-setting mortar is
recommended to provide a smooth surface for transducer application.

2.1.4 Factors affecting the measurement of pulse velocity

The serval properties of concrete influence the reading of the pulse velocity. Moisture content,
temperature of concrete, and shape and size of specimen would be introduced.

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2.1.4.1 Moisture content
The existence of moisture content is important in the production of correlations for the estimation
of concrete strength. The moisture content of concrete is different due to the curing conditions on
the hydration of the cement and the presence of free water in the voids.

2.1.4.2 Temperature of concrete

Variations of the concrete temperature may induce change with the occurrence of corresponding
changes in the strength or elastic properties. Corrections to pulse velocity measurements should
be made if for temperatures outside this range as given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Effect of temperature on pulse transmission

Source: IAEA (2002)

2.1.4.3 Shape and size of specimen

If the least lateral dimension of the specimen is less than a certain minimum value, the velocity of
short pulses may be reduced significantly.
The reduction depends mainly on the ratio of the wavelength of the pulse vibrations to the least
lateral dimension of the specimen. However, it is insignificant if the ratio is less than unity.
The relationship between the pulse velocity of concrete, the frequency of transducer and the
minimum permissible lateral dimension of the specimen is shown in Table 2.2. If the minimum
lateral dimension is less than the wavelength or if the indirect transmission arrangement is used,
the mode of propagation changes and therefore the measured velocity will be different. (IAEA,
2002)

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 Table 2.2 Effect of specimen dimensions on pulse transmission
Source: IAEA (2002)

2.1.5 Application of UPV method in building walls and facades

2.1.5.1 Strength development monitoring
The UPV method can reflect the concrete quality for concrete walls and facades, as shown in
Table 2.3. The principle of assessing quality of concrete is that comparatively higher velocities
are obtained when the quality of concrete in terms of density, homogeneity and uniformity is
good. In case of poorer quality, lower velocities are obtained. (Adjei, Danso & Lawson, 2011)
UPV measurements are particularly useful to follow the hardening process of concrete, especially
for the first 36 hours. Changes in pulse velocity are associated with physiochemical changes in
the cement paste structure. Measurements of changes in pulse velocity can represent the changes
in strength. The quality of concrete is usually specified in terms of strength. The relationship
between ultrasonic pulse velocity and compressive strength for concrete is shown in Figure 2.3,
which is affected by a number of factors including age, curing conditions, moisture condition,
mix proportions, type of aggregate and type of cement.
It is necessary to make measurements at intervals of 1 h or 2 h if these changes are to be followed
closely. As the concrete hardens these intervals may be lengthened to 1 day or more after the
initial period of 36 h has passed.
In addition, it is required to establish a correlation between strength and velocity for the particular
type of concrete under investigation. This correlation has to be established experimentally by
testing a sufficient number of specimens to cover the range of strengths expected and to provide
statistical accuracy.

Table 2.3 Quality of concrete as a function of UPV

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 Source: Adjei, Danso & Lawson(2011)

Figure 2.3 Relation between ultrasonic pulse velocity and compressive strength for concretes of
different mix proportions
Source: IAEA (2002)

2.1.5.2 Developments in Post-Repair Testing

Results of the pulse velocity testing can be used topographic velocity profiles in order to show an
increase in wall solidity measured by an overall velocity increase to a test area. Repair works to
cracks as grout injection can be applied to the isolated areas with low velocities and inspect the
quality of the repair work done.
Generally, low velocity is due to the low density of the materials or the presence of potential
internal voids. Wall solidity was correlated with measured pulse velocities.
According to the experiment successfully conducted by Schuller & Ruth (2000), the wall solidity
was correlated with measured pulse velocities of less than 1200m/s and it indicated that density of
the concrete wall was low. Large internal voids and cracks were noted at locations where
velocities were measured to be less than about 900 m/s.
Individual deteriorated concrete showed very low velocity readings, as shown in Figure 2.4. Four
locations were with low velocities and identified voids within the wall. Those areas were re-
injected subsequently. Following grout injection, the repairs increased the overall velocity. Also,
the velocity at nearly all areas was measured to be greater than 1200 m/s, indicating the grout
injection was successful at filling internal voids.

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 Figure 2.4 Through-wall pulse velocity tests conducted on a wall panel, (a) pre-repair and (b)
post-repair.
Source: Schuller & Ruth (2000)

2.1.6 Reliability and limitations

UPV measurement is a relatively valuable and reliable method in examining the interior
characteristics in a non-destructive manner. The equipment is reasonably cheap and easy to be
operated and reliable under site conditions. The operators are required to be well-trained and be
aware of the factors affecting the readings. It is also important to employ experienced engineers,
who are deeply familiar with the technique, interpret and evaluate the test result properly.

The UPV method has few limitations. Two opposite faces of a structural member is required for
the access of equipment. The method is not reliable for testing the defect within the concrete
when the concrete is wet. There are many factors influencing calibration. According to Bungey
& Millard (1996), 95% confidence limits of better than +/- 20% are calibrated for an absolute
strength prediction for in-place concrete even under ideal conditions. It is recommended to use
this test combined with rebound hammer & core test for concrete.

