UNIT-5

Acoustic Emission Technique

 Definition of Acoustic Emission
Phenomenon
• Acoustic Emission is
a phenomenon of
sound and
ultrasound wave
radiation in materials
undergo deformation
and fracture
processes.
 Intro.. Of A.E
• Acoustic Emission (AE) refers to the generation of transient elastic
waves produced by a sudden redistribution of stress in a material.
When a structure is subjected to an external stimulus (change in
pressure, load, or temperature), localized sources trigger the release
of energy, in the form of stress waves, which propagate to the
surface and are recorded by sensors.
• With the right equipment and setup, motions on the order of
picometers (10 -12 m) can be identified. Sources of AE vary from
natural events like earthquakes and rockbursts to the initiation and
growth of cracks, slip and dislocation movements, melting, twinning,
and phase transformations in metals.
• In composites, matrix cracking and fiber breakage and debonding
contribute to acoustic emissions.
• AE’s have also been measured and recorded in polymers, wood,
and concrete, among other materials.
 AE Signal Features
• Amplitude, A, is the greatest measured voltage in a waveform and is
measured in decibels (dB). This is an important parameter in
acoustic emission inspection because it determines the detectability
of the signal. Signals with amplitudes below the operator-defined,
minimum threshold will not be recorded.
• Rise time, R, is the time interval between the first threshold crossing
and the signal peak. This parameter is related to the propagation of
the wave between the source of the acoustic emission event and the
sensor. Therefore, rise time is used for qualification of signals and
as a criterion for noise filter.
• Duration, D, is the time difference between the first and last
threshold crossings. Duration can be used to identify different types
of sources and to filter out noise. Like counts (N), this parameter
relies upon the magnitude of the signal and the acoustics of the
material.
• MARSE, E, sometimes referred to as energy counts, is the measure of the
area under the envelope of the rectified linear voltage time signal from the
transducer.
• This can be thought of as the relative signal amplitude and is useful
because the energy of the emission can be determined. MARSE is also
sensitive to the duration and amplitude of the signal, but does not use
counts or user defined thresholds and operating frequencies.
• MARSE is regularly used in the measurements of acoustic emissions.
• Counts, N, refers to the number of pulses emitted by the measurement
circuitry if the signal amplitude is greater than the threshold. Depending on
the magnitude of the AE event and the characteristics of the material, one
hit may produce one or many counts.
• This is a relatively simple parameter to collect, it usually needs to be
combined with amplitude and/or duration measurements to provide quality
information about the shape of a signal.
 Advantages
• Acoustic Emission is unlike most other nondestructive testing (NDT)
techniques in two regards.
• The first difference pertains to the origin of the signal. Instead of supplying
energy to the object under examination, AET simply listens for the energy
released by the object.
• AE tests are often performed on structures while in operation, as this
provides adequate loading for propagating defects and triggering acoustic
emissions.
• The second difference is that AET deals with dynamic processes, or
changes, in a material. This is particularly meaningful because only active
features (e.g. crack growth) are highlighted.
• The ability to discern between developing and stagnant defects is
significant.
• However, it is possible for flaws to go undetected altogether if the loading is
not high enough to cause an acoustic event. Furthermore, AE testing
usually provides an immediate indication relating to the strength or risk of
failure of a component.
• Other advantages of AET include fast and complete volumetric inspection
using multiple sensors, permanent sensor mounting for process control, and
no need to disassemble and clean a specimen.
• Detection and analysis of AE signals can supply valuable information
regarding the origin and importance of a discontinuity in a material. Because
of the versatility of Acoustic Emission Testing (AET), it has many industrial
applications (e.g. assessing structural integrity, detecting flaws, testing for
leaks, or monitoring weld quality) and is used extensively as a research tool.
 limitations
• AE systems can only qualitatively gauge how
much damage is contained in a structure.
• In order to obtain quantitative results about size,
depth, and overall acceptability of a part, other
NDT methods (often ultrasonic testing) are
necessary.
• Another drawback of AE stems from loud service
environments which contribute extraneous noise
to the signals.
• For successful applications, signal discrimination
and noise reduction are crucial.
 Who was the First?
He was the First who used AE as a They were the First who
forecasting tool used AE as an alarm system
 Early History of AE

