CON4341 - Notes

CBE2021 SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
1 Definition of Engineering Soil
Engineering soil is defined as an un-cemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed

organic matter (solid particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the solid
particles. Engineering soil is used as a construction material in various civil engineering
projects, and it supports structural foundations.
2 Definition of Soil Mechanics, Soil Engineering and Geotechnical Engineering
Soil Mechanics: It is the branch of science that deals with the study of the physical properties
of soil and the behaviour of soil masses subjected to various types of forces.
Soil Engineering: It is the application of the principles of soil mechanics to practical problems.
Geotechnical Engineering: It is defined as the sub-discipline of civil engineering that involves

natural materials (soils and rocks) found close to the surface of the earth.
3 Geotechnical Engineering Problems
There are three basic problems:
(a) Stability Problem: it involves whether a structure will stand or collapse. A structure
may be:
• a building foundation
• an earth slope (cut/fill slope or an embankment)
• an earth retaining structure
• a buried structure
There are short term and long term stability problems.
(b) Deformation Problem: it involves whether a structure performs satisfactorily even

without collapse.
• building/structure settlements (magnitude and rate of settlement, differential
settlement)
• buried structure and road pavement deformation
(c) Water Flow Problem: it involves whether the movement of water in the soil causes
problems.
• dam leakage
• rate of settlement (consolidation)
• dewatering excavations
• landfill (contamination transport)
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INTRODUCTION
4 History of Soil Mechanics
• Coulomb (1776) made one of the first attempts to solve the problem involving soil when
he examined the earth pressures acting on retaining walls. With some restrictions his
work is still in use.
• Rankine (1862) contributed further to earth pressure theory when he attempted to examine
the stresses within a soil mass.
• The Swedish Physicist, Atterberg, advanced the understanding of basic soil properties at
the beginning of the 20th Century.
• Development of modern soil mechanics began from the publication of “Soil Mechanics”
by Dr. Karl Terzaghi in 1925. Many present-day theories stem from Terzaghi’s work.
5 Origins and Modes of Formation of Soils
All soils originate, in one way or the other, directly or indirectly, from solid rocks that are
classified according to their mode of formation as follows:
• IGNEOUS ROCKS: rocks formed by the solidification of magma (hot molten material)
ejected (either by fissure eruption or volcanic eruption) from deep in the earth’s mantle.
Sometimes, the magma cools on the earth’s surface to form extrusive igneous rock. At
other times, the magma cools below the earth’s surface to form intrusive igneous rocks.
• SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: rocks formed in layers from soil sediments derived from
weathering actions. The deposits of gravel, sand, silt and clay formed by weathering may
go through a lithification process and becomes sedimentary rocks.
• METAMORPHIC ROCKS: rocks formed by changing the composition and texture of

existing rocks, without melting, by heat and/or pressure.
Soil is composed of loose, uncemented collections of mineral particles of various shapes and
sizes with relatively large void spaces between them or with a high value of ratio of void
space volume to solid particle.
Rock, however, is an intact, usually tough material, consisting of mineral particles and
crystals cemented or welded together. The void spaces in rock are normally small. Even
when they are large they occupy only a small part of the total volume. In engineering terms,
soils may be considered as materials that can be worked without drilling and blasting.
Figure 1 shows diagrammatically how soil is derived from rock.
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INTRODUCTION
Fig. 1.1 Soil formation process: Weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition.
Figure 1: Soil formation process: weathering, erosion, transportation & deposition
6 Some Factors Affecting the Formation of Solid Rocks to Soils
• Nature and composition of parent rocks.

• Climate conditions, particularly temperate and humidity
• Topographic and general terrain conditions such as degree of shelter or exposure, density
and type of vegetation, etc.
• Length of time the weathering processes prevail.
• Interference with other agencies, e.g., earthquakes, cataclysmic storms, actions of man.
• Modes and conditions of transportation.
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INTRODUCTION
7 Some Engineering Soil Terminology
ROCK. Hard rigid coherent deposit forming part of the earth’s crust. Rocks require some
forms of blasting or drilling techniques to facilitate excavation.
SOIL. Engineering soils are materials that may be used in some ways in engineering
processes, i.e., worked on, worked in and worked with.
SUBSOIL. This is essentially an agriculture term describing an inert soil layer between the
topsoil layer and bedrock. Strictly speaking the use of this term shall be avoided in
engineering, but nowadays it has been used collectively to refer to soil layers beneath the top
soil.
ORGANIC SOIL. This is a mixture of mineral grains and decomposed organic material of
mainly vegetable origin. Most organic soils have their origins in lakes, bays, estuaries,
harbours and reservoirs. Soil with a smooth touch usually signifies presence of organic
materials that may be characterized by a dark colour and unpleasant odour.
PEAT. Spongy, highly compressible and combustible soil made up of organic matters with
presence of inorganic materials. If percentages of organic matter are large, soils tend to
become organic.
RESIDUAL SOILS. Weathered down remains of rocks that have undergone no transport
and do not retain any structures of the parent rocks. They are usually sandy or gravely with
high concentrations of oxides resulting from leaching processes.
ALLUVIAL SOILS (ALLUVIUM). Materials such as sands and gravels deposited from
rivers and streams. They are usually well sorted and often occur in discontinuous and
irregular formations.
COLLUVIAL SOILS (COLLUVIUM). Materials such as deposits of sand and gravel

originated from the movement of weathered residual soils short distances down slope by
gravity, landslips and running water. They usually consist of angular to round blocks of rock
fragments varying in size from a few millimetres to several meters in a mixture of clayey,
silty matrix.
COHESIVE SOILS. Soils containing clay/silt particles which process some forms of
cohesion and plasticity.
COHESIONLESS SOILS. Soils such as sands and gravels consisting of non-flaky particles,
and which do not exhibit plasticity and cohesion.
DRIFTS. A geological term used to describe superficial unconsolidated deposits of recent

origin, such as alluvium, glacial deposits, wind blown sand, etc.
MECHANICAL WEATHERING. It is the disintegration of rock by purely physical means,

such as differential expansion and contraction of rock masses due to temperature changes.
This leads to a loosening of the coherent structure (block disintegration) and also cracking
(sun cracking). Cracks in rock may also be caused by the rebound effect as the upper rock
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INTRODUCTION
layers are unloaded and stress relief occurs. This process is called sheeting and causes
horizontal cracks or joints to develop. In temperature and cold climates, the expansion of
water upon freezing also disintegrates the rock through a wedging action in the rock’s cracks.
This is called frost weathering.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING. It is the action of water, atmospheric gases and organic

chemicals from vegetation, which corrodes rock minerals by the processes of solution,
oxidation and hydrolysis to produce new minerals such as clay. These processes are
comparable to the rusting of steel.
9 Distribution of Soils in Hong Kong
Figure 2 shows grammatically typical distribution of soils in Hong Kong.
Fig. 2 Soil distribution in Hong Kong.
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CBE4102S SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOLOGY Dr. Paul Ho
PHASE RELATIONSHIPS Sept/2009
PHASE RELATIONSHIPS
1. MASS – VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS
A volume of soil consists of the volume making up the soil solids and the volume of the
voids or pores (empty spaces) between the solid particles.
2 Soil System
Soil is usually modelled as a “THREE-PHASE” material, consisting of:
Solid mineral particles (solid phase) -