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2.2 Ultrasonic pulse echo method
2.2.1 Fundamental principle
Ultrasound Pulse Echo (UPE) testing detects internal features of concrete with one sided access
to the structure. The principle is based on the measurement of the time interval between
transmitting an ultrasonic impulse into the structure and receiving an echo.
The distance to an inner reflector can be determined, if the velocity of sound is known through
the simple equation:
d=V/2T
T: transit time, V: Velocity of the longitudinal wave, d: distance

2.2.2 Equipment for the test

The commercial equipment for pulse-echo test includes a dry-coupled ultrasound sensor (Figure
2.5). The ultrasound sensor is in pitch-catch mode and scan lines and areas in a reasonable time.
It enables digital A-scan and B-scan measurements as well as the transmission experiments.
Acoustical coupling of transducers to the surface of concretes is another concern. Coupling
agents are not recommended. The process of applying coupling mediums such as honey or
vaseline is time consuming and induces error which may exceed 6 dB. Rough surfaces are
required to be grinded, but still concave portions of the surface may lead a problem to large
diameter transducers.
No such coupling agent is needed for the commercial product to the concrete surface. The
individual transducers with ceramic pin are contacted to the concrete. There are total 24 point
contacts for the ultrasonic device. Each 12 transducers are combined to form a large aperture for
transmitting and receiving the ultrasound. (Algernon, 2011)

Figure 2.5 A1220 Dry-coupled ultrasound sensor for concrete

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 Source: Schickert(2002)
To achieve high axial resolution, the frequency of the ultrasound is usually low as 55 kHz
because of the sound waves would be highly attenuated by the coarse aggregates and air pores in
concrete to achieve a reliable reading of the echo wave.

2.2.3 Application of UPE method in building walls and facades

2.2.3.1 Thickness measurement of concrete walls with one sided access
Using an array of transducers to be the transmitter and receiver, a huge number of measurements
can be conducted and calculated in a short time. The thickness of a concrete wall can be
determined through the phase shift superposition technique. The test is performed in a bistatic
arrangement by measuring several A-scans (20+) with varying distances between the transmitting
and the receiving transducer. It is noted that the thickness measurement can only be accurate if
the velocity of ultrasound in the test object is known. (IAEA, 2002)
Assumed a thickness of the concrete, the phase shift for the backface echo in each A-scan is
calculated and the time for A-scans is shifted in average. If actual thickness is same as the
assumption, the backface reflection is amplified and also scattering is reduced, as shown in
Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6 Maximum of the actual echo is at the true thickness of the specimen
Source: IAEA (2002)

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2.2.3.2 Post-tensioned duct inspection
UPE method can be used to locate voids inside ducts. The defects of voids can be a serious safety
hazard.
The investigation of ducts which are covered by more than 10 cm in concrete requires time
consuming and complicated data acquisition and analysis. All these A-scans are then put into a
3D SAFT (Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique) analysis, which produces a 3D image of the
ultrasonic echo data. By plotting slices and projections through this 3D array, the location of the
duct and possible voids can be defined. The calculation times were shortened due to the faster
processors and advanced programming techniques. (Schickert, 2002)
The duct was precisely located from the smooth surface by lateral B-scans above its estimated
position. The additional A-scans were interpreted to determine its position in depth. Figure 2.7
(left) shows an example of a B-scan at the not reinforced half of the specimen.
In a B-scan, the testing enables a computer-aided monitoring of the data. The computer visualizes
the B-scans in colours or grayscale by running an online developed software. Slight differences in
time of flight or intensity of the signal can be observed by the tester directly. For the spheric
geometry of the duct, even only a very small area of minimum time of flight and maximum
intensity is existed in the B-scan, so that the tester is able to localize the lateral area with an
accuracy of about +- 5mm. (Wiggenhauser, 2009) Having found this area and thereby localized
the duct, its position in depth can be determined by analyzing the simultaneous displayed A-scan
as described in Ch. 2.2.3.1.
The relative displaying of an online B-scan is that the localization of the duct would not interfere
by reinforcement bars. Natural interferences lower the accuracy of the localization. The duct can
be detected by the scan due to the tester to find the best line to scan e.g. in the center between two
bars, as shown in Figure 2.7 (right).

Figure 2.7 Duct in concrete; not reinforced (left); reinforcement (right)

Source: Diederichs (1997)

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2.3 Crack Depth Determination
2.3.1 Introduction
The following introduces results of a program for validation of different ultrasonic test techniques
for crack depth determination of surface breaking cracks.

Two techniques, the TOFD technique and the angle beam testing with corner effect, both using
time of flight measurement of the diffracted signal from the crack tip, are employed. Since it is
not certain that all crack edges generate diffracted waves, the optimized ultrasonic pulse echo
technique should be used.

Applying TOFD as an additional analytic method for verification of Impulse Echo Technique or
Radiography results seems to be more applicable.

2.3.2 Fundamental principle

2.3.2.1 Ultrasonic testing for defect detection

In Germany ultrasonic testing is usually applied for in-service inspection of plants by use of pulse echo
techniques, such as 45° shear wave probes with a corner effect or 70° SEL (creeping waves) probes. All of
these techniques use reflection which relies as much as possible on a perpendicular position of the crack
surface to the probe index.

Ultrasonic Testing with the 70°SEL technique was qualified for testing of austenitic piping with 5mm to
15mm wall thicknesses. This uses the mode conversion effect on transversal waves at the far surface (J.
Wessels 1997).

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By use of longitudinal waves, which penetrate well in austenitic materials, and applying with a large (70°)
angle of incidence, a signal from the reflector surface (main echo) can be achieved. (Csapo, T. Just, H.
Eggers, E. Hein, R. 1994). Rood defects of less depth are distinguished from defects with greater depth by
the absence of neighboring echoes (triangle reflection in Figure 1A.). That is performed as a detection
technique. The height of the main echo cannot be used to determine the crack depth.

Figure 1B shows the so-called notch diagram of the 70° SEL small probe (KWU) (main and neighboring
echoes). The different test notches and the edges of the reference block display an echo amplitude similar
to the main echo. A clear echo resolution exists for determination of the registration level (echo amplitude
of the 1.5 mm notch minus 6 dB).