• One of the first sources that associates sound with fracture

can be found in the Bible.
• Probably the first practical use of AE was by pottery
makers, thousands of years before recorded history, to
asses the quality of there products.
• Probably the first observation of AE in metal was during
twinning of pure tin as early as 3700 B.C.
• The first documented observation of AE in Middle Ages was
made by an Arabian alchemist, Geber, in the eighth
century. Geber described the “harsh sound or crashing
noise” emitted from tin. He also describes iron as “sounding
much” during forging.
 History of First AE Experiments

• In 1920, Abram Joffe (Russia) observed the noise

generated by deformation process of Salt and Zinc
crystals.“ The Physics of Crystals” , 1928.
• In 1936, Friedrich Forster and Erich Scheil (Germany)
conducted experiments that measured small voltage and
resistance variations caused by sudden strain
movements caused by martensitic transformations.
• In 1948, Warren P.Mason, Herbert J. McSkimin and
William Shockley (United States) suggested measuring
AE to observe the moving dislocations by means of the
stress waves they generated.
• In 1950, D.J Millard (United Kingdom) performed
twinning experiments on single crystal wires of cadmium.
The twinning was detected using a rochelle salt
transducer.
 History of First AE Experiments
• In 1950, Josef Kaiser (Germany) used tensile tests to
determine the characteristics of AE in engineering
materials. The result from his investigation was the
observation of the irreversibility phenomenon that now
bears his name, the Kaiser Effect.
• The first extensive research after Kaiser was done in the
United States by Bradford H. Schofield in 1954.
Schofield investigated the application of AE in the field of
materials engineering and the source of AE. He
concluded that AE is mainly a volume effect and not a
surface effect.
• In 1957, Clement A. Tatro, after performing extensive
laboratory studies, suggested to use AE as a method to
study the problems of behavior of engineering metals.
He also foresaw the use of AE as an NDT method.
 Start of Industrial Application of AE
• The first AE test in USA was conducted in the Aerospace industry to
verify the integrity of the Polaris rocket motor for the U.S Navy
(1961). After noticing audible sounds during hydrostatic testing it was
decided to test the rocket using contact microphones, a tape recorder
and sound level analysis equipment.
• In 1963, Dunegan suggested the use of AE for examination of high
pressure vessels.
• In early 1965, at the National Reactor Testing Station, researchers
were looking for a NDT method for detecting the loss of coolant in a
nuclear reactor. Acoustic Emission was applied successfully.
• In 1969, Dunegan founded the first company that specializes in the
production of AE equipment.
• Today, AE Non-Destructive Testing used practically in all industries
around the world for different types of structures and materials.
 Acoustic Emission
Instrumentation
Typical AE apparatus consist of the following components:
• Sensors used to detect AE events.
• Preamplifiers amplifies initial signal. Typical amplification gain is 40
or 60 dB.
• Cables transfer signals on distances up to 200m to AE devices.
Cables are typically of coaxial type.
• Data acquisition device performs filtration, signals’ parameters
evaluation, data analysis and charting.
Preamplifiers Main amplifiers Measurement Circuitry
Sensors Computer
with filters with filters

Acquisition Data
software storage

Data presentation
 AE Sensors
• Purpose of AE sensors is to detect stress waves motion that cause
a local dynamic material displacement and convert this
displacement to an electrical signal.
• AE sensors are typically piezoelectric sensors with elements maid
of special ceramic elements like lead zirconate titanate (PZT).
Mechanical strain of a piezo element generates an electric signals.
• Sensors may have internally installed preamplifier (integral
sensors).
• Other types of sensors include capacitive transducers, laser
interferometers.