• quartz, feldspars, carbonates, mica / clay minerals, organic matter
Pore fluid (liquid phase) -

• normally water
Pore gas (gas phase) -

• normally air
3 Phase Diagram
To quantify the properties of soil, it is useful to introduce some definitions and terminology to
describe the three-phase system (the Unit Solid Volume Model):
Volume Mass
Fig. 2.1 Unit Solid Volume Model
Go to Appendix 1 for explanation of symbols.
• The “soil” is represented as a fixed volume of soil solid grains associated with various
amounts of water and air.
• The soil solid grains are assumed to be incompressible; the volume in the soil not
occupied by soil solid grains is the void space.
• In a perfectly dry soil there is no water and the void space is entirely air. In a saturated
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soil the void space is full of water. Between the two extremes, the soil is partially
saturated.
• The model provides an easy means to identify what are known and the relationship
between known and desired (wanted) quantities.
• The total volume VT, the mass of water MW, and the mass of soil solid grains MS are
usually measured, the rest of the values can be calculated.
It is useful to consider each phase individually as shown in Table 1.
Phase Volume Mass Weight

Air VA 0 0
Water VW MW WW
Solid VS MS WS
Table 1 Distribution by Volume, Mass, and Weight
4 Units
For most engineering applications the following units are used:
Length metres (m)

Mass kilogram (kg)
Density (mass/unit volume) kg/m3
Weight kilonewtons (kN)
Stress kilopascals (kPa) 1 kPa = 1 kN/m2
Unit Weight kN/m3
5 Volumetric Relationship
Void Ratio, e:
VV
e=
VS
VV = volume of voids
VS = volume of soil solid grains
• Expressed as a decimal.
• May be larger than 1.
• Typically:
Sands 0.4 < e < 1.0 very loose sand e ≈ 1.0
Clays 0.3 < 1.5 soft clay e > 1, organic clay e > 3
• Much of the soil behaviour is related to e:
As e decreases density increases.
As e decreases strength increases.
As e decreases permeability decreases
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Porosity, n:
VV
n= ( x 100%)
VT
VV = Volume of voids
VT = Total volume
• Expressed as a decimal or percentage (usually percentage).

• Can not be larger than 100% (1).
• Relationship with e can be expressed as:
e
n=
1+ e
n
e=
1- n
For example, for a very loose sand with e = 0.8,
n = 0.8 (x 100%) = 44%

1 + 0.8
(Note: When doing calculation involving %, you need to change the percentage values
back to decimal values. This applies to all other quantities.)
Degree of Saturation, S:
VW
S = x 100%
VV
VW = volume of water
VV = volume of voids
• Expressed as a percentage.
• Tells the percentage of the total volume of voids that contain water.
• Range is from 0% to 100%.
Sr = 0%, soil is completely dry.
Sr = 100% soil is fully saturated.
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Air Void Ratio, AV:
VA
AV = x 100 (%)
VT
• Tells the percentage of volume of air void relative to the total volume of soil.
6 Mass Relationship
Moisture Content, w:
MW
w = x 100(%)
MS
• Tells the amount of water in a soil relative to the mass of soil solid grains.
• More important quantity for clay soils.
• The higher the value usually the weaker the clay soil is.
Density, ρ:
ρ=M
V
M = mass
V = volume
Expressed as kg/m3 or Mg/m3
Density of Soil Solid Grains, ρS:
MS
ρs =
VS
MS = mass of soil solid grains

VS = volume of soil solid grains
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Specific Gravity of Soil Solid Grains, GS:
ρS
GS =
ρW
• Defined as the mass (weight) of the soil solid grains divided by the mass (weight)
of an equal volume of water at 20°C.
• Typically GS= 2.6 to 2.8 for the solid minerals in soil.
• Can use it to calculate the mass of mass or volume of soil solids if either one is
known.
Density of Water, ρw:
M
ρ = W = 1000 kg/m 3
W V
W
MW = mass of water
VW = volume of water
Bulk Density of Soil (also known as moist, wet, or total density), ρb:
MT
ρb = VT
MT = total mass of soil

VT = total volume of soil
Dry Density of Soil, ρd:
S = 0% (i.e., MW = 0)
MS
ρd = VT
Saturated Density of Soil, ρsat:
S = 100%, (i.e., VA = 0 or Vw = Vv and therefore MT = MS + VV x ρW)
ρsat = MV = M T
T S + Vv ρ W
VT
Submerged (buoyant) Density of Soil, ρsub or ρ’:
ρsub (or ρ’) = ρsat - ρw

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7 Weight Relationships
Unit Weight, γ:
The relationships just defined in terms of masses (or densities) can be expressed in
terms of weights and are called unit weights. In most applications it is not the mass that is
important, but the force due to the mass, and the weight, W, is related to the mass, M, by the
relation:
W = Mg
where g is the acceleration due to gravity. g = 9.81 m/s2
Because the force is usually required it is often convenient in calculations to use the unit
weight, γ (weight per unit volume).
W
γ =
V
Mg
γ = = ρg
V
Hence the unit weight of water,
γw = 1000 kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s2 = 9810 (kg-m/s2)/m3 = 9810 N/m3 = 9.81 kN/m3
For soil, say if ρ = 2100 kg/m3,
γ = 2100 kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s2 = 20601 ((kg-m/s2)/ m3) = 20600 N/m3 = 20.6 kN/m3
(Note: 1 kg-m/s2 = 1 N (Newton))
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8 Useful Mass-Volume Relationships
If one assumes the solid grains occupy 1 m3 (or one unit volume, based on the unit
solid volume model), then the following relationships hold:
Phase Volume Mass

Air e (1 - S) 0
Water eS e S ρw
Solid 1 Gs ρw
Note that the above table assumes a solid volume Vs = 1 m3, All terms in the table should be multiplied by the
actual Vs if this is not the case.
Volume Mass
e(1-S) air
e
eS water eSρ
ρw
1 soil
G sρ w
Unit Solid Volume Model
(Make sure you can derive all the relationships by yourself by following the
procedures shown in the next page.)
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VS = 1
VV = e (since: e = VV / VS, and VS = 1)
VT = 1 + e (since VT = VS + VV, VS=1, and VV = e)
VA = e (1 - S) (since S = VW / VV, VW = VV - VA, and VV = e)
VW = e S (since S = VW / VV, and VV = e)
V W = w GS (since VW = MW / ρW, and MW = w MS = w GS ρW)
MA = 0 (mass of air is negligible compared with other phases)
MS = GS ρW (since: GS = ρS / ρW, ρS = MS / VS, and VS = 1)
MW = wMS = w GS ρW (since: w = Mw / Ms and Ms = Gs ρw)
It then follows:
ρb = [(GS + Sr e) ρW] / (1 + e)
ρd = (GS ρW) / (1 + e)
ρsat = [(GS + e) ρW] / (1 + e)
ρsub or ρ’ = [(GS + e) / (1 + e) - 1] ρW
n = e / (1 + e)
e = n / (1 - n)
e = (wGs) / S
w = (S e) / GS
S = (w GS) / e
GS = (S e) / w
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10 Examples
Example 1 – Mass and Volume fractions
A cylindrical soil sample has a diameter of 50 mm and length 80 mm. It has a total mass of 290 g. After drying,
it has a dry mass of 237.3 g. Determine the phase (volume) distributions, moisture content, void ratio, degree of
saturation and the relevant densities (bulk, dry, and saturated and submerged). The soil solids has a Gs of 2.65.
1. Distribution by mass and weight
Phase Sample Mass, M Sample Mass, M

