RADIOGRAPHY TESTING

PROCEDURE : ASME BPVC SEC V ARTICLE-2

ACCEPTANCE : ASME BPVC SEC VIII DIV-1 APPENDIX-4

INTRODUCTION :

 It is one of NDT method.

 Finding surface and Internal level defect in all material.

CONTENT :

 Radiation Source
 Film Developing
 Radiographic Sensitivity
 Radiographic Technique
 Radiographic Safety

PRINCIPLE :

 Differential absorbtion and Emission of radiation of by test material.

 The absorbtion and Emission depends upon the density and thickness of the material.

ADVANTAGE :

 Permanent record.
 We can find Internal defect.
 No material Limitation.
 No thickness Limitation.
 We can easily identify shape on size of the defect.
 No need of power supply for Gamma ray.
 Gamma rays are portable.
 Non planner defect easily identify.
DISADVANTAGE :

 Health hazard due to radiation, so safety Must.

 Initial cost, Labour cost and Consumable cost is High.
 Skilled labour required.
 Time consumption.
 Gamma ray is uncontrollable.
 Planner defect are difficult to identify same orientation.
 Dark room needed for film storage developing.
 We cannot identify depth of defect.
 Power supply needed for X-ray.

X-RAY :

Production of X-Ray :

 An x-ray machine is a potential difference between the filament and the tungsten target on applied
KV is 200 KV.
 The target is usually of small dimension is 2.3 mm.
 Copper rod is usually heat, So coolant is used.
 The target material having high melting point.
 It should have high thermal conductivity.
 So we have designed tungsten having high atomic number 74 and melting point of 3400°C is the
most preferred target material.

ADVANTAGE :

 They are obtain shape image format.

 Better image contrast.
 Ensure complete radiation safety.
 It’s easily controlled.
DISADVANTAGE :

 They required high electricity to work.

 It required high capital investment. This is not portable machine.

GAMMA RAY

ATOM :

 Atom is a smallest unit of material and it consist of three elements

 Proton
 Neutron
 Electron
 The Proton and Neutron are inside the Nucleus.
 The Electron revolves around the Nucleus.

ATOMIC NUMBER:

Number of protons or number of electron in an atom.

Mass number:

Number of Proton and Neutron in an Nucleus.

[ Number of Neutron = Mass No – Atomic Number ]

ISOTOPES :

Same atomic Number and Different Mass Number.

EXAMPLE :

HYDROGEN = 1H1 , 1H2 , 1H3

URANIUM = 92U235 , 92U238

IRIDIUM = 77Ir191, 77 Ir192

COBALT = 27Co59, 27Co60

Types of Isotopes :

1)Natural Isotopes:

Atomic number above 82 elements are emit radiation automatically that elements
are called natural isotopes .

Example: Uranium 92U235 , Radium 82 Ra226

 2)Artificial Isotopes:

The isotopes produced in the atomic research centre.

Example: Iridium 77Ir192, Cobalt 27 CO60, Selenium 34 Se74

Production of Artificial Isotopes:

Production of Iridium 192 :

α ( Alpha ) ( +ve Charge)

β (Beta) ( -ve Charge)

77 Ir191 + 0N1 = 77Ir192 γ(Gamma) High Energy Radiation

Heat Energy

0.3 – 0.6 mev ( Radiation )

 When 77Ir191 Nuclear bombard with one fast moving Neutron.

 It produce unstable 77Ir192 Nuclear atom.
 The unstable 77Ir192 become stable.
 It emit α, β,γ& High radiation energy.
 The Gamma radiation from Iridium is High energy (0.3-0.6mev)[milli electron volt].
 The Gamma (γ)Penetrates 75mm easily (3 inch thickness of steel).

Production of Cobalt 60 :

α ( Alpha ) ( +ve Charge)

β (Beta) ( -ve Charge)

27 Co59 + 0N1 = 27Co60 γ(Gamma) High Energy Radiation

Heat Energy

1.2 – 1.4 mev ( Radiation )

 When 27Co59 Nuclear bombard with one fast moving Neutron.