Those echo signals which exceed the registration level and the typical neighboring echoes are classified as
defects. The echo amplitude of the neighboring echoes (triangular reflection) increases with crack depth.
The evaluation using the displayed echo signal pattern is only qualitative by means of a yes/no decision,
since the echo amplitude changes significantly with the weld root geometry.

2.3.2.2 The TOFD-(Time of flight diffraction-) Technique

In 1977 Silk developed the TOFD technique which use diffracted signals and also introduced the
Zipscan equipment to the market (P. Carter. 1997].

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The principle is shown in Figure 2 below. Two probes in a transmitter-receiver arrangement are
positioned in through transmission, each on both sides of the weld. Longitudinal probes are
applied with an angle of incidence range of 45° to 70°.

Figure. 2A shows the main sound beam propagation (back wall echo), the lateral wave on the
surface and the diffracted waves from the upper and lower crack tip which appear with different
times of flight (Figure 2B).

By comparing the time of flight values of these signals with known component geometry and
probe distance, the depth of the crack can be determined. The exact location of the defect cannot
be calculated. It is said that the ideally best angle of incidence (longitudinal waves) is 65° (MG
Silk. 1994). Under easy geometry a longitudinal probe scan normal to the weld is efficient
enough, coupled on a uniform surface. By 1980, the Zipscan equipment already had the capability
for digitalization of the complete A-scan as well as post processing as B-scan images with linear
scales by use of the SAFT algorithm.

Figure. 2C shows an example of a crack open to the far surface (artificial notch), which is
detectable by the diffraction echoes and the absence of the back wall echo. The crack depth can
be depicted as a linear B-scan image. The echo amplitude is displayed as gray scale, usually zero
amplitude light gray (negative maximum amplitude black, positive maximum amplitude white).
An accuracy of approx. +/- 1 mm can be achieved for defects 10 mm under the surface. The
lateral wave hinders the evaluation in a depth of approx. 5mm.
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The diffracted signals have a low amplitude (approx. 20 dB less than a 3mm Ø -side drilled hole). A
problem is that the test has to be performed with high gain, increasing chances that small inhomogeneity
or slake will generate significant signals. Our task was to qualify TOFD as a detection technique on
gladding components.

The results showed that a gladding non-uniform surface interfered with the backwall echo and lateral wave;
these could be evaluated as surface cracks or loss of coupling. That necessitated verification by use of the
impulse echo technique. It is very difficult to distinguish significant signals in the area of noise (rough
surface, conclusions). When TOFD is employed as a detection technique the scan of the total surface must
be performed with clear and sufficient sensitivity to produce a reliable test result.

2.3.3 Application in building walls and facades by the Determination of Crack

depth with Impulse-Echo-Technique
For the determination of crack depth this technique uses the same diffracted signals as the TOFD
technique. But here one probe is used as both transmitter and receiver, and the defect location can
be determined.

To identify a diffracted echo a corner echo from the crack is needed. The corner echo is generated
by use of the corner effect between far surface and crack surface. There are two techniques:

• "Relative time of flight technique" (RLT, fig 3a) , which measures the time of flight
between the corner echo and the diffracted echo.
• "Absolute time of flight technique" (ALT, fig 3b), which measures only the time of flight
until the diffracted echo.

16
Twin probes with 60° or 45° generating shear waves are applied. To make the crack detection
more reliable for finding cracks in deeper areas as well, the diffracted echo is also evaluated after
travelled as V-transmission; that means after it has been reflected on the far surface.

The crack depth can be easily calculated, thus measuring the time of flight when the peak
amplitude of the diffracted signal is detected. There are also methods that measure when the
signal registers half value or just disappears within the noise. That should prevent the error on
measuring diffracted signals from a lower part of the crack instead from the tip. All signals higher
than noise and echo dynamic and time of flight are evaluated as possible cracks. If a diffracted
signal does not exist, but an echo signal from the far surface appears, the result is classified as a
crack less than 1 mm.

In the 80's, this technique was investigated in the USA by the EPRI Institute for detection and
sizing of cracks (Charlotte, N.C. 1985). An American standard describes the necessity of using
ultrasonic testing for crack depth measurement. The performance of the method used and the
personnel qualifications must be demonstrated.

2.4 The Impact-Echo Method

2.4.1 Introduction

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Impact-echo is a method for nondestructive testing of concrete and masonry structures that is
based on the use of impact-generated stress (sound) waves that propagate through concrete and
masonry and are reflected by internal flaws and external surfaces.

2.4.1.1 Objective and usages

Impact-echo can be used to determine the location and extent of flaws such as cracks,
delamination, voids, honeycombing, and debonding in plain, reinforced, and post-tensioned
concrete structures, including plates (slabs, pavements, walls, decks), layered plates (including
concrete with asphalt overlays), columns and beams (round, square, rectangular and many I and T
cross-sections), and hollow cylinders (pipes, tunnels, mine shaft liners, tanks).

The method can be used to locate voids in the grouted tendon ducts of many types of post-
tensioned structures. It can provide thickness measurements of concrete slabs with an accuracy
better than three percent, and it can locate voids in the subgrade directly beneath slabs and
pavements. The method can be used to determine thickness or to locate cracks, voids, and other
defects in masonry structures where the brick or block units are bonded together with mortar.

2.4.1.2 Benefits of the method

When properly used the impact-echo method has achieved unparalleled success in locating flaws
and defects in highway pavements, bridges, buildings, tunnels, dams, piers, sea walls, and many
other types of structures. Its use has resulted in savings of millions of dollars in repair and retrofit
costs on bridges, retaining walls and other large structures.