(g) (kg)
Total 290 0.290
Solid (Dry) 237.3 0.2373
Water 52.7 0.0527
2. Distribution by Volume
Sample Volume, V = π (0.025)2 (0.08) = 157.1 × 10-6 m3
Mw
0.0527
WaterVolume,Vw = = = 52.7×10 −6 m 3
ρ w 1000
Ms 0.2373
SolidVolume,Vs = = = 89.5×10 −6 m 3
Gs ρ w 2.65×1000
Air Volume, Va = V - Vs - Vw = 14.9 × 10-6 m3
Voidr Volume, Vv = V - Vs = 157.1 × 10-6 m3 – 89.5 × 10-6 m3 = 67.6 × 10-6 m3

or Vv = Vw + Va = 52.7 × 10-6 m3 + 14.9 × 10-6 m3 = 67.6 × 10-6 m3
3. Moisture content
M w 0.0527
w= = = 0.222 = 0.222 x 100% = 22.2 %
M s 0.2373
4. Voids ratio
Vv 67.6×10 −6
e= = = 0.755
V s 89.5×10 −6
5. Degree of Saturation
V w 52.7×10 −6
S= = = 0.780 = 0.78 x 100% = 78%
Vv 67.6×10 −6
6. Densities
MT 0.290kg
ρ bulk = = = 1846kg / m 3
VT 157.1×10 −6 m 3
Ws 0.2373
ρ dry = = −6
=1511kg / m 3
VT 157.1×10
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If the sample were saturated there would need to be an additional 14.9 × 10-6 m3 of water. This would have a
water mass of 0.0149 kg and thus the saturated density of the soil would be
(0.290 +0.0149)
ρ sat = =1941kg / m 3
157.1×10 −6
ρ sub = 1941 − 1000 = 941kg / m 3
Example 2 – Calculation of Unit Weights
Note: This time you work with weight rather than mass.
A soil has a voids ratio of 0.7. Calculate the dry and saturated unit weight of the material. Assume that the solid
material occupies 1 m3, then assuming Gs = 2.65 the distribution by volume and weight is as follows.
Phase Volume Dry Weight Saturated Weight

(m3) (kN) (kN)
Voids 0.7 0 0.7 × 9.81 = 6.87
Solids 1.0 2.65 × 9.81 = 26.0 26.0
26.0 kN
• Dry unit weight γ dry = 3
= 15.3 kN / m 3
1.7 m
(26.0 + 6.87)
• Saturated unit weight γ sat = = 19.3 kN / m 3
1.7
If the soil were fully saturated the moisture content would be
6.87
• Moisture content w= = 0.264 = 26.4%
26.0
Page 10 of 12
11 Home Exercises:
(1) Dry soil and water are to be used to reconstitute a soil to a total volume (VT) of
2.356 x 10-3 m3. The water content (w) and air void ratio (AV) are to be 17%
and 10% respectively. Assuming the specific gravity (GS) of the soil solid
grains (GS) is 2.7 and the density of water (ρW) is 1000 kg/m3, determine, for
the reconstituted soil, the following:
(a) the masses of soil solids (MS), water (MW) and air (MA);
(b) the volumes of soil solids (VS), water (VW) and air (VA);
(c) the void ratio (e), porosity (n), and degree of saturation (Sr);
(d) the dry density (ρd), bulk density (ρb), saturated density (ρsat), and
submerged density (ρsat).
(Hint: Begin by assuming the volume of soil solid is 1 m3 and then calculate the
relative volume and mass distributions based on the phase diagram.
Then determine the actual volumes and masses using the given VT of
2.356 x 10-3 m3.)
(2) The bulk density ρb of a soil is 1850 kg/m3. Given that w = 15% and GS = 2.7,
determine:
(i) the dry density, ρd

(ii) the porosity, n
(iii) the degree of saturation, Sr
(iv) the mass of water, in kg, to be added to the soil to reach 100% saturation
(3) Assume a Gs of 2.65, determine the moisture content (w) and the porosity (n)
of a soil sample that has a total volume (VT) of 0.645 x 10-3 m3 and a dry mass
(MS) of 1.050 kg, assuming the sample is 90% saturated.
Page 11 of 12
12 Appendix 1: Symbol Used
Symbol Designation Relationship

Ms Mass of soil solid particles or grains in soil
Mw Mass of water in soil
MT Total mass of soil = Ms + Mw
Ws Weight of soil solid particles or grains in soil
Ww Weight of water in soil
WT Total weight of soil = Ws + Ww
Vs Volume of soil solid particles or grains in soil
Vw Volume of water in soil
Va Volume of air in soil
Vv Volume of void in soil = Vw + Va
VT Total volume of soil = Vs + Vv
e Void ratio = Vv / Vs
w Moisture content = Mw / Ms
n porosity = Vv / VT
Av Air void ratio = Va / VT
S Degree of saturation = Vw / Vv
ρs Density of soil solid particles or grains
ρw Density of water = [1000 kg/m3 or 1 Mg/m3]
ρb Bulk density of soil = M T / VT
ρd Dry density of soil = M s / VT
ρsat Saturated density of soil = (Ms + Vv ρw) / VT
ρsub or ρ’ Submerged density of soil = ρsat - ρw
γw Unit weight of water = [9.81 kN/m3]
γb Bulk unit weight of soil = WT / VT
γd Dry unit weight of soil = Ws / VT
γsat Saturated unit weight of soil = (Ws + Vv γw) / VT
γsub or γ’ Submerged unit weight of soil = γsat - γw
Gs Specific gravity of soil solid particles or grains = ρs / ρw
Page 12 of 12
SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOLOGY Dr. Paul Ho
Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
3 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIUTION, SOIL CONSISTENCY,
SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION
3.1 Introduction
The ‘classification’ of soil is a good guide to a soil’s functional character as a

material for engineering use.
• Different soil types have different shear strength and settlement

characteristics, meaning they differ in their response to loads induced on
them by structures.
• Different soil types have different seepage characteristics, meaning they
differ in the ease with which water or other liquids flow through them.
3.2 Basic Soil Groups
There are three main groups of soil:
Coarse grained soils – examples: cobbles, gravels, sands

• Individual grains can be seen with unaided eyes.
• There is no cohesion between grains (i.e., cohesionless).
• Particles flow freely when dry.
• Water can flow through them freely.
• Retain little or no water when drained.
Fine grained soils – examples: silts, clays

• Individual grains cannot be seen with unaided eyes.
• There is some form of cohesion between grains (i.e., cohesive).
• Form slumps when dry.
• Water does not drain out - retain water.
Organic - example: peat soils or muskeg (fibrous):

• Decayed plant remains mixed with silt and clay.
CHAPTER 3: GRAIN SIZES AND GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION Page 1 of 22

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
3.3 Typical features of Engineering Soils:
Major classes and features of engineering soil are summarised in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Major Classes and Feature of Engineering Soils
Coaresed Grain Fine Grained Organic

Soil types Cobble, Gravel, Sand Silt, Clay Peat
Particle shape Round to angular Flaky Fibrous
Particle or grain size Coarse Fine ---
Porosity or void ratio Low High High
Permeability High Low to Variable
impermeable
Inter-particle cohesion None to very low High Low
Inter-particle friction High Low None to
low
Plasticity Very low Low to high Low to
moderate
Compressibility Very low Moderate to Usually
very high very high
Rate of compression Immediate Moderate to slow Moderate
to rapid
Effect of PSD Important Relatively -
on Engineering Important (silts)
Behaviour Relatively
unimportant (clay)
Effect of water on Relatively Important -
engineering unimportant
behaviour exception:
(very fine sand)
3.4 Particle Sizes
The range of particle sizes encountered in soils is very wide, from boulder size
larger than 200 mm down to the colloidal size of some clays of less than 0.001
mm. Although natural soils are mixture of various sized particles, it is common
to find a predominant grading with a relatively narrow band of sizes. Table 3.2
shows the British Standard (BS) of particle size limits for use in soil
engineering.