 It produce unstable 27Co60 Nuclear atom.
 The unstable 27Co60 become stable.
 It emit α, β,γ& High radiation energy.
 The Gamma radiation from Cobalt is High energy (1.2-1.4mev)[milli electron volt].
 The Gamma (γ)Penetrates 225mm easily (9 inch thickness of steel).
RADIO ACTIVITY:

 Some Isotopes are Stable, Some Isotopes are Unstable.

 The Unstable Isotopes are become Stable. It emit α (Alpha), β (Beta),γ(Gamma) radiation.
 Radio activity is a Spontaneous reaction.(γ)Gamma ray
 It not affected by Temperature, Pressure, Electromagnetic, External Parameter.

ALPHA (α) :

 It having Positive Charge (Electron) with Low energy radiation.

 It travels only few centimeters.
 It is deflected by Electromagnet.

BETA (β) :

 It is Negative Charge (Electron) with Low energy radiation.

 It travels only few feet.
 It doesn’t pass through the thin silver & Aluminium foil sheet.
 It is deflected by Electromagnet.

GAMMA (γ):

 It has No Charge of radiation energy from Neutron.

 It travel through all material.
 It control by high density material having high thickness [lead, tungsten, depleted Uranium].
 It doesn’t deflected by Electromagnetic field because it has no charge.
 It travel through 360° with high speed (2.9x10 8 Speed)

SOURCE STRENGTH:

 The unit of radioactivity is measured in terms of curie (Ci) & SI unit is Becquerel (Bq).
1 disintegration per second (dps) = 1 Bq
1 Curie (Ci) = 37 Billion dps (or) 37 x 109 dps
1 Ci = 37 Billion Bq (or) 37 x 109 Bq
1 dps = 1 Bq

Half life time (or) Half life period:

The time required for an radioactive source become half of it’s initial strength.
Iridium 192 Ir192 75 Days

Cobalt 60 Co60 5.3 Years

Selenium 75 Se75 120 Days

Cesium 137 Cs137 30 Years

Radium 226 Ra226 160 Years

Uranium 235 U235 4500 Million Years

Decay Factor :

Used to determine the present strength of source.

Decay Factor (I) = Io x e-xt

 Where, I = Curie Intensity

Io = Original Intensity
t = Time taken
x= 0.693 .
Half life period

1 )What will be the present source strength of Ir 192 after 75 days. The initial source strength is
20Ci .

Solution:

Decay Factor (I) = Io x e-xt Io = 20 Ci

= 20 x e(-0.693/75) x (75) x =0.693 / Half life period

= 20 x e(-0.693) t = 75 days

= 20 x 0.50007

(I) = 10.00 Ci = 10 Ci

2 )What will be the present source strength of Co 60 after 429 days. The initial source strength is
28Ci .

Solution:

Decay Factor (I) = Io x e-xt Io = 28 Ci

= 28 x e(-0.693/1934.5) x (429) x =0.693 / Half life period

= 28 x e (-0.15368)
5.3 years = 5.3 x 365
. = 28 x 0.8575 =1934.5 days

(I) = 24.01 Ci t = 429 days

GAMMA RAY EQUIPMENT:

 Driving Unit
 Shielding Unit
 Switching Unit

DRIVING UNIT:

 Driving unit is connected near to the shield unit (or) camera.

 It consists of flexible unit plastic cable 5 to 10 meter length.
 It driving the Radioactive source from shielding unit to the guide unit tube.

SHIELDING UNIT:

 It consists of Radioactive source such as Ir 192 , Co60 , Se75.

 Shielded by high density material such as depleted uranium, lead and heavy steel.
 The end is connected to driving unit an other connected to guide unit.

SWITCHING UNIT:

 Switching unit is connected at the end of the guide tube.