Regular piezoelectric sensor Preamplifier 60 dB Integral piezoelectric sensor

 Sensors Characteristics
• Typical frequency range in AE applications varies between 20 kHz and 1
MHz.
• Selection of a specific sensor depends on the application and type of
flaws to be revealed.
• There are two qualitative type of sensor according to their frequency
responds: resonant and wideband sensors.
• Thickness of piezoelectric element defines the resonance frequency of
sensor.
• Diameter defines the area over which the sensor averages surface
motion.
• Another important property of AE sensors includes Curie Point, the
temperature under which piezoelectric element loses permanently its
piezoelectric properties. Curie temperature varies for different ceramics
from 120 to 400C0. There are ceramics with over 1200C0 Curie
temperature.

AE signal of lead break and corresponding Power spectrum.

Installation of Sensors on Structure
Type of installation and choice of couplant material is defined by a
specifics of application.
• Glue (superglue type) is commonly used for piping inspections.
• Magnets usually used to hold sensors on metal pressure vessels.
Grease and oil then used as a couplant.
• Bands used for mechanical attachment of sensors in long term
applications.
• Waveguides (welded or mechanically attached) used in high
temperature applications.
• Rolling sensors are used for inspection rotating structures.
• Special Pb blankets used to protect sensors in nuclear industry.

Sensor attached Pb blanket in nuclear Waveguide Rolling sensor

with magnet applications
 Methods of AE Sensors Calibration
• The calibration of a sensor is the measurement of its voltage output into an
established electrical load for a given mechanical input. Calibration results can
be expressed either as frequency response or as an impulse response.
• Surface calibration or Rayleigh calibration: The sensor and the source are
located on the same plane surface of the test block. The energy at the sensor
travels at the Rayleigh speed and the calibration is influenced by the aperture
effect. 1
U (t )   u ( x, y, t )r ( x, y )dxdy
A S
• Aperture Effect:
r ( x, y )  local sensitivity of the tranducer face
S  region (m2 ) of the surface contacted by the sensor
A  area of region S
u ( x, y , t )  displacement (m) of the surface

 Through pulse calibration: The sensor and the source are coaxially located
on opposite parallel surfaces. All wave motion is free of any aperture effect.
AE Data Acquisition Devices
Example of AE device parameters:
• 16 bit, 10 MHz A/D converter.
• Maximum signal amplitude 100
dB AE.
• 4 High Pass filters for each
channel with a range from 10
KHz to 200 KHz (under software
control).
• 4 Low Pass filters for each
channel with a range from 100
KHz to 2.1 MHz (under software
control).
• 32 bit Digital Signal Processor.
• 1 Mbyte DSP and Waveform
buffer.
 Principals of AE Data
Measurement and Analysis
 Threshold and Hit Definition Time (HDT)
Threshold and HDT are parameters that used for detection AE signals in traditional AE
devices. HDT: Enables the system to determine the end of a hit, close out the measurement
process and store the measured attributes of the signal.

Long HDT

Short HDT Hit 1

Threshold
Voltage

Short HDT

Hit 2

Time

Long HDT Hit 1

 Burst and Continuous AE Signals

Burst AE is a qualitative description of the discrete signal's related to

individual emission events occurring within the material.

Continuous AE is a qualitative description of the sustained signal

produced by time-overlapping signals.

“AE Testing Fundamentals, Equipment, Applications” , H. Vallen

 AE Parameters

• Peak amplitude - The maximum of AE signal.

dB=20log10(Vmax/1µvolt)-preamlifier gain
• Energy – Integral of the rectified voltage signal over the duration of the AE hit.
• Duration – The time from the first threshold crossing to the end of the last
threshold crossing.
• Counts – The number of AE signal exceeds threshold.
• Average Frequency –Determines the average frequency in kHz over the entire
AE hit.
AE counts
A.F  [ kHz ]
Duration

• Rise time - The time from the first threshold crossing to the maximum
amplitude.
• Count rate - Number of counts per time unit.
 Background Noise
Background Noise: Signals produced by causes other than acoustic emission and are not relevant to the purpose of
the test
Types of noise:
• Hydraulic noise –Cavitations, turbulent flows, boiling of fluids and leaks.
• Mechanical noise –Movement of mechanical parts in contact with the structure e.g. fretting of pressure vessels
against their supports caused by elastic expansion under pressure.
• Cyclic noise – Repetitive noise such as that from reciprocating or rotating machinery.
• Electro-magnetic noise.