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Table 3.2 British Standard of Particle Size Limits of Engineering Soils
Type Range of particle size, mm

Boulder > 200
Cobble 200 - 60
Gravel
Coarse gravel 60 - 20
Medium gravel 20 - 6
Fine gravel 6-2
Sand
Coarse sand 2 - 0.6
Medium sand 0.6 - 0.2
Fine sand 0.2 - 0.06
Silt
Coarse silt 0.06 - 0.02
Medium silt 0.02 - 0.006
Fine silt 0.006 - 0.002
Clay Less than 0.002
3.5 Particle Size Distribution
• Both the size of particles and the distribution of particles sizes are
important.
• Sieving tests (for coarse grain soils) and hydrometer tests (for fine grained
soils) are used to define the distribution of grain sizes.
• Classification of soils according to particle sizes varies slightly between
different classification system. In Hong Kong a system based on the British
Soil Classification System (BSCS) is commonly used.
• In discribing the size of a soil particle, either a dimension or name as shown
in Table 3.2 is used.
• The particle size refers to an equivalent particle diameter as found from
sieve analysis.
• The British Standard Sieve Sizes as shown in Table 3.3 are commonly used
in Hong Kong.
• The range of particle sizes varies from 200 mm > D (grain size diameter)>
0.002 mm, hence the particle size distribution is examined on a logaritmic
scale as shown in Figure 3.1

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Table .3.3 British Standard Test Sieve Sizes
75 mm, 63 mm, 50 mm, 37.5 mm, 28 mm, 20 mm, 14 mm, 10 mm, 6.3 mm, 5
mm, 3.36 mm, 2 mm, 1.18 mm, 600 µm, 425 µm, 300 µm, 212 µm, 150 µm, 63
µm
(1 µm = 0.001 mm)
Figure 3.1 Particle Size Distribution Chart (BS range of particle sizes)
Determination of Particle-size Distribution
Basically, in terms of grain size, soil is described as either coarse-grained or

fine-grained.
Coarse-grained soil: one in which more than 65% of the grains, by weight, are
greater than 0.06 mm in diameter.
Fine-grained soil: one in which more than 35% of the grains, by weight, are
smaller than 0.06 mm in diameter.

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
In British Standard, the size 0.06 mm is the dividing line between silt and sand
(see Table 3.2) and represents the smallest particle that can be distinguished as
a discrete grain by the naked eye.
Sieving and Sedimentation
Two methods are used to determine the particle-size distribution of soils. One
is for coarse-grained material which uses sieves. The other is for fine-grained
material which uses the technique of sedimentation; one example is the
hydrometer method.
Most natural soil is a mixture of coarse-grained material (sand and gravel) and
fine-grained material (silt and clay). Separation of the coarse and fine
materials is necessary for proper testing. This is done by an initial wet sieving
in which the soil is completely washed through a 63µm (.063 mm) sieve by a
stream of water. The soil retained on the sieve is greater than 0.063 mm in
grain size. The particle-size distribution of the retained fraction can then be
done using other larger sized sieves. Alternatively, the sieving of the coarse
fraction can also be done on the dried sample. This is known as dry sieving.
Sieving
Sieve Analysis is used to determine the distribution of the larger grain sizes.
The soil is passed through a series of sieves with the mesh size reducing
progressively (Figure 2), and the proportions by weight of the soil retained on
each sieve are measured. There are a range of sieve sizes that can be used, and
the finest is usually a 63 µm sieve. Sieving can be performed either wet or dry.
Because of the tendency for fine particles to clump together, wet sieving is
often required with fine-grained soils.

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Figure 3.2 Sieves and Shaker
Sedimentation (Hydrometer)
To determine the grain size distribution of material passing the 63 µm sieve the
Hydrometer method is commonly used (Figure 3.3). The soil is mixed with
water and a dispersing agent, stirred vigorously, and allowed to settle to the
bottom of a measuring cylinder. As the soil particles settle out of suspension
the specific gravity of the mixture reduces. An hydrometer is used to record the
variation of specific gravity with time. By making use of Stoke’s Law, which
relates the velocity of a free falling sphere to its diameter, the test data is
reduced to provide particle diameters and the % by weight of the sample finer
than a particular particle size.
(Hydrometer method will not be coverd in this module.)

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Figure 3.3 Hydrometer
Particle Size Distribution Curve
Most soils are composed of particles of various sizes. Some soils have a more
homogeneous (same) combination of particle sizes while other soils have a
mixture of grain sizes. The sieving analysis (or together with hydrometer) of
soil particle sizes is usually recorded on a Particle Size Distribution (PSD)
Chart and the curve so ploted is referred as the Particle Size Distribution
(PSD) Curve (or Grading Curve) as shown in Figure. 3.4.

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Particle Size Distribution Chart
The PSD Chart is a semi-logarithmic chart.
The horizontal scale is a logarithmic scale (log10) of the particle size diameter
over a range of 0.0001 mm to > 100 mm.
The vertical scale is the percentage by weight of the soil grains that are finer
than a given size. For example, point ‘A’ in Figure. 3.4 represents 60% by
weight of that soil is finer than 2.0 mm. The percentage is always designed as
percent passing or finer (a certain sieve size) or as a summation percentage.
100
80 A
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)
Figure 3.4 Typical Particle Size Distribution (PSD) curves
Some typical grading (PSD) curves are shown on the figure. The following
descriptions are applied to these curves
W Well graded material

U Uniform material
P Poorly graded material
C Well graded with some clay
F Well graded with an excess of fines
Another quantity analysis of grading curves may be carried out using certain
geometric values known as grading characteristics. For example, in Fig. 3.5,
D10 = diameter of grain (mm) for which 10 % is finer – (effective size)

D30 = diameter of grain (mm) for which 30 % is finer
Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
D60 = diameter of grain (mm) for which 60 % is finer
Coefficient of uniformity, Cu = D60/D10 - measures spread of particle size

distribution
Coefficient of curvature, Cc = (D30)2/(D60 x D10) - measures slope of the grading

curve
GRADING of coarse-grained soils (gravel and sand):
Well-graded soil (gravel or sand):

Cu > 4 and 1 < Cc < 3 (well-graded gravel)
Cu > 6 and 1 < Cc < 3 (well-graded sand)
Poorly-graded soil: (gravel or sand)