 Guide is connect infront of the shielding unit.
 Guide tube is used to carry Radioactive source to switching unit.

FILM AND PROCESSING STRUCTURE OF FILM:

 A Film base made up of polyster.

 Coated with Emulsifier layer (silver, bromide) on both side of the film.
 The outer layer is coated with gelatin for protection from scratches.

Type of Film:

Type I, II, III

Type-I: Fine grain film – Low film speed. D2 & D3 used in R&D.

Type-II: Intermediate (medium) grain film used in industrial radiography.

Type-III: Coarse grain film – High speed film. D8 & D9 used in medical field.

Fine grain film Medium grain film Coarse grain film

High quality film Medium quality film Low quality film

High film factor Medium film factor Low film factor

Low film speed Medium film speed High film speed

Nuclear R&D NDT field Medical field

D2,D3 class D6,D7 class D8,D9 class

FILM SPEED:

Inverse of the film factor is called film speed (unit=1/R)

FILM FACTOR:

Amount of exposure (R) per unit area of the film required to produce a desire optical
density.

High film factor - Low film speed

Low film factor - High film speed

FILM SIZE:

12’’ x 15’’, 12’’ x 10’’, 4’’ x 2’’, 5’’ x 3’’, 6’’ x 4’’

FILM CUTTING:

As per requirement

FILM STORAGE:

 Film stored in Dark room.

 It should be stored free from chemical.
 It should be stored of 23°C below.
 The film stored in lead box to avoid radiation.
 The film should be handled at corner (or) edge with minimum pressure & minimum contact
area.
DARK ROOM:

 Dark room is used for film storage, film loading, unloading and film Interpretation.
 Dark room is not completely dark, light intensity below 20 Lux.
 The temperature of dark room is below 23°C.
 The film is stored dark room to avoid light intensity.

FILM LOADING:

FILM CONSIST OF

1) Film
2) B-lead letter
3) Front & Back intensifying screen.
4) Card board
5) Inner and outer cover

Front intensifying screen:

 When the radiation fall on the front intensifying screen it produce electron. The electron fall
on the film intensifying action takes place.
 It reduce exposing time.
 To absorbs low energy radiations and allow high energy radiation on the film.
 It’s having thickness of 0.005” or 0.127mm

Back intensifying screen:

 It having thickness of 0.20” or 5.08mm.

 It is used to prevent the back scatter radiation to fall on the film.
 Fix the “B” letter at the back scatter radiation on the film.
 If the “B” letter appeared as clearly or Blur on the film, then film is not acceptable and the
shot should be retaken.
Types of intensifying screen:

 Fluorescent screen.
 Fluoro metallic screen.

Fluorescent screen

 Coated with calcium tungsten + phosphate..

 It having high intensifying screen.

Fluro metallic screen:

 Coated with Calcium Tungsten + Lead.

 It having low intensifying action, but highly prevent back scatter radiation.

Uses of Intensifying Screen:

 These screens are used to improve radiographic image quality.

 When a object is radio graphed without intensifying screen , there is a lesser absorption of
penetrating radiation on the film.
 Which results longer exposing time ,
 Low energy radiation absorbed and which spoil the image quality.
 Hence to reduce the exposing time & improving the image quality of radiography
intensifying screens are used must.
 It prevents from the back scatter radiation which is help to improve the clear image quality.

Film Unloading:

 The film unloading should be done in dark room.

 Before developing the film should never exposed to light intensity.

Film developing:

 The developing should be done to move the image permanent on the film.
 The film developing should be done in dark room.
 Done by normal or automatically.

Steps In film developing:

 Developer
 Stop bath
 Fixer
 Water rinsing
 Dryer
Developer: (5 to 10 min)

Alkaline (remover)

 It removes the outer gelatin coating from film.

Hydroquinone (converter)

 It converts the exposed silver bromide into metallic silver.

Stop Bath:(2 min)

Acetic acid

 It helps to stop developing immediately.