Control of noise sources:

• Rise Time Discriminator – There is significant difference between rise time of mechanical noise and acoustic
emission.
• Frequency Discriminator – The frequency of mechanical noise is usually lower than an acoustic emission burst
from cracks.
• Floating Threshold or Smart Threshold – Varies with time as a function of noise output. Used to distinguish
between the background noise and acoustic emission events under conditions of high, varying background
noise. Floating
threshold
Amplitude

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

Time
 Master – Slave Technique – Master sensor are mounted near the area of interest and are surrounded
surrounded by slave or guard sensors.
The guard sensors eliminate noise that are generated from outside
outside the area of interest.
 Attenuation, Dispersion, Diffraction and
Scattering Phenomena
The following phenomena take place as AE wave propagate along the structure:
 Attenuation: The decrease in AE amplitude as a stress wave propagate along a structure due
to Energy loss mechanisms, from dispersion, diffraction or scattering.
 Dispersion: A phenomenon caused by the frequency dependence of speed for waves. Sound
waves are composed of different frequencies hence the speed of the wave differs for
different frequency spectrums.
 Diffraction: The spreading or bending of waves passing through an aperture or around the
edge of a barrier.
 Scattering: The dispersion, deflection of waves encountering a discontinuity in the material
such as holes, sharp edges, cracks inclusions etc….

 Attenuation tests have to be performed on

the actual structures during their inspection.
 The attenuation curves allows to estimate
amplitude or energy of a signal at the at the
given the distance from the sensor.
Source Location
 Source Location Concepts

• Time difference based on threshold crossing.

• Cross-correlation time difference.
• Zone location.
 Linear Location
• Linear location is a time difference method commonly used to locate AE
source on linear structures such as pipes. It is based on the arrival time
difference between two sensors for known velocity.
• Sound velocity evaluated by generating signals at know distances.

1
d  D T V 
2
d  distance from first hit sensor
D = distance between sensors
V  wave velocity
Material Effective Shear Longitudinal
velocity in a [m/s] [m/s]
thin rod [m/s]
Brass 3480 2029 4280
Steel 347 5000 3089 5739
Aluminum 5000 3129 6319
 Two Dimensional Source Location
• For location of an AE source on a plane two sensors are used. The source
is situated on a hyperbola.
t1,2V  R1  R2
D  distance between sensor 1 and 2
Z  R2 sin 
R1  distance between sensor 1 and source
Z 2  R12  ( D  R2 ) 2
R2  distance between sensor 2 and source
 R22 sin 2   R12  ( D  R2 cos  )2
t1,2  time differance between sensor 1 and 2
R2 2  R12  D 2  2 D cos 
R1  t1,2V  R2   angle between lines R2 and D
2 2 2 Z  line perpendicular to D
1 D  t1,2 V
 R2 
2 t1,2V  D cos 

 Three sensors are used to locate a source to a point by intersecting two

hyperbolae using the same technique as two sensors.

Sensor 2
R2
R3
Sensor 3
Sensor 2 R2
R3 
R1
Z
D
Sensor 1
R1

Sensor 1
 Cross-correlation based
Δt
Location
Ch 1

Cross-correlation function

Ch 2 C(t )   SCh1 ( )  SCh2 (  t )dt

Δt
t  t max{C (t )}
Cross-correlation method is typically applied
for location of continuous AE signals.

Normalized cross-correlation function

 Zone Location
• Zone location is based on the principle that the sensor with the
highest amplitude or energy output will be closest to the source.
• Zonal location aims to trace the waves to a specific zone or region
around a sensor.
• Zones can be lengths, areas or volumes depending on the
dimensions of the array.
• With additional sensors added, a sequence of signals can be
detected giving a more accurate result using time differences and
attenuation characteristics of the wave.
Acoustic Emission in Metals
 Sources of AE in Metals