2.4.1.3 Objectives

Impact-echo is not a "black-box" system that can perform blind tests on concrete and masonry
structures and always tell what is inside. The method is used most successfully to identify and
quantify suspected problems within a structure, in quality control applications, such as measuring
the thickness of new highway pavements, and in preventive maintenance programs, such as
routine evaluation of bridge decks to detect delamination. In all of these situations, impact-echo
testing has a focused objective, such as locating cracks, voids or delamination, determining the
thickness of concrete slabs, or checking a post-tensioned structure for voids in the grouted tendon
ducts. Experience has shown that a thorough understanding of the impact-echo method and
knowledge about the structure being tested are both essential for successful field work.

2.4.2 Fundamental Principle

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Impact-echo is based on the use of transient stress waves generated by elastic impact. A diagram
of the method is shown in figure.

Figure: Simplified diagram of the impact-echo method

A short-duration mechanical impact, produced by tapping a small steel sphere against a concrete
or masonry surface, is used to generate low-frequency stress waves that propagate into the
structure and are reflected by flaws and/or external surfaces. Surface displacements caused by
reflections of these waves are recorded by a transducer, located adjacent to the impact. The
resulting displacement versus time signals are transformed into the frequency domain, and plots
of amplitude versus frequency (spectra) are obtained. Multiple reflections of stress waves
between the impact surface, flaws, and/or other external surfaces give rise to transient resonances,
which can be identified in the spectrum, and used to evaluate the integrity of the structure or to
determine the location of flaws.

It is the patterns present in the waveforms and spectra (especially the latter) that provide
information about the existence and locations of flaws, or the dimensions of the cross-section of
the structure where a test is performed, such as the thickness of a pavement. For each of the
common geometrical forms encountered in concrete structures (plates; circular and rectangular
columns; rectangular, I-, and T-beams; hollow cylinders; etc.), impact-echo tests on a solid
structure produce distinctive waveforms and spectra, in which the dominant patterns-especially
the number and distribution of peaks in the spectra-are easily recognized. If flaws are present
(cracks, voids, delaminations, etc.) these patterns are disrupted and changed, in ways that provide
qualitative and quantitative information about the existence and location of the flaws.

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2.4.3 Equipment for the test
A typical impact-echo test system is shown in the adjacent photograph. Its principal components
are a cylindrical handheld transducer unit; a set of spherical impactors; a portable computer; a
high-speed, analog-to-digital data acquisition system (on a full-sized ISA card installed in the
computer); and a software program that controls and monitors the test and displays the results in
numerical and graphical form. The entire system weighs less than 14 kilograms (about 30 pounds)
and is powered by a 110/220-volt a.c. source or by a 12-volt car or truck battery. Two hand-held
units, clamped in a spacer bar, are used to measure wave speed. A single hand-held unit, as
shown here, is used for impact-echo testing.

Figure: A typical impact-echo test system

2.4.3.1 Basic impact-echo hardware and software, without a computer.

2.4.3.1.1 Equipment with Impact-Echo Test System, Type A

The Type A impact-echo Test System includes the following items:

1. A Data Acquisition System (full size ISA card), 5 megasamples per second
maximum speed;
2. One cylindrical hand-held transducer unit;
3. A box 0f 200 replacement lead disks for the transducer unit;
4. Ten spherical impactors, 1/8" (3mm) to 3/4" (19mm) diameter;
5. One 12-foot (3.7-meter) cable and one 25-foot (7.6-meter) cable for connecting the
transducer unit to the data acquisition system;
6. One copy of the impact-echo operating software on 3.5-in floppy disks (the
software is called "Imago" - the Latin word for echo or image);
7. A software package labeled "Demo-Tutorial" containing an animated, stress wave
simulation program and a tutorial for Imago software (on floppy disks);
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 8. Two Sentinel Hardware Keys for software protection (a key must be attached to
the computer to enable the software to run);
9. Printed materials:

Figure: Equipment of Impact-Echo Test System, Type A

2.4.3.1.2 Equipment with Impact-Echo Test System, Type B

The Impact-Echo Test System, Type B, is the same as Type A, above, with the following
additional items:

• One additional hand-held transducer unit, cylindrical model, with two additional
cables;
• Spacer bar for use with 2 transducers for independent measurements of wave
speed.

2.4.3.2 Complete systems, with computer included

These systems are shipped with the Imago software and the data acquisition card installed. They
are ready for immediate use. Impact-Echo Test System (type A or B above) with Toshiba Tecra
510CDT notebook computer and Toshiba Desk Station V (docking station). (Only three
remaining.)

2.4.4 Applications in Building walls and Facade

When properly used, the impact-echo method has achieved unparalleled success in locating flaws
and defects in highway pavements, bridges, buildings, tunnels, dams, piers, sea walls and many
other types of structures. It can also be used to measure the thickness of concrete slabs
(pavements, floors, walls, etc.) with an accuracy of 3 percent or better.
21
Impact-echo is not a "black-box" system that can perform blind tests on concrete and masonry
structures and always tell what is inside. The method is used most successfully to identify and
quantify suspected problems within a structure, in quality control applications (such as measuring
the thickness of highway pavements) and in preventive maintenance programs (such as routine
evaluation of bridge decks to detect delaminations). In each of these situations, impact-echo
testing has a focused objective, such as locating cracks, voids or delaminations, determining the
thickness of concrete slabs or checking a post-tensioned structure for voids in the grouted tendon
ducts.

Experience has shown that an understanding of the physical principles of the impact-echo method
and information about the structure being tested are both necessary for successful field work.