Fixer : (10 to 15 min)

 It removes unexposed silver bromide from the film & fix the permanent image on the
film.
 It also gives hardness to the film to protect from scratches.

Water rinse: (2 to 4 min)

 Rinse under running water. It is used to remove all chemicals from the films.

Dryer:

 Air dryer may be used dry the film.

Developing time affected by:

 Concentration of chemical.
 Temperature
 Humidity

Geometrical Unsharpness :

SOD – Source to Object distance

OFD – Object to Film distance
SFD – Source to Film distance
It refers to the loss of defenation
Factor affecting unsharpness:

1) OFD – Object to Film distance

2) SOD – Source to object distance
3) SS – Source size

1 ) OFD:

 Un sharpness directly proportional to OFD

 If OFD increase un sharpness will be increase
 If OFD decrease un sharpness will be decrease

2 ) SOD:

 Un sharpness inversely proportional to the source to object distance

 If SOD increase un sharpness will be decrease
 If SOD decrease un sharpness will be increase

3 ) SS:

 Source size directly proportional to un sharpness

 If SS increase un sharpness will be increase
 If SS decrease un sharpness will be decrease

Conclusion:

i. OFD – That’s why we kept film closer to test material

ii. SOD – Increase of SOD will reduce the un sharpness,but it will increase the exposure time.
So we can use the small source size(SS). It will reduce un sharpness.

SFD = SOD + OFD OFD = t S.no Job thickness Ug limitation

SFD = SOD + t 1 below 50mm 0.51 mm

SOD = SFD – t 2 50-75 mm 0.76 mm

Un sharpness geometrical 3 75-100 mm 1.02 mm

Ug = OFD x SS 4 above 100 mm 1.78 mm

SOD
= t x SS
SFD-t
SFD-t = t x SS
Ug
SFD = t x SS + t
Ug
Problem:1

Job thickness = 50 mm

Source size(SS) = 2.3 mm x 2.4 mm

SFD = ?

Solution SS = √ a2 +b 2

SFD = t x SS + t = √ 2.32 +2.42

Ug = √ 5.29+5.76
SFD = 50 x 3.32 + 50 = √ 11.05
0.76 SS = 3.32 mm
= 218.42 + 50
SFD = 268.42 mm

Problem:2

Job thickness = 150 mm

Source size(SS) = 4.6 mm x 4.7 mm

SFD = ?

Solution SS = √ a2 +b 2

SFD = t x SS + t = √ 4.6 2+ 4.72

Ug = √ 21.16+22.09
SFD = 150 x 6.57 + 150 = √ 43.25
1.78 SS = 6.576 mm
= 553.65 + 150
SFD = 703.65 mm

Problem:2

Job thickness = 80 mm
Source size(SS) = 3.8 mm
SFD = ?

Solution

SFD = t x SS + t
Ug
= 80 x 3.8 + 80
1.02
= 298.03 + 80
SFD = 378.03 mm
RADIOGRAPHY SENSITIVE

 Image quality Indicator(IQI) (or) the quality (or) sensitive (or) Image is expressed in terms of
image quality indicator (or) penetrameter.
 IQI placed on the surface of the test material also (or) surface of the film top side.
 Image of the IQI should be appeared on the film.

Types of IQI

 Hole type (or) Plate type IQI

 Wire type IQI

Hole type (or) Plate type IQI :

 Hole type IQI having Rectangular plate consists of three holes in different diameters.
 It has two parts
i. X-part
ii. Y-part

X-part : Refer to IQI thickness . Thousands of an one inch 1’’/1000

Y-part : Consist of three holes 1t, 2t, 4t

2
IQI 2% job thickness x 40 (or) [ x t] x 40
100

2t hole diameter

Y-part 1t hole diameter

4t hole diameter

XX X-part

1t – For Nuclear Job

2t – For ASME Sec V (Required visible hole)

4t – For Casting Job

Eg:

ASTM 25

2t – 0.005’’

1t – 0.001’’

4t – 0.020’’
Selection Of IQI :

2
Selection of IQI = 2% of the Job thickness (or) [ x t ] x 40
100

‘B’ Letter 1/16 inch (1.5 mm) Back scatter radiation

7/16 inch (11 mm)

Hole type IQI is classified into two types on the basis of placement:

1 ) Source side The IQI should be placed on the surface of the test materials.