If Cu is small, soil is poorly-graded (uniform)
If C c > 3 or 1< , soil is poorly graded (gapped graded)
100
80
hydrometer sieve
% Passing
60
fines sands gravels
40
D10 = 0.013 mm
20 D
30
D30 = 0.47 mm
D60 = 7.4 mm
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Grain size (mm)
Figure 3.5 Grading Characteristics
Curves can also be used to obtained percentages of gravel, sand and fines (silt
and clay).
For example, for the curve in Figure 3.5:

gravel = (100-46) = 54%
sand = (46-18) = 28%
Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Fine (silt + clay) = (18-0) = 18%
3.6 Consistency of Fine-grained Soils
Atterberg Limits
If we take a very soft (high moisture content) clay specimen and allow it to dry
we would obtain a relation similar to that shown in Figure 3.6.
As the soil dries its strength and stiffness will increase. Three limits are
indicated, the definitions of which are given below. The liquid and plastic
limits appear to be fairly arbitrary, but recent research has suggested they are
related to the strength of the soil.
Volum Decreasing Strength

n
w
Semi-solid/
Semi-plastic
PI
Solid Plastic Liquid
SL PL LL
Moisture Content (%)
Figure 3.6. Volume - Moisture Content relationship for fine-grained soils
• (SL) The Shrinkage Limit - This is the moisture content the soil would have
had if it were fully saturated at the point at which no further shrinkage occurs
on drying.
• (PL) The Plastic Limit - This is the minimum water content at which the soil
will deform plastically (i.e., the soil can be molded)
• (LL) The Liquid Limit - This is the minimum water content at which the soil
will flow under a small disturbing force
• (PI or Ip) The Plasticity Index. This is derived simply from the LL and PL
IP = LL - PL (3)
Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
It measures the range of water within which the soil is plastic.
• (LI) The Liquidity Index - This is defined as
w − PL w − PL
LI = = (4)
LL − PL Ip
where w = the natural moisture content
It tells which state (semi-solid, plastic, or lquid) the soil is at its natural
condition.
The Atterberg Limits and relationships derived from them are simple measures
of the water absorbing ability of soils containing clay minerals. For example, if
a clay has a very high LI and LL it is capable of absorbing large amounts of
water, and for instance would be unsuitable for the base of a pavement. The LL
and PL are also related to the soil strength.
Remember that only the fraction finer than 425 µm is tested in the Atterberg
Tests. If this fraction is only small (that is, the soil contains significant amounts
of sand or gravel) it might be expected that the soil would have better
properties. While this is true to some extent it is important to realise that the
soil behaviour is controlled by the finest 10 - 25 % of the particles.

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Liquid Limit Tests
These tests are only used for the fine-grained fraction (silt and clay) of a soil
(the % passing a 425 µm sieve).
Determination of Liquid Limit (Cone Penetrometer Method)
Figure 3.7 Conepenetrometer

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Figure 3.8 Typical results of Cone Penetration Test

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Determination of Liquid Limit (Casagrande Method)
British Soil Classification System (BSCS)
The standard system used worldwide for most major construction projects is known as
the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). This is based on an original system
devised by Cassagrande. Soils are identified by symbols determined from sieve
analysis and Atterberg Limit tests.
• Coarse Grained Materials
Figure 3.9 Casagrande Method
Figure 3.10 Typical results of Casagrande Mehtod

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
3.7 British Soil Classification System
The standard system discussed here is the British Soil Classification System (BSCS)
which is used in Hong kong. Soils are identified by symbols (Figure 3.11) determined
from sieve analysis and Atterberg Limit tests.
Figure 3.11 Symbols used for BSCS

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Coarse-grained Soils
If more than 65% of the material is coarser than the 60 µm, the soil is classified as
coarse. The following steps are then followed to determine the appropriate symbols
(Primary–prefix and Secondary–suffix).
Steps:
1. Determine the prefix
If more than half of the coarse fraction is sand then use prefix S
If more than half of the coarse fraction is gravel then use prefix G
2. Determine the suffix
This depends on the uniformity coefficient Cu and the coefficient of curvature Cc

obtained from the grading curve, on the percentage of fines, and the type of fines.
First determine the percentage of fines, that is the % of material smaller than the 60
µm.
Then if % fines is
< 5% use W or P (Pu or Pg) as suffix
between 5% and 15% add M or C as suffix in addition to W or P(Pu or Pg)
between 15% and 35% use M or C together with degree of plasticity (L, I, H, V, E)
as suffix and no W or P(Pu or Pg) is required
If W or P are required for the suffix then Cu and Cc must be evaluated
D60
Cu =
D10
D302
Cc =
( D60 × D10 )
If prefix is G then suffix is W if Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 and 3, otherwise use (Pu
or Pg)
If prefix is S then suffix is W if Cu > 6 and Cc is between 1 and 3, otherwise use (Pu
or Pg)
If M or C are required they have to be determined from the procedure used for fine-
grained materials discussed below. Note that M stands for Silt and C for Clay. This is
determined from whether the soil lies above or below the A-line in the plasticity chart
shown in Figure 3.12.

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Fine-grained Soils
These are classified solely according to the results from the Atterberg Limit Tests.
Values of the Plasticity Index and Liquid Limit are used to determine a point in the
plasticity chart shown in Figure 3.12. The classification symbol is determined from the
region of the chart in which the point lies.
Examples CH High plasticity clay

CL Low plasticity clay
MH High plasticity silt
ML Low plasticity silt
Figure 3.12 Plasticity chart for laboratory classification of fine grained soils

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Fine-grained Soils
If more than 35% of the material is finer than the 60 µm, the soil is classified as fine.
The following steps are then followed to determine the appropriate symbols.
Steps:
1. Determine the prefix
If the point (PI, LL) is plotted aboce the “A’-line, the soil is Clay and use symbol C
If the point (PI, LL) is plotted below the “A’-line , the soil is Silt and use symbol M
2. Determine the suffix
This depends on the amount of fine materials and the types of coase materials present
in the soil:
Then If % fines is:

from 65% - 100% use degree of plasticity (L, I, H, V, E) as suffix (no need to
worry the coarse materials)
from 35% - 65%, in addition to plasticity (L, I, H, V, E), add G to the suffix if the
coarse material is Gravel or S if the coarse material is Sand
The complete procedure for BSCS is summarised in Table 3.4

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Table 3.4 British Soil Classfication System (BSCS)

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
The final stage of the classification is to give a description of the soil to go with the
symbol class. For a coarse grained soil this should include:
• the percentages of sand and gravel

• maximum particle size
• angularity
• surface condition
• hardness of the coarse grains
• local or geological name
• any other relevant information
If the soil is undisturbed mention is also required of
• stratification
• degree of compactness
• cementation
• moisture conditions
• drainage characteristics
All information required can be found in the list of reference (GEO Guide 3: Guide to
Soil and Rock Description).