There are following applications including:

i. Testing the Integrity of Tunnel Walls

ii. Detecting horizontal cracking in the Deck of Reinforced Concrete Railway Bridge
iii. Measuring Thickness of Concrete Pavement
iv. Identify areas where there are full or partial voids in the tendon ducts
v. Identify cracks at flange-web intersections in certain T-beam configurations, determined
extend of cracking in columns, and confirmed that solid cores existed in some cracked
columns.
vi. Used in exploratory tests to determine presence or absence of hidden headers Behind
Masonry Facade of a Building,

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3. Radar

3.1 Ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems

3.1.1 Introduction

3.1.1.1 Definition

According to Eltesta (n.d.), ground-penetrating radar (GPR), also known as surface-penetrating

radar (SPR), is a kind of non-destructive and non-invasive tests that is commonly used in
concrete. GPR is the techniques that can map the structure and feature at the underground or in
man-made structures by employing the electromagnetic radio waves with high frequencies i.e.
approximately from 10MHz to 3GHz.

3.1.1.2 Aims

In the case of concrete, GPR aims at detecting delamination in concrete, locating reinforcement
bars in concrete structures as well as identifying the air- and water-filled voids in reinforced
concrete elements. Due to the movements during concrete casting, the real depth of the voids
might differ from the planned positions. (Maierhofer, 2012)

3.1.1.3 Tested Feature

• Nature
As stated in Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc. (2012), GPR could generate extremely
accurate results when it encounters both metallic and non-metallic objects. Thus, it can be
used to detect any subsurface variations, either metallic or non-metallic, as long as there is
dielectric difference between detecting materials. In addition, by using the result of the signal
received, users can even identify the nature of the tested object.

• Structural element
Literally, GPR means that adopting radar to investigate the underground building structure.
However, it can also be used to look into both soils as well as walls and beyond walls when
adopting wall probing system (WPS)/ through wall-imaging approach, which is a method of
hybrid of GPR and radar conceptually. (Persico, 2014)

3.1.1.4 Use of Equipment

According to Gehrig, Morris & Bryant (n.d.), to carry out the GPR system for concrete evaluation,
apparatus including a control unit (computer), pulse generator, transmitting and receiving
antennae and video monitor will be used. Their arrangement are presented in the picture below:

23
Fig 3.1 – Demonstration of the apparatus used in a GPR system
Source: Gehrig, Morris & Bryant, n.d.

From Fig 3.1, (A) is one unit that contains two component, an electronic data storage unit and
pulse generator. (B) is the monostatic 1.5 GHz antenna and it is installed into a broom-like device
(C), which includes a survey wheel responsible for horizontal spatial control. (D) is the monitor
display used for on-site cursory analysis. (E) is cable that attaches the antenna to the control unit.

• Pulse Generator

Pulse generator from the radar system plays an important role in providing the emission and
reception of EM pulse.

• Transmitting and Receiving Antenna

- Types

As stated by Gehrig, Morris & Bryant (n.d.), for a radar system with two antennae, one to
transmit and the other to receive, it is named as a bistatic antenna.
For the radar system with only one antenna that both transmits and receives, it is defined
as a monostatic antenna.

24
 Each type of antenna has its own advantages and disadvantages. But for concrete
evaluation studies, it is recommend adopting monostatic antennae since there is a higher
data collection and processing efficiency.

- Frequency
According to Bungey, Millard & Grantham (2006), for the relatively small concrete
elements (up to500mm thick), a center frequency antenna of 1GHzis often used for
investigation. For deeper investigations, a 500MHz antenna would be more suitable.

In details, a reduction in antenna frequency implies a less signal attenuation. As a result, a

deeper penetration capability will be achieved. However, it has some shortcomings
including a poorer resolution of detail and the need for an antenna that is in a large size.
(Maierhofer et al., 2012)

3.1.2 Principle

• Operation and Working Principle

The major working principle of GPR is due to the fact that EM wave can travel through all
the materials and even in vacuum. As mentioned by Persico (2014), the pulse generator will
produce an electromagnetic signal and it is then radiated into the targeted object by the
transmitting antenna. With the inherent feature of the EM wave, the signal is radiated and
transmitted in all directions. When the EM wave encounter any buried discontinuity such as
the interface between two geological layer or a cavity, they will be distributed in all directions
with respect to some pattern, which is depending on the buried situation. In the end, they are
partially reflected toward the receiving antenna. By analyzing the record obtained from the
receiving antenna, a GPR image will be produced. According to Knight (2001), the GPR
image is a representation of the interaction between the transmitted EM energy and the spatial
variation in the complex and frequency-dependent EM properties including the dielectric
permittivity ε, the electrical conductivity σ, and the magnetic permeability µ.

25
Fig 3.2: A block diagram showing the transmission and reflection of the electromagnetic wave
under the GPR unit
Source: Takahashi et al., 2012

• Measure Parameter
Through setting up the system on the targeted object, we will determine the result such as the
depth of buried objects within concrete by measuring the time of flight (TOF), which is
measuring in the case of transmission with separate emitters and receivers.

For the case with a monostatic or a single combined emitter and receiver, Two-way Transit
Time (TTT) will be captured.

• Physical Base

- Velocity of EM wave

Similar to other geophysical techniques, a material property contrast is necessary for

subsurface identification. Moreover, as mentioned in the operating and working principle,
through operating the GPR system, parts of the electromagnetic energy will be reflected
back to the ground surface due to the abrupt changes in dielectric properties. The reflected
wave is recorded and amplified by the receiving antenna. According to Møller (2006),
The recorded signal is registered as amplitude and polarity versus two-way travel time as
formula (1):

From the equation, the velocity of electromagnetic waves is dependent on the relative
dielectric permittivity, εr, the relative magnetic permeability,μr, and the electrical
conductivity, σ.

It is known that the electromagnetic wave propagates in air with the speed of light, which
is 0.3 m/ns. Together with the use of the formula includingε=εrε0, ω=2πf and σ/ω
ε, the velocity of electromagnetic waves for concrete analysis is simplified to the
following expression as formula (2):

26
- Application of two-way transit time

We can use the variations in TTT within a medium such as concrete to suggest the
presence of variable concrete thicknesses. If there is a shorter TTT, it indicates that the
targeted object is a thinner concrete section whereas a longer TTT implies a thicker
concrete section. It is essential for grade beam detection in slab-on-grade foundation
systems.