2 ) Film side ASTM : 5,7,10,12,15,17,20,25,30,35,40,45,50,60,70,80,100,120,

140,160,200,240,280

 The IQI placed on the surface of film.

 If the IQI placed on the film side, fix the ‘F’ lead letter for identification.
 ASTM : 10,12,15,17,20,25,30,35,40,50,60,80,100,120,140

Problem:

2
Selection of IQI = 2% Job thickness x 40 (or) [ x t ] x 40
100

Job thickness = 60mm

2
=[ x t ] x 40
100

2
=[ x 60 ] x 40
100

= 48 ~ 50

ASTM ‘X’ part = 50 ASTM50 = 50’’/1000 X part = 1’’ /1000

= 0.05’’ x 25.4 1 inch = 25.4 mm

t = 1.27 mm

1t = 1 x 1.27 2t = 2 x 1.27 4t = 4 x 1.27

 1t = 1.27 mm 2t = 2.54 mm 4t = 5.08 mm

Wire type IQI:

 The wire type IQI consist series of straight wires arranged in parallel.
 It is used inter nationally.

Types of wire IQI

i. Din type wire IQI

ii. ASTM type wire IQI

i )Din type wire IQI:

 Din type IQI consists of 16 wires in decreasing order .

 It has 3 sets.
 Each set having 7 wires arranged in parallel at a gap of 5 mm.

Wire no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Thickness 3.51 2.81 2.25 1.81 1.4 1.1 0.84 0.67 0.54 0.43 0.34 0.27 0.21 0.17 0.14 0.11

1 2 3

Din type having 3 sets

1 Din 7

6 Din 12

10 Din 16

Eg:
DIN – Dutch Industrial Norms

62 – Year of Manufacturing

Fe – Wire material (steel)

ISO – International standard organization

10-16 – Wire Diameter

ii )ASTM Wire type IQI (New edition)

 It consist of 21 wires increasing (or) less.

 It has 4 sets.
 Each set having 6 wires arranged in parallel at a gap of 5 mm.

Set-2 B6 Set-4 D16

wire no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Thickness 0.08 0.10 0.13 0.16 0.2 0.25 0.33 0.41 0.51 0.64 0.81 1.02 1.27 1.60 2.03 2.54 3.20 4.06 5.08 6.35 8.13

Set-1 A1 Set-3 C11

ASTM – American Society of Testing Material

A1-6 – Wire Diameter (1st Set)

ASTM Wire type IQI (OLD edition)

 It consist of 16 wires increasing (or) less.

 It has 4 sets.
 Each set having 6 wires arranged in parallel at a gap of 5 mm.
 Set-2 1B Set-4 1D

Wire no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Thickness 0.1 0.14 0.17 0.21 0.26 0.33 0.42 0.52 0.66 0.83 1.04 1.31 1.63 2.04 2.56 3.20

Set- 1 1A Set-3 1C

Hole type IQI = 2% of Job thickness x 40

Wire type IQI = 2% of Job thickness

ASTM – American Society of Testing Material

1B-10 – Wire diameter

1B – 2nd set

Placement of IQI

Hole type IQI

Hole type IQI placed parallel to the edge of weld

Wire type IQI

Wire type IQI placed perpendicular to the weld edge

RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE

1) Single wall single image technique

2) Double wall single image technique
3) Double wall double image super imposition technique
4) Double wall double image (or) Elliptical shot
5) Panoramic shot

Common to all technique

 Fix the ‘B’ letter on the back side of the film to identify the back scatter radiation.
 At least one IQI should be placed for each sheet may be source (or) film side.
 If IQI placed on the film side ‘F’ lead letter should be placed on the film.
 Front and back intensifying screen should be placed on the film during loading.
 Place to the identification letter on the surface of the material (or) film.
 Place the film closer to the test material to reduce geometric un sharpness.