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Example - Classification using BSCS
Classification tests have been performed on a soil sample and the following
grading curve and Atterberg limits obtained. Determine the BSCS classification.
100
80
% Finer
60
40
20
0
0 .0 0 0 1 0 .0 0 1 0 .0 1 0 .1 1 10 100
P a r ti c l e s i z e ( m m )
Given Atterberg limits: Liquid limit LL = 32, Plastic Limit, PL =26
Step 1: Determine the % fines from the grading curve
%fines (% finer than 60 µm) = 10% (<35%, therefore Coarse grained)
Step 2: Determine % of different particle size fractions (to determine G or S), and D10,
D30, D60 from grading curve (to determine W or P)
D10 = 0.06 mm, D30 = 0.25 mm, D60 = 0.75 mm
Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38, and hence Suffix1 = W
Particle size fractions: Gravel 17%

Sand 73%
Silt and Clay 10%
Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S
Step 3: From the Atterberg Test results determine its Plasticity chart location
LL = 32, PL = 26. Hence Plasticity Index Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line, and hence Suffix = M
Step 4: Symbols are SWM (Fines is between 5% to 15%)
Step 5: Complete classification by including a description of the soil

Sept/2009
Rev:09-2-2010
Home Exercises:
1 The results of a sieve analysis on a soil sample are tabulated below.
Sieve 20 10 5 2 1.18 0.6 0.3 0.212 0.15 .063 pan

Size (mm)
Mass 59 38 33 27 30 22 15 17 16 9 40
Retained (g)
LL and PL of the fine portion (<0.063 mm) of the soil has been determined to be 32%
and 24% respectively.
Plot the PSD curve for the soil sample and determine D10, D30, D60, Cu, Cc, the
percentages of gravel, sand and (silt+clay). Classified the soil according to the BSCS
(symbol and description).
2 In a cone penetration test on a soil sample, the following results were recorded:
Test W1 W2 W3 Cone penetration (mm)

1 11.6 21.26 19.03 14.3
2 11.35 21.21 18.77 15.9
3 10.17 19.47 16.96 17.5
4 10.53 19.98 17.14 19.6
5 10.24 20.47 16.96 23.3
where W1 = mass of container (g)
W2 = mass of container and wet soil (g)
W3 = mass of container and soil after oven drying (g)
Determine the liquid limit of the soil sample. Calculate the plasticity index and
liquidity index if the plastic limit was 20 % and the natural moisture content 33 %.
What is the claasification of this soil according to the plasticity chart.
3 The following results were obtained from a liquid limit test using the
Casagrande apparatus:
No. of blows 6 8 12 26 28 31
Water content (%) 53.4 52.5 48.3 40.0 38.8 37.1
(a) Determine the liquid limit of the soil.

(b) If the plasticity limit of the soil was found to be 22 %, determine its
plasticity index and classify the soil.

SOIL MECGANICS AND GEOLOGY Sept 2009
SOIL DENSIY AND COMPACTION
4 SOIL DENSITY AND COMPACTION
Density of a soil provides a measure of the quantity of materials (mass) it contains

related to the amount of space (volume) the materials occupy. The volume here refers
to the volume of soil solid grains plus the volume of voids between grains. [Refer to
Chapter 2 for various states of soil density and the related equations (i.e. bulk density
(ρ ), dry density (ρ ), saturated density (ρ ), submerged density (ρ )].
b d sat sub
In general, the higher its density value, the denser or more compacted the soil is.
4.1 Relative Density
The actual void ratio of a soil lies somewhere between the possible minimum and
maximum values, i.e. emin and emax. In the case of soils without fines (sometimes
referred to as cohesionless, i.e., sands and gravels), a more convenient measure of the
state of compaction is provided by indicating the relationship between the actual void
ratio, e and the two extremes emin and emax that these soils can attain. Such an
indication is termed the Density Index (Id) or sometimes referred to as Relative
Density (D ). R
emax − e
Id =
emax − emin
where e is the current voids ratio,

emax, emin are the maximum and minimum voids ratios measured in the laboratory from
Standard Tests. (See appendix 1 for determination of emax and emin.)
Note that if e = emin, Id = 1 and the soil is in its densest state

e = emax, Id = 0 and the soil is in its loosest state
Table 3.1 Relative Compaction States for cohesionless soils
Density 0-15 15-35 35-65 65-85 85-100

Index (%)
State of Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very Dense
Compaction
Page 1 of 27
The expression for Density Index can also be written in terms of the dry density associated
with the various voids ratios. From the definitions we have
Gs ρ w
e= −1
ρd
and hence
1 1
−
ρd min
ρy ρ d (ρ d − ρ d )
max min
Id = =
1 1 ρ d (ρ d − ρ d min )
− max
ρd min
ρd max
Note that you cannot determine the density from knowing Id. This is because the values of the
maximum and minimum dry densities (void ratios) can vary significantly. They depend on
soil type (mineralogy), the particle grading, and the angularity.
Page 2 of 27
4.2 Field Measurement of Soil Density
4.2.1 Sand Rreplacement Method (Sand Pouring Cylinder Method)
For cohesionless soils, the Sand Replacement Method is used –Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1 Sand Pouring Cylinder
Page 3 of 27
Equipment (see Figure 4.1):
• A pouring cylinder filled to within 15 mm of the top with uniform fine standard
sand with diameter of grains between 0.3 mm to 0.6 mm. (The cylinder should
have a shutter to allow the sand to fall through into the cone-shaped space.)
• Tool for excavating holes in ground, consisting of a steel dipper and spoon, and a
scraper for making the ground level.
• A metal tray about 300 mm square with a hole in the centre, 100 mm in diameter
• A glass plate
• A calibrating container 100 mm in diameter and 150 mm deep
The procedures involves digging a hole in the ground and removing a known mass of
soil from the hole, and filling the hole with standard sand of known density. The
volume of the hole can then be calculated from the mass of the replacing standard sand
used (since the sand density is known). Knowing the volume of the hole and the mass
of soil removed, the bulk density can be calculated. The dry density can also be
calculated after obtaining the water content.
Test Procedures
Detailed test details are described below:
Calibration of Density of Standard Sand
Step 1:
• Determine the mass of the cone of sand formed on the glass plate (Figure 4.2).
Make several determinations and take the mean value.
• Determine the volume of the calibrating container (Vc) by measuring its dimension,
or by filling it with water (the volume of the container is equal to the mass of water
required to fill the container divided by the density of water).
Figure 4.2 Measuring Mass of Sand Cone on Glass Plate
Page 4 of 27
Step2:
• Fill the calibrating container with sand from the pouring cylinder (Figure 4.3). The
mass of sand filling the container is found by subtracting the mass of sand in the
cone. This calibration is repeated several times and the mean value is taken.
• From the mass of sand filling the calibrating container and the volume of the
calibrating container, the density of the standard sand is determined.
Figure 4.3 Filling the Calibrating Cylinder