bond More then 80% of energy

nucleation nucleation
connection
development growth Voids fracturing expended on fracture in
branching interaction fracturing common industrial metals
……
Micro-crack crack Inclusions goes to development of
formation plastic deformation.
Possible combinations
Twining
Dislocations AE SOURCES
nucleation 6.9 10236
Phase
generation
changes
annihilation formation
migration motion Recrystalli-
interaction interaction Slip
zation
movement ……..
 Plastic Deformation
• Plastic deformation development is accompanied by the motion of a large numbers of
dislocations. The process by which plastic deformation is produced
produced by dislocation motions is
called slip. The crystallographic plane along which the dislocation
dislocation line moves is called the
slip plane and the direction of movement is called the slip direction.
direction. The combination of the
two is termed the slip system.(1)
system.(1)
• The motion of a single vacancy and a single dislocation emits a signal of about 0.01-
0.01-0.05eV.
0.05eV.
• The best sensitivity of modern AE devices equals 50-
50-100eV.
100eV.
Physical Activation
Process Energy (eV
(eV))
Dislocation 1.2
(1)Materials Science and Engineering an glide
Introduction, William D. Callister, Jr.
Formation of 8-10
dislocation
 Edge and screw are the two fundamental types of dislocation.

Edge dislocation Screw dislocation Mixed dislocation

Edge
dislocation
motion

1 2 3 4 5
 Plastic Zone at the Crack Tip
• Flaws in metals can be revealed by detection of indications of plastic
deformation development around them.
• Cracks, inclusions, and other discontinuities in materials concentrate
stresses.
• At the crack tip stresses can exceed yield stress level causing plastic
deformation development.
• The size of a plastic zone can be evaluated using the stress intensity
factor K, which is the measure of stress magnitude at the crack tip. The
critical value of stress intensity factor, KIC is the material property called
fracture toughness.
2
1 KI 
ry   
2 
 ys 
ry  plastic zone size in elastic material

Fracture Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications, Second Edition, T.L Anderson.

 Factors that Tend to Increase or
Decrease the Amplitude of AE

Nondestructive Testing Handbook, volume 6 “Acoustic Emission Testing”, Third Edition, ASNT.
Relationship between AE and
Fracture Mechanics
Parameters and AE Effects
 Models of AE in Metals
Plastic Deformation Model
• Plastic deformation model relates AE and the stress intensity K1factor ( ).
• AE is proportional to the size of the plastic deformation zone.
• Several assumptions are made in this model: (1) The material gives the highest
rate of AE when it is loaded to the yield strain. (2) The size and shape of the
plastic zone ahead of the crack are determined from linear elastic fracture
mechanics concepts. 2
 K1 
1
ry   
 
 ys 
  2 or 6 (plain stress or plain strain)
(3) Strains at the crack tip vary at r 0.5where r is the radial
radial distance from the crack tip.
(4) N  Vp
N  AE count rate
V p  volume strained between  y (yield strain) and  u (uniform strain)
 The assumptions lead to development of the following equations for for the model (  2 )
2 2
 1  K 2   1  K 2  B  u4   y4 
V p    ry  ru  B   B  
2 2
         K4
 2  E y    2  E u   4  4  E y u  
 
   
B  plate thickness
 Vp  K 4
 N  K4
 Fatigue Crack Model
• Several models were developed to relate AE count rate with crack
propagation rate.
N '  AK n (Eq.1) The relation between AE count rate and stress intensity factor
N '  AE count rate per cycle
K  Stress intensity factor
A, n  constants
da
 C K m
(Eq.2) Paris law for crack propogation in fatigue
dN
 The combined contribution of both plastic deformation and
fracture mechanism is as follows for plastic yielding:

N 'p  Cp K m K 2 N c'  Cs  K m

(1  R ) 2 (1  R ) m
N 'p  AE count rate due to plastic deformation
N c'  AE count rate due to fracture
N '  N 'p  N c'
 AE Effects
• Kaiser effect is the absence of detectable AE at a fixed sensitivity
level, until previously applied stress levels are exceeded.
• Dunegan corollary states that if AE is observed prior to a previous
maximum load, some type of new damage has occurred. The
dunegan corollary is used in proof testing of pressure vessels.
• Felicity effect is the presence of AE, detectable at a fixed
predetermined sensitivity level at stress levels below those previously
applied. The felicity effect is used in the testing of fiberglass vessels
and storage tanks.