1 ) Single wall single image technique:

 In this test technique the radiation pass through single wall and form the single image in the
film.
 No of IQI placed at least one for each shot.
 SFD- As per calculation.

No of shot required cover pipe – At least 3 shots required at 120° each other
2 ) Double wall single image technique:

 Radiation passes through double wall form single image on film.

 IQI – Placed film side.
 No of IQI placed at least one for each shot.
 To cover pipe – Minimum 3 shots – 120° each other.
 Pipe dia greater than 90 mm D>90mm

3 ) Double wall double image super imposition technique:

 Radiation passes through the double wall both upper wall & Lower wall, form on the film
with overlap.
 IQI – Placed on film side.
 SFD- As per calculation.
 No of IQI placed at least one for each shot.
 Pipe outer dia less than 90 mm D<90mm
 To cover pipe – Minimum 3 shots 120° each other (or) At least minimum 2 shots 180° each
other.
 The radiation source directed at 90°.

4 ) Double wall double image(or) Elliptical shot:

 Radiation passes through the double wall upper wall & Lower wall, image is separately
form on the film in elliptical shot.
 IQI – Placed on film side.
 SFD- As per calculation.
 No of IQI placed at least one for each shot.
 Pipe outer dia less than 88.9 mm.
 At least Minimum 2 shots 180° each other.
 The radiation source directed at 60° (or) 120°.
5 ) Panoramic shot:

 The radiation source kept at center of pipe.

 Film placed around the test material.
 Film overlap – Minimum 1’’ (25.4 mm)
 IQI – Placed on film side.
 No of IQI placed at least one for each shot.
 To cover pipe – full pipe covered in single shot.(separately film formed)

RADIOGRAPHY SAFETY:

An important aspect considered in radiographic inspection in radiation safety

 Area Monitoring
 Personal Monitoring
Area Monitoring:

Survey meter gas filled chamber (or) Geiger Muller Counter.

Personal Monitoring:

 Pocket Dosimeter
 Film badge
 Lead aprons
 Personal Protective Equipment (Helmet, Eye glass, Gloves, Shoes, Mask)

Biological effects of radiation

Somatic effect – It’s affect Human body.

Genetic effect – It’s affect DNA and pass through next generation.

Radiation Units OLD NEW

Source strength Curie (Ci) Becquerel (Bq)

Roentegen (R) Sivert (SV)

Radiation intensity

RHM – Roentegen hour per meter

MR/Hr – Milli Roentegen per hour

1R – 100 SV

1 Ci – 37 x 109 Bq

Gamma constant value (or) Roentegen per meter (RHM) value

1330 MR/Hr 500 MR/Hr

(or) (or)

1.33 R/Hr 0.5 R/hr

Co60 1 meter dist/hour Ir192 1 meter dist/hour

source source

200 MR/Hr

(or)

0.2 R/Hr
Source Se 75
1 meter dist/hour
Control of Radiation Hazards

 Time
 Distance
 Shielding unit

Permissible Radiation level

Whole body technician – 0.75 MR/Hr (or) 2000 MR/Yr

Effective zone public - 0.25 MR/Hr (or) 1000 MR/Yr

Dose Received

Dose Value x Time

Time

 Time is directly proportional to radiation source.

 Working time is less the radiation received also less.
 Working time is high the radiation received also high.

Problem:

1 ) 60 Curie Co60 working time 20 mins per 1 meter. What will be the dose received.

Solution,

Dose received = Dose value x time 1330 MR/Hr

60 x 1330
= x 20
60

= 26600 MR/min 60 Ci Co60 1 meter/20min

2 ) 48 Ci Se75 working time 30 mins per 1 meter. What will be the dose received.