Field Test
Step 3:
• The test area is scraped level and the metal tray with the central hole is placed on
the levelled area.
• A hole in the ground with the same diameter as the hole in the tray is dug to a
depth of 150 mm. The excavated soil is placed in a sealed container immediately
and is taken to the laboratory where it is weighed and the moisture contained
determined.
• The pouring cylinder, which is filled to within 15 mm of the top with standard sand,
is placed on the template over the excavated hole. The shutter is opened and the
sand is allowed to fill the excavated hole (Figure 4.4). By difference, the mass of
standard sand filling the excavated hole can be found.
Figure 4.4 Filling Excavated Hole in Soil
Page 5 of 27
Calculation:
(a) mass of sand to fill calibrating cylinder (ma):
ma = m1 - m2 - m3
where m1 = mass of cylinder and sand before pouring into calibration container
m2 = mass of sand in the cone
m3 = mass of the cylinder and sand after pouring into the calibration container
(b) the bulk density of the standard sand (ρsand) is calculated by:
ρsand = ma / Va
where Va = the volume of the calibrating container
(c) the mass of sand required to fill the excavated hole (mb) is calculated by:
mb = m4 - m5 - m2
where m4 = mass of cylinder and sand before pouring into the excavated hole
m5 = mass of cylinder and sand after pouring into the excavated hole
(d) the bulk density of the soil (ρb) is calculated by:
ρb = (mt/mb) x ρsand
where mt = mass of soil (total mass) excavated

mb = mass of sand required to fill the excavated hole
(e) the dry density (ρ ) is calculated by:

d
ρd = ρb / (1 + w) or ρd = (md/ mb) x ρsand
where w = moisture content

md = mass of dry soil excavated
Page 6 of 27
4.2.2 Core Cutter Method
For cohesive soils, the Core cutter method is used (Figure 4.5).
• drive a steel cylinder (of known weight and volume), with a hardened
cutting edge, into the ground using a steel rammer and protective dolly
• dug out the cutter and trim the soil flush at each end
• weigh the whole cylinder with soil to determine the mass of the soil and its
bulk density
• if the water content is also determined, the dry density can also be calculated
Figure 4.6 Core Cutter
Page 7 of 27
4.2.3 Nuclear Method
In this method, both the bulk density and water content may be determined
simultaneously. The method is quick and non-destructive. There are variations in this
method depending on the depth of the soil to be measured. The apparatus (Figure 4.7)
consists of a portable box with two radio-active sources at its base. One source emits
gamma rays for density measurement and the other emits fast-moving neutrons for
moisture content measurement. Dense soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil and
the readings reflect overall density. Water content can also be read, all within a few
minutes.
Figure 4.7 Nuclear Meter
Page 8 of 27
Procedures
Measuring Density
• Position the box well seated on ground to minimize air gaps at the soil interface.
• Emitted gamma rays penetrate the soil and are reflected back (back scatter). The
intensity of the back scatter varies directly with the density of the soil.
• Geiger-Muller tubes detect the scatter and translate the count-rate or intensity of
detected radiation into a direct reading showing the soil density in kg/m3. (Using
standard blocks, the Geiger-Muller tubes are precalibrated, the typical range
covered by the meter is 1,100 to 2,700 kg/m3.)
• The meter is calibrated in the laboratory by using several materials, such as
limestone and granite grains, which are made into blocks with different densities
that fall within the ranges expected for the soil to be tested. The meter is adjusted
so that the density reading corresponding with the known density of the standard
blocks.
Measuring Moisture Content

• Fast-moving neutrons from a source at the base of the instrument penetrate the soil.
• Collision of the fast-moving neutrons with the hydrogen ions in soil water has the
effect of slowing the neutrons down more effectively than collision with heavier
atoms in the soil.
• The intensity of the back scatter of slow-moving neutrons is directly related to the
hydrogen concentration and therefore the water content of the soil.
• A boron-trifluoride-coated tube, which is a slow neutron detector, is used to detect
the reflected neutrons.
• The neutron count-rate is translated directly by the meter into water content in
kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3) over a range usually of 0 - 800 kg/m3.
• The instrument is pre-calibrated with samples of known water content.
Page 9 of 27
4.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of different density measuring methods
The advantages and disadvantage of the three different methods (Sand Replacement,
Core Cutter and Nuclear Meter) are summarized in Table4.1.
Table 4.1 Comparison of different methods
Sand Cone Core Cutter Nuclear Meter
* Fast * Fast
* Deep sample * Easy to redo
* Large sample
Advantages * Under pipe * More tests (statistical
* Accurate
haunches reliability)
* Destructive * Non-destructive
* Many steps
* Large area required
* Small Sample * No sample
* Slow
* No gravel * Radiation
Disadvantages * Halt Equipment
* Sample not always * Moisture suspect
* Tempting to accept
retained * Encourages amateurs
flukes
* Distructive
* Miscalibrated
* Void under plate
* Overdrive * Rocks in path
* Sand bulking
Errors * Rocks in path * Surface preparation
* Sand compacted
* Plastic soil required
* Soil pumping
* Backscatter
Cost * Low * Low * High
Page 10 of 27
4.3 COMPACTION OF SOIL
4.3.1 What is compaction?
A simple ground improvement technique, where the soil is made dense through
external mechanical compactive effort.
Compactive
Effort
+ WATER =
What are done to the soil in compaction?
• Solid gains are brought closer together, therefore, soil is denser

• Decrease in air void volume only
• No change in water volume
air
air
water water
soil soil
solid solid
Before Addition of After

Compactive
Effort Page 11 of 27
4.3.2 Why is compaction done? (Purposes)
• To increase the shear strength and therefore the bearing capacity of the soil.
• To make the soil less susceptible to subsequent volume changes and therefore
less settlement under load or under the influence of vibration.
• To reduce the void ratio of the soil such that the soil will absorb less water
(water is no good to fine-grained soil).
• Reduction in the void ratio also decreases the permeability of the soil (water
not easy to go through).
• Compaction can prevent the build up of large water pressures that cause soil
to liquefy during earthquakes
4.3.3 How is compaction done?
By Pressure (adding load on the soil)

By Vibration (shaking the soil)
By Impact (pounding the soil)
Dynamic Compaction (dropping heavy weights onto the soil)
Vibroflotation
4.3.4 What factors affect the effectiveness of compaction?
• the nature and type of soil (i.e., sand or clay, uniform or well graded, plastic or
non-plastic)
• the moisture content at the time of placing of soil
• the type of compaction plant used
• the maximum possible state of compaction attainable for the soil
• the maximum amount of compaction effort attainable under field conditions
4.3.5 Laboratory compaction tests
The laboratory compaction test is done to:
assess the suitability of the soil for the proposed purposes

assess the acceptability of field compaction work (as a field compaction control)
There are several types of test which can be used to study the compactive properties of
soils. Because of the importance of compaction in most earth works standard
procedures have been developed. These generally involve compacting soil into a
mould at various moisture contents. One of the three standard laboratory tests shown
in Table 4.2 is used for this purpose (the most common one is the Proctor test).
Page 12 of 27
Table 4.2 Standard Laboratory Compaction Tests
Proctor Test Modified AASHTO Test Vibrating Hammer