stress at onset of AE
felicity ratio 
previous maximum stress

Kaiser effect (BCB)

Felicity effect (DEF)
Applications
AE Inspection of Pressure Vessels
AE Inspection of Pressure Vessels
 AE Testing of Pressure Vessels

Pressure Policy for a New Vessel(1)

Example of Transducers Distribution on Vessel's Surface(1) Typical Results Representation of Acoustic Emission Testing(1)

(1)
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, volume 6 “Acoustic Emission Testing”, Third Edition, ASNT.
 Example of Pressure Vessel
Evaluation
• Historic index is a ratio of
average signal strength of the
last 20% or 200, whichever is
less, of events to average signal
strength of all events.

S
N t K 1 0i
H (t ) 
N K N
N – number of hits, S – 
0i
S0i strength of
the signal
the i-th event, J – specific number of events
i 1
K=0.8J for J≤N≤1000 and K=N-200 for N>1000

 Severity is the average of ten

The numbers on plot correspond to events having the largest
sensors numbers.(1) numerical value of signal
strength. i 10
1
S av   S 0i
10 i 1
(1)
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, volume 6 “Acoustic Emission Testing”, Third Edition, ASNT.
AE Standards
 AE Standards
ASME - American Society of Mechanical Engineers
• Acoustic Emission Examination of Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Vessels, Article 11, Subsection A, Section V, Boiler
and Pressure Vessel Code
• Acoustic Emission Examination of Metallic Vessels During Pressure Testing, Article 12, Subsection A, Section
V, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
• Continuous Acoustic Emission Monitoring, Article 13 Section V

ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials

• E569-97 Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Structures During Controlled Stimulation
• E650-97 Standard Guide for Mounting Piezoelectric Acoustic Emission Sensors
• E749-96 Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Monitoring During Continuous Welding
• E750-98 Standard Practice for Characterizing Acoustic Emission Instrumentation
• E976-00 Standard Guide for Determining the Reproducibility of Acoustic Emission Sensor Response
• E1067-96 Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Examination of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Resin (FRP)
Tanks/Vessels
• E1106-86(1997) Standard Method for Primary Calibration of Acoustic Emission Sensors
• E1118-95 Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Examination of Reinforced Thermosetting Resin Pipe
(RTRP)
• E1139-97 Standard Practice for Continuous Monitoring of Acoustic Emission from Metal Pressure Boundaries
• E1211-97 Standard Practice for Leak Detection and Location Using Surface-Mounted Acoustic Emission
Sensors
• E1316-00 Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
• E1419-00 Standard Test Method for Examination of Seamless, Gas-Filled, Pressure Vessels Using Acoustic
Emission
• E1781-98 Standard Practice for Secondary Calibration of Acoustic Emission Sensors
• E1932-97 Standard Guide for Acoustic Emission Examination of Small Parts
• E1930-97 Standard Test Method for Examination of Liquid Filled Atmospheric and Low Pressure Metal
Storage Tanks Using Acoustic Emission
• E2075-00 Standard Practice for Verifying the Consistency of AE-Sensor Response Using an Acrylic Rod
• E2076-00 Standard Test Method for Examination of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Fan Blades Using Acoustic
Emission
 AE Standards
ASNT - American Society for Nondestructive Testing
• ANSI/ASNT CP-189, ASNT Standard for Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive Testing
Personnel.
• CARP Recommended Practice for Acoustic Emission Testing of Pressurized Highway Tankers
Made of Fiberglass reinforced with Balsa Cores.
• Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.

Association of American Railroads

• Procedure for Acoustic Emission Evaluation of Tank Cars and IM-101 tanks, Issue 1, and Annex Z
thereto, “ Test Methods to Meet FRA Request for Draft Sill Inspection program, docket T79.20-90
(BRW) ,” Preliminary 2

Compressed Gas Association

• C-1, Methods for Acoustic Emission Requalification of Seamless Steel Compressed Gas Tubes.