Solution,

Dose received = Dose value x time 200 MR/Hr

48 x 200
= x 30
60

= 4800 MR/min 48 Ci Se75 1 meter/30min

Distance

 Distance is indirectly proportional to radiation source.

 If longer distance radiation will be low.
 If shorter distance radiation will be high.
 To reduce the radiation received we maintain the longer distance.
 We maintain the double of the distance radiation intensity will reduce ¼ of its initial
intensity.
 Because it’s obey the square law.
I1D12 =I2D22
I1/I2 = D22/D12
I1 known intensity at known source
I2 Unknown intensity at 2nd known distance
D1 Distance from the source intensity known
D2 Distance from the source at which you want to find the unknown intensity

Problem:

1) I1 = 1330 MR/Hr
I1=1330 I2=? D1 = 1 m

MR/Hr D2 = 2 m

1 Co60 D1=1 m I2 =?

D2=2 m

Solution,

I1 D12 = I2 D22
(1) x (1330) x (1)2 = I2 x (2)2

1330 = I2 x 4

I2 = 1330 / 4

I2 = 332.5 MR/Hr

Problem:

2) I1 = 500 MR/Hr
I1=500 I2=? D1 = 1 m

MR/Hr D2 = 50 m

12 Ci Ir192 D1=1 m I2 =?

D2=50 m
Solution,

I1 D12 = I2 D22
(12) x (500) x (1)2 = I2 x (50)2

6000 = I2 x 2500

I2 = 6000 / 2500

I2 = 2.4 MR/Hr

Problem:

3) I1 = 500 MR/Hr
I1=200 I2=0.75 MR/Hr I2 = 0.75 MR/Hr

MR/Hr D1 = 1 m

30 Ci Se75 D1=1 m D2 =?

D2=?

Solution,

I1 D12 = I2 D22
(30) x (200) x (1)2 = 0.75 x D22

6000 = 0.75 x D22

D22 = 6000 / 0.75

D22 = 8000

D2 = √ 8000

D2 = 89.44 m

Problem:

4) I1 = 1330 MR/Hr
I1=1330 I2=0.25 MR/Hr I2 = 0.25 MR/Hr

MR/Hr D1 = 1 m

33 Ci Co60 D1=1 m D2 =?

D2=?
Solution, I1 D12 = I2 D22
(33) x (1330) x (1)2 = 0.25 x D22

43890 = 0.25 x D22

D22 = 43890/ 0.25

D22 = 175560

D2 = √ 175560

D2 = 418.99 m

Shielding:

 If minimum working time & maximum distance is not possible. Then we go for shielding to
reduce radiation intensity.
 The high density material is used for shielding such as Lead, Aluminum, Steel, Concrete,
and Depleted Uranium.

Types:

HVT (or) HVL – Half value layer (or) Half value thickness

TVT (or) TVL – Tenth value layer (or) Tenth value thickness

Half value layer (or) Half value thickness

If the thickness of the shield material required the value of the radiation intensity half of it’s
initial value.

100 MR

50 MR
Intensity

Shield

Tenth value layer (or) Tenth value thickness

The thickness of the shield material required to the value of radiation intensity of (1/10) at
it’s initial value.

100 MR

10 MR
Intensity

Shield

Shield material Cobalt 60 Iridium 192 Selenium

 HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT

Concrete (or) 65 215 47.5 115 30 90

Aluminum

Lead 12.5 40.5 4.75 16 1 4.75

Steel 21.75 72.5 15.25 50 8 27.5

Half and tenth value layer very thickness depending upon the type of isotope.

Problem:

1 ) A 200 MR from Co60 the intensity is reduced permissible radiation level 0.75 MR, what will be
the thickness to shield material concrete.