More importantly, TTT can also be applied in the conversion of time domain radargram
models into distance domain radargram models. Typically, TTT is collected at a known
depth location through a given medium. Then, we can calculate he propagation velocity
(V) with respecting to the known travel times (tt) and medium depth (d) at particular
location using a simple formula (3):

By using formula (2) and (3), we can calculate the relative dielectric constant, ε, for a
given medium. Thus, this velocity analysis can used to convert radargram from time
domain to distance domain accurately.

- Reflection or Transmission Coefficient

Due to the changes of dielectric properties of two materials, there are electromagnetic
wave reflections. The increased in the dielectric contrast between two media will result in
a greater amount of reflected energy. The reflection coefficient (R) quantifies the
reflective strength between two adjacent media:

where ε1 and ε2 are the dielectric constants of media (or layers) 1 and 2 respectively.

From Fig 3.3, it shows the relationship of reflection coefficient and the dielectric
constants by plotting the reflection coefficient of layer 1 with respect to a range of
dielectric constants between 1 and 81. As the strength of reflection is increased with the
rise in the dielectric contrast, as a result, the larger the dielectric contrast between two
media, the larger the reflection coefficient. All in all, the layer delineation and subsurface
feature detection is more evident. (Gehrig, Morris & Bryant, n.d.)

27
 Fig. 3.3 – Relationship of reflective coefficient and dielectric constant in concrete
Source: Gehrig, Morris & Bryant, n.d.

Thus, in application, in the case of indicating the steel reinforcement bar inside the
concrete, as the reinforcement bar is metallic and t has infinite dielectric constant, it will
induce a great reflection during the propagation of electromagnetic waves encounter the
steel reinforcement bar. From the contrast, we can deduce our result successfully.

3.1.3 Procedures

According to Pensacola Testing Labs (2008), the procedures of conducting the GPR system are
described as follow:

Step 1: Layout survey grid on the area surface of the concrete wall.

Step 2: Place the survey mat on the selected region

Step 3: Set up the GPR system.

Step 4: Select the image parameters.

Step 5: Start the operation and scan the selected grid with the radar system.

28
Fig. 3.5 – Scanning the targeted area

Step 6: View and analyze the GPR images.

3.1.4 Application in walls and facades

• Determination of the conditions and structure of concrete

- By using GPR, we can deduce the thickness of the concrete by taking the TTT into
account.
- It can also be adopted to find out location of deteriorated concrete in the concrete wall.

• Identification of the location of reinforcement bar and conduit

- As mentioned in the procedures, the worker in the Fig. 3.6 is scanning the wall surface to
find out the location of the reinforcement bar embedded in the concrete wall.

Fig. 3.6 – Worker who carries out GPR on site

- The result was imaged as Fig. 3.7. From the figuration, we can clearly figure out the
location of the reinforcement bars.

29
 Fig. 3.7 – GPR image showing the location of rebar in concrete wall

- After spotting out the location of conduits, worker can carry out the repair and
maintenance work or renew work in a more efficient way.
- Besides, after identifying the location of rebars, workers can avoid hitting the rebars
during the work.

• Air- or water-filled voids detection and location

- With the presence of air- or water- filled void in the concrete wall, it increases the
possibility of the collapse of concrete and it could bring hazardous drawbacks.
- Therefore, by adopting the GPR system, we can locate the problem area as soon as
possible and in an accurate way.
- Moreover, this can facilitate the repair and maintenance work, as worker does not need to
drill holes on the concrete wall for the sake of identifying the location and extent of the
voids.

Fig. 3.8 – Locating the voids in concrete within wall

30
3.1.5 Benefits of adopting GPR

Nowadays, it is popular to adopt these impulse radar systems in the field when testing concrete.
There are a number of advantages when adopting the GPR system.

3.1.5.1 Non-destructive and non-intrusive nature

One of the major benefits of GPR has the nature of being both non-destructive and non-intrusive.
As a result, when operating the GPR system, the targeted object will not be destroyed due to the
test and it is a critical factor when choosing the suitable types of tests to be carried out.

3.1.5.2 High accuracy

GPR offers a high accuracy that the depth results are typically accurate to within +/- 10% with a
horizontal accuracy of +/- 150mm. (Laser Surveys, 2014)

3.1.5.3 Low cost

Bungey, Millard & Grantham (2006) mentioned that GPR is the most commercially obtainable
systems. Since the power output of the transmitted radar signal is very low with no special safety
precautions are needed, the cost for operating this system is relatively low.

3.1.5.4 High speed

According to MALA (2014), GPR can generate a high-speed data acquisition. As a result, it can
bring certain business benefits such as a reduced survey cost. Moreover, when the system is
undergoing with a use of vehicle, data can be collected continuously at highway speeds (>55mph).

3.1.5.5 High safety standard

GPR is a technique that is extremely safe and it emits roughly 1% of the power of a cellular
phone signal. (Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc., 2012)

3.1.5.6 Simple set-up

The operation of GPR is simple that data acquisition could be done when the transmitter and
receiver antenna are in place. It only requires one person for the entire data collection process.
(MALA, 2014)

31
3.1.6 Limitations
3.1.6.1 Inability to work in high-conductivity materials

GPR cannot operate on those high-conductivity materials, for example, clay soils and soils that
are salt contaminated. Also, it cannot perform in heterogeneous conditions such as rocky soils
due to the limitation by signal scattering. (African Consulting Surveyors, 2009)

3.1.6.2 Need for expertise

To carry out GPR method, considerable expertise is required to effectively design, conduct, and
interpret the complied data from the GPR surveys.