European Committee for Standardization

• DIN EN 14584, Non-Destructive Testing – Acoustic Emission – Examination of Metallic Pressure
Equipment during Proof Testing; Planar Location of AE Sources.
• EN 1330-9, Non-Destructive Testing – Terminology – Part 9, Terms Used in Acoustic Emission
Testing.
• EN 13477-1, Non-Destructive Testing – Acoustic Emission – Equipment Characterization – Part 1,
Equipment Description.
• EN 13477-2, Non-Destructive Testing – Acoustic Emission – Equipment Characterization – Part 2,
Verification of Operating Characteristics.
• EN 13554, Non-Destructive Testing – Acoustic Emission – General Principles.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

• IEEE C57.127, Trial-Use guide for the Detection of Acoustic Emission from Partial Discharges in
Oil-Immersed Power Transformers.
 AE Standards
International Organization for Standardization
• ISO 12713, Non-Destructive Testing - Acoustic Emission Inspection – Primary
Calibration of Transducers.
• ISO 12714, Non-Destructive Testing - Acoustic Emission Inspection – Secondary
Calibration of Acoustic Emission Sensors.
• ISO 12716, Non-Destructive Testing - Acoustic Emission Inspection – Vocabulary
• ISO/DIS 16148, gas Cylinders – Refillable Seamless Steel gas Cylinders – Acoustic
Emission Examination (AEE) for Periodic Inspection.

Japanese Institute for Standardization

• JIS Z 2342, Methods for Acoustic Testing of Pressure Vessels during Pressure Tests
and Classification of Test Results.

Japanese Society for Nondestructive Inspection

• NDIS 2106-79, Evaluation of performance Characteristics of Acoustic Emission
Testing Equipment.
• NDIS 2109-91, Methods for Absolute calibration of Acoustic Emission Transducers by
Reciprocity Technique.
• NDIS 2412-80, Acoustic Emission Testing of Spherical Pressure Vessels of High
Tensile Strength Steel and Classification of Test Results.
• Optical Holographic techniques can be used for
nondestructive testing of materials (HNDT). Nonoptical
• Holography techniques include Acoustical, Microwave,
X-Ray and Electron beam Holography.
• HNDT essentially measures deformations on the surface
of the object. However, there is sufficient sensitivity to
detect sub- surface and internal defects in metallic and
composite specimens.
• In HNDT techniques, the test sample is
interferometrically compared with the sample after it has
been stressed (loaded).
• A flaw can be detected if by stressing the object it
creates an anomalous deformation of the surface around
the flaw.
• Optical holography is an imaging method, which records the
amplitude and phase of light reflected
• from an object as an interferometric pattern on film. It thus allows
reconstruction of the full 3-D image
• of the object. In HNDT, the test sample is interferometrically
compared in two different stressed states.
• Stressing can be mechanical, thermal, vibration etc. The resulting
interference pattern contours the
• deformation undergone by the specimen in between the two
recordings. Surface as well as subsurface
• defects show distortions in the otherwise uniform pattern. In
addition, the characteristics of the
• component, such as vibration modes, mechanical properties,
residual stress etc. can be identified
• through holographic inspection. Applications in fluid mechanics and
gas dynamics also abound.
• The light used to illuminate the surface of the specimen must be coherent,
which means that it must also be monochromatic, and the only practical
source is a laser.
• Each type of laser emits a characteristic wavelength, e.g. a helium-neon
laser emits 632.8nm; a ruby laser emits 694.3nm.
• Laser diodes are nowadays an exciting and compact alternative.
• Indeed, holography using laser pointers have also been demonstrated.
• High-resolution films are another necessity for holography. With the advent
of CCD and digital image processing, digital holographic interferometry
offers tremendous flexibility and real-time visualization.
• Furthermore, image-processing schemes can provide computerised
analysis of patterns for automated defect detection and analysis.
• Finally since intricate interferometric patterns have to be recorded, vibration
isolation is also required.
• Novel schemes have been proposed, including use of pulsed lasers to
record holograms in factory environments.
• Advances and developments in lasers, computers, and recording materials
introduce new techniques
• Need a laser, lenses, mirror, photographic
film, and an object
• The laser light is separated into two
beams, reference beam and object beam
• Reference beam enlarged and aimed at a
piece of holographic film