TVL 200 MR 20 MR 2 MR 0.2 MR 3 Layer

3 Layer = 3 x 215 Co60 TVL = 215

TVL = 615 mm

HVL 200 100 50 25 12.5 6.25 3.125 1.56 7 Layer

7 Layer = 7 x 65 Co60 TVL = 65

HVL = 455 mm

2 ) A 1330 MR from Co60 required permissible radiation level 0.25 MR, thickness shield material
lead with TVL.

TVL 1330MR 133MR 13.33MR 1.33MR 0.133MR 4 Layer

1 TVL thickness = 40.5 mm

Total layer = 4

For 4 layer = 4 x 40.5

TVL = 162 mm
3 ) A 200 MR from Se75 reduced permissible radiation level 0.75 MR, thickness & shield material
layer from steel with HVL.

HVL 200MR 100MR 50 MR 25MR 12.5MR 6.25MR

3.12MR 1.5MR 0.75MR 0.39MR 9 Layer

HVL Layer = 9 from steel

1 HVL thickness for steel = 8 mm

Total thickness = 9 x 8

T = 72 mm

EXPOSING TIME :

Total time spend the radiation source on specimen is called exposing (or) exposure time.

 It is depends upon the source strength.

 When the source strength is high exposing time will be low.
 Source strength is Low exposing time will be high.
 Source strength is inversely proportional to exposing time.

Factors affecting exposing time:

 Source strength (SS) Inversely proportional to exposing time ( SS α 1 / EPT )

 Source to film distance (SFD) directly proportional to exposing time ( SFD α EPT )
 Film factor (FF) directly proportional to exposing time ( FF α EPT )
 RHM value Inversely proportional to exposing time ( RHM α 1 / EPT )

EXPOSING TIME (EPT)

Exposing time = FF x 2(T / HVT ) x SFD2 x 60

SS x RHM x 10002

Where,
FF Film Factor
EPT Exposure time
SFD Source to film distance
SS Source strength
RHM Roentegen hour per meter
HVL Half value layer
T Thickness
Problem:

1) FF = 1.5

SFD = 600 mm

T = 30 mm

RHM value = 0.5

HVT for Ir192 = 12.5

SS = 15 Ci

EPT = ?

Solution,

Exposing time = FF x 2(T / HVT ) x SFD2 x 60

SS x RHM x 10002

EPT = 1.5 x 2(30 / 12.5 ) x 6002 x 60

15 x 0.5 x 10002

EPT = 1.5 x 2(2.4 ) x 360000 x 60

15 x 0.5 x 1000000

EPT = 1.5 x 5.27 x 36 x 6

15 x 0.5 x 10

EPT = 22.76 mins ≅ 23 mins

2 ) Find the exposing time at 40 Ci Co60 we can take radiographic testing after 1.3 years source
size 1.4 x 1.8, T = 64.77 mm, RHM = 0.75, HVL for Co 60 = 20, FF = 1.5.

Known, Unknown,

Initial source I = 40 Ci SFD =?

T = 64.77 mm SS =?

Source size = 1.4 x 1.8 EPT =?

RHM value = 0.75

HVT = 20

FF = 1.5
Solution,

SS = √ a2 +b 2

= √ 1.42 +1.82

= √ 1.42 +1.82

= √ 5.2

SS = 2.28 mm

SFD = T x SS + T
Ug
SFD = 64.77 x 2.28 + 64.77
0.76

SFD = 259.08 mm

Decay factor I = Io x e-xt

= 40 x e-(0.693 / 1934.5) x 474.5 (years)

= 40 x e-0.169

I = 33.7 Ci

Exposing time = FF x 2(T / HVT ) x SFD2 x 60

SS x RHM x 10002

EPT = 1.5 x 2(64.77 / 20 ) x 259.082 x 60

23.74 x 0.75 x 10002

EPT = 1.5 x 9.38 x 67122.44 x 60

2.88 x 0.75 x 1000000

EPT = 1.5 x 9.38 x 67122.44 x 6

2.88 x 0.75 x 100000

EPT = 26.23 mins ≅ 27 mins