3.1.6.3 Influence by noises

There are many unwanted signals that are noises caused by various geologic and cultural factors
and GPR system is sensitive to these noises. (Do, 2003)

Some of the examples of geologic sources of noise are from the boulders, animal burrows and
other inhomogeneity can cause unwanted reflections or scattering. Cultural sources of noise can
include reflections from nearby vehicles, buildings and fences. To control these kinds of
reflections, shielded antennas (Fig. 3.9) can be used.

Fig. 3.9 – Shielded antennas

3.1.6.4 Subjective interpretation

According to Do (2003), he also stated that the data collected through GPR methods are highly
subject to the interpretation of the data. As a result, it will create a considerable mistake
especially in the case that interferences are not identified correctly.

32
4. Electromagnetic wave

Fig. 4.1 Electromagnetic spectrum (NCS Pearson, 2014)

In this section, how the electromagnetic wave can be used to test the quality of the concrete wall
and façade will be discussed. Microwave, X-ray and gamma ray are chosen as the example.

4.1 Microwave
Microwave is electromagnetic wave with wavelength 10-2m and frequency of 109 - 1012 Hz.

4.1.1 Aim
It can be used to measure the moisture content of concrete. Apart from testing harden concrete,
microwave can also be used to monitor the hydration process and to measure compressive
strength (Bois, Benally, Nowak & Zoughi, 1997). Testing the moisture content of concrete wall is
important for the maintenance. It can detect water leakage defects or the corrosion problem in the
wall which can lead to weakening the structure of the wall and even the whole building (Wong,
2014).

4.1.2 Principle

33
The working principle is that water absorbs microwave at a higher rate the concrete so the
moisture content can be found out by measuring the attenuation due to the dispersed of water
(Bungey, Millard & Grantham, 2006).

4.1.3 Application
Different devices are developed using the working principle of microwave absorption. Here are
some examples.

4.1.3.1 Chilled Mirror Relative Humidity Probe

Fig. 4.2 Chilled mirror relative humidity probe

This device consists of a portable transmitter, which generated microwave beam, and a detector
connecting with amplifier to receive the signal. When the microwave beam passes through the
testing objects, which is the concrete wall in this case, the decreased of the signal receives by the
detector. Then, this procedure repeats without the concrete wall but with the same distance. The
differences of two readings due to the microwave absorption by water can be obtained to estimate
the moisture content in the concrete wall (Bungey, Millard & Grantham, 2006).

34
4.1.3.2 Microwave Moisture Meter

Fig. 4.3 Microwave Moisture Meter (Wong, 2014 & NDT James Instruments, Inc, 2012)

Microwave beam is generated and passes through the test concrete. The working principle of this
device is measuring the dielectric constant at microwave frequency which depends on its
moisture content (Bhargava & Lundberg, 1972). The dielectric constant of water is 4-8 times
greater than that of the concrete so the energy of emitted microwave will decrease and the signal
will decrease directly proportional to the moisture content of the concrete wall. The, the processor
inside it will calculate the moisture content based on the signal received by the detector (Wong,
2014).

The advantage of this device is that the moisture content can be directly read. Further calculation
is not required. If there is finishing on the concrete wall like tiles, it can still estimate the moisture
content inside the concrete.

4.1.4 Limitation
The decrease of microwave energy can be due to diffraction and scattering inside the concrete but
not only the absorption by the water (Bungey, Millard & Grantham, 2006). The pH value can also
affect the result so the accuracy of using this method calculate the moisture content in concrete
wall may not be very high (Bhargava & Lundberg, 1972).

4.2 X-ray
X-ray has wavelength 10-10m and frequency of 1018 Hz. It is located at almost the end of the
electromagnetic spectrum which means it has high energy and it can penetrate substances. The
dosage required for concrete is much higher than that used in hospital for checking human bone
structure because concrete is electrically lossy (McCann & Forde, 2001).
35
4.2.1 Aim
This method is to take photography of concrete to disclose the interior structure. An instant view
of inside which sometimes connected to the television monitor can be recorded as a video for
further analysis in the future (McCann & Forde, 2001). It can investigate the arrangement and
spacing of aggregate, cement paste film thickness, segregation and presence of cracks and air
voids (Bungey, Millard & Grantham, 2006). This method can also determine and track the
development of corrosion and cracks (Michel et al, 2011).

4.2.2 Principle
The energy of X-ray that use for testing is usually 30-125keV (election volts) (Bungey, Millard &
Grantham, 2006).

Fig. 4.4 Description of use of X-ray attenuation measurement (Michel et al, 2011)

The X-ray source produces a beam of X-ray with incident intensity. When it passes through the
sample which is the concrete wall in this case, the intensity decreases exponentially due to
absorption or scattering. The X-ray camera will capture the transmitted intensity. This procedure
can be expressed by the following equations:

I=
36
Where I = Transmitted intensity
= Incident radiation intensity
µ = Mass coefficient of absorption
m = mass per unit area × thickness of concrete passed through

.
μ = ρ (a + b .
)

Where ρ= Density of material

= Effective atomic number of material
E = Energy of X-ray
a, b = Energy-dependent coefficients

This is the equation for calculating the coefficient.

4.2.3 Application
An experiment done by Michel et al (2011) use this method to investigate the corrosion and
cracking in the concrete. Here is the figure of calculated X-ray images which clearly show
location of reinforcement, corrosion products and the cracks (Michel et al, 2011).

Fig. 4.5 Image of concrete after corrosion testing

37
They found that using this attenuation measurement is better and more effective because it is non-
destructive and does not affect other testing method that uses in the experiment at the same time,
like the induced corrosion testing method, since the X-ray will not have any interaction with the
concrete (Michel et al, 2011).

Fig. 4.6 Portable system MINAC assembly

The above figure is a portable system suggested by McCann and Forde (2001). It is one of the
devices that used to investigate the internal structure of concrete. Testing the corrosion in the
concrete wall and façade is important as cracking could be formed because of it and weakening
the structure.

4.3 Gamma-ray

4.3.1 Principle
The source of gamma-ray is usually from a radioactive isotope and it must be enclosed by a
container which have to allow the isotope to emit a beam of gamma-ray. Different thickness of
concrete requires different isotope, for example Cobalt 60 is for 125-500mm thickness while
Iridium 192 is for 25-250mm thickness (Bungey, Millard & Grantham, 2006).

This method depends on the absorption or scattering of gamma radiation when it passes through
the reinforcement.

S=

38
This equation is the same as the X-ray absorption, where S is the transmitted intensity, σ is mass
coefficient of absorption, x is mass per unit area and is the incident intensity. The reasons of
decrease of intensity is that energy of the gamma-ray are absorbed by the atom and then a
photoelectron release, and also there is interaction of gamma radiation and outer electron of the
atom and so it causes the radiation scatter out of the beam of gamma-ray (Jones, 1962).

4.3.2 Gamma Radiography

4.3.2.1.2 Aim

The use of gamma radiography can locate the positon of reinforcement and determine the
condition of concrete and reinforcement due to different intensity absorption by different
materials (Jones, 1962).

4.3.2.2 Procedure

First the source of gamma-ray is put in front of the concrete wall and an X-ray film with
sandwiching thin lead screen is put at the other side of the wall. The thin lead screens help to
intensify the outcome for easier identification of the internal features. When the gamma-ray
passes through the wall, it is absorbed more by the steel reinforcement than by the concrete. The
lighter area on the photography indicates the position of the reinforcement. Sometime dark areas
appear due to honeycombing with air voids and dark lines appear due to cracks (Jones, 1962).
From this photography, the location and thickness of steel reinforcement, the condition of the
concrete can be estimated and checked.

Fig. 4.7 Gamma-radiography showing position of steel reinforcement

An experiment using gamma radiography with Cobalt 60 done by Redmer, Weise and Ewert
(2003) test the steel reinforcement in a 300mm thick concrete wall. Their method might be
different from that suggested by Jones (1962) mentioned above. The photography on the left has
a brighter circle is a void and the dark straight line on the right photography is the location of the
steel reinforcement.

39
4.3.2.3Limitation

This method is effective but it is expensive and strict safety precaution is needed as radioactive
isotope should be handled carefully. This exposure time will be quite long and it limits the
application for the concrete wall with thickness over 600mm (Bungey, Millard & Grantham,
2006). When comparing to X-ray, the power of emitted gamma-ray is much lower so the
photography will be weaker and longer exposure time. There is an experiment shown that 30
minutes for the X-ray to produce the photography but few hours for gamma-ray (McCann &
Forde, 2001).

4.3.3 Gamma radiometry

4.3.3.1 Aim

This method is to measure the density of outer concrete by the absorption and scattering of
gamma-ray (Jones, 1962). This can be a method for quality control of precast façade and it is
favourable for repetitive measurement (Bungey, Millard & Grantham, 2006).

4.3.3.2 Principle

The absorption and scattering of gamma-ray photons are measured and used to estimate the
density of concrete. The number of measured photons decrease exponentially with the increase of
density (Honig, 1990). The relationship can be expressed by the following equation:

N=B∙ ∙ !" − ($ ∙ % ∙ &)

Where N = Rate after transmission

B = Build-up factor for the rate
No = Rate without irradiated material
$ = Mass attenuation coefficient
ρ= Density of material
d = Thickness

40
4.3.3.3 Procedure (Backscatter method)

Fig. 4.8 Set up of backscatter radiometric method

Both the radioactive source and the detector, Geiger tube, with preamplifier are placed on the
surface of the concrete. They are about 250mm separated. Gamma-ray passes through the
concrete at an angle of 45∘to the surface. The intensity will be detected by the Geiger tube also at
45∘to the surface and measured by some electronic equipment (Bungey, Millard & Grantham,
2006). There is a lead screen between the source and the detector to prevent the Geiger tube
directly detect from the source and only the photons scattered in the concrete will be counted
(Honig, 1990).

4.3.3.4 Limitation

The operation of gamma radiometry requires specialized and skillful staff so the cost for it and
the equipment is more expensive. The backscatter method mentioned above can only detect and
measure the surface density (Bungey, Millard & Grantham, 2006). When there is a density
gradient inside the concrete, it will not be accurate to assume the surface density equal to the
density of the whole concrete wall and façade.

When comparing to X-ray, it could be more dangerous and stricter safety measures are required.
Radioisotope is a nuclear source and the emission of gamma-ray cannot be stopped but X-ray
system can be closed and stopped by control when there is emergency situation. When carrying
the radioisotope sources, more special facilities are required, for example protective box with
warning sign, licence for carrying and usage of gamma-ray and a particular parking place for the
41
vehicle transporting the source (McCann & Forde, 2001). The health condition of the workers
handling and exposing to gamma-ray should also be monitor.

4.4 Health Hazard

When using electromagnetic wave method to check and monitor the quality of concrete wall and
façade, people should pay attention to the health and safety hazards apart from how effective of
the testing method, especially using X-ray and gamma-ray. They can penetrate human body and
cause damage to organs and body tissue. Some safety precautions have been mentioned in
Ch.4.3.3.4. The gamma-ray sources should have enough shielding when it is not in use, like
container with thick lead for absorption. The workers handling them should have regular body
checking including blood test to monitor their body condition.

42
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