BS Desigation 2.5 kg method 4.5 kg method Vibrating Hammer
Soil: quantity 5 kg 5 kg 25 kg
Size 20 mm 20 mm 37.5 mm
Hammer:(Mass) 2.5 kg 4.5 kg --
(Face dia.) 50 mm 50 mm --
(Drop) 300 mm 450 mm --
Mould: (Volume) 1000 cm3 1000 cm3 2305 cm3
(Internal dia.) 105 mm 105 mm 152 mm
(Height) 115.5 mm 115.5 mm 127 mm
No. of layers: 3 5 3
No. of blows: 27 27 Vibrated for 60 s
Energy/Force 600 kN/m3 2700 kN/m3 300-400 N
Handle
collar (mould
extension)
Metal guide to control

drop of hammer
Cylindrical
soil mould
Hammer for
compacting soil
Base plate
Figure 4.8 Standard Proctor Mold
Page 13 of 27
4.3.6 Presentation of laboratory compaction test results
To assess the degree of compaction it is important to use the dry density, ρ , because d
we are interested in the mass of solid soil particles in a given volume, not the total
mass per unit volume (which is the bulk density). From the relationships derived
previously we have:
M T M S + M w M S + wM S M S (1 + w)
ρ b= = = = = ρ d (1 = w)
VT VT VT VT
ρb
ρ d=
Hence, (1 + w) where the water content w is in actual value (not %)
This allows us to plot the variation of dry density with water content, giving the typical
response shown in Figure 4.9 below. From this graph we can determine the optimum
water content, w , for the maximum dry density, (ρ ) .
opt d max
(γρdry)
Dry Density ρd
d(max)
Dry unit weight
max
wopt
mopt
Moisture content
Water Content, w
Figure 4.9 Typical Compaction Test Result
If the soil were to contain a constant percentage, A, of voids containing air where
Va
Av = (AV in actual value, not %)
Vt
writing V as V - V - V we obtain
a T w s
Page 14 of 27
V w +V s
1 − AV =
Vt
then a theoretical relationship between ρ and w for a given value of A can be derived
d V
as follows
ρb W s +W w (W s +W w )(1− AV )
ρd = = =
1+ w VT (1+ w) (V s +V w )(1+ w)
Ms Mw wM s
Now V s = and Vw = =
Gs ρ w ρw ρw
 Gs ρ w 
Hence ρ d =   (1 − AV )
1 + wG s 
If the percentage of air voids is zero, that is, the soil is totally saturated, then this
equation becomes
 Gs ρ w 
ρd =  
1 + wG s 
From this equation we see that there is a limiting dry density for any water content and
this occurs when the voids are full of water. Increasing the water content for a
saturated soil will result in a reduction in dry density. The relation between the water
content and dry density for saturated soil is shown on the Figure 4.10. This line is
known as the zero air voids line.
ze
r o-
a ir
-v
weightρd
oi
ds
Dry Density
lin
e
Dry unit
M oisture content
Water Content, w
Figure 4.10 Typical compaction curve showing zero-air-voids line
Page 15 of 27
4.3.7 Effects of water content on compaction
As water is added to a soil (at low water content) it becomes easier for the particles to
move past one another during the application of the compacting forces. As the soil
compacts the voids are reduced and this causes the dry density to increase. Initially, as
the water content increases so does the dry density. However, the increase cannot
occur indefinitely because the soil state approaches the zero air voids line which gives
the maximum dry density for a given water content. Thus as the state approaches the
zero air voids line further water content increases must result in a reduction in dry
density. As the state approaches the zero air voids line a maximum dry density is
reached and the water content at this maximum dry density is called the optimum
water content.
4.3.8 Effects of increasing compactive effort
Increased compactive effort enables greater dry density to be achieved and because of
the shape of the zero air voids line this must occur at a lower optimum water content.
The effect of increasing compactive energy can be seen in Figure 4.11. It should be
noted that for water contents greater than the optimum the use of heavier compaction
machinery will have only a small effect on increasing dry density. For this reason it is
important to have good control over water content during compaction of soil layers in
the field.
ze
inc re a s ing c o m p a c tiv e ro
- ai
Dry Density ρd
e ne rg y r-v
oi
weight
ds
lin
e
Dry unit
M oisture content
Water Content, w
Figure 4.11 Effects of compactive effort on compaction curves
It can be seen from this figure that the compaction curve is not a unique soil
characteristic. It depends on the compaction energy. For this reason it is important that
other then giving the values of (ρ ) and w it is important to also specify the
d max opt
compaction procedure (for example, standard or modified).
Page 16 of 27
4.3.9 Effects of soil type
Table 4.3 below shows typical values for the different soil types obtained from the
Standard Compaction Test.
Table 4.3 Typical compaction results on different soil types.
Typical Values
(ρ ) (kN/m )
d max
3
w (%) opt
Well graded sand 22 7

SW
Sandy clay 19 12
SWC
Poorly graded sand 18 15
SP
Low plasticity clay 18 15
CL
Non plastic silt 17 17
ML
High plasticity clay 15 25
CH
It can be seen that compaction is more effective on well-graded soils (compared with
poorly graded) and coarse-grained soils (compared with fine-grained soils).
4.3.10 Field Compression
Compaction by Pressure
This method is used in the field on construction sites and consists of moving heavy
vehicles and plants over loosely-dumped soil to close its void spaces. Different types
of rolling equipment are used in the field according to the nature of the soil and the
weight of plant deemed necessary.
Smooth-wheel roller Pneumatic-tyred roller
Page 17 of 27
Grid-roller Sheeps-foot roller
Compaction by Vibration
Compaction by vibrating the soil is usually used in loose granular soils such as sands
and gravels. As the compaction plant vibrated under pressure, the soil densifies and
its void spaces decrease. Various vibratory plants are available, e.g., vibration plate,
vibratory roller, vibratory compactor, vibrotamper.
Vibration plate Vibratory roller
Compaction by Impact
The ground is pounded by a heavy rammer.
Rammer
Page 18 of 27
Impact Roller
Dynamic Compaction
- pounding the ground by a heavy weight

Suitable for granular soils, land fills
and karst terrain with sink holes.
solution cavities in
Pounder (Tamper) limestone
Crater created by the impact

(to be backfilled)
Page 19 of 27
Pounder (Tamper)
Mass = 5-30 tonne
Drop = 10-30 m
Page 20 of 27
Vibroflotation
vibrator makes hole ..and ..backfilling and

a hole in the backfilled compacted compaction
weak ground with sand repeated until
hole is filled
Practiced in several forms:

vibro–compaction
stone columns
vibro-replacement
Vibroflot (vibrating unit)

Length = 2 – 3 m
Diameter = 0.3 – 0.5 m
Mass = 2 tonnes
(lowered into the ground
and vibrated)
Page 21 of 27
Forming the hole.
Page 22 of 27
Backfilling with sand and compact.
Page 23 of 27
Repeat until hole is filled.
Page 24 of 27
4.3.11 Field specifications
To control the soil properties of earthwork (e.g. dams, roads) it is usual to specify that
the soil must be compacted to some pre-determined dry unit weight. This specification
is usually that a certain percentage of the maximum dry density, as found from a
laboratory test (Standard or Modified) must be achieved.
For example we could specify that field dry densities must be greater than 98% of the
maximum dry unit weight as determined from the Standard Compaction Test and that
the water content must be a certain amount above or below the optimum. It is then up
to the Contractor to select machinery, the thickness of each lift (layer of soil added)
and to control water contents in order to achieve the specified amount of compaction.
Accept Accept
Reject
Dry unit weight
Dry unit weight
Reject
Moisture content Moisture content

(a) (b)
Figure 4.12 Possible field specifications for compaction
The dry density achieved in the field after compaction then must be compared with the
maximum value obtained in the laboratory in order to assess the specified standard.
The required standard may be specified in terms of the relative compaction:
achieved ρ d(field)
Relative Compaction (RC) = x 100%
maximum ρ d ( lab )
Page 25 of 27
Home Exercise
A British Standard compaction test (Proctor test) was conducted on a fill soil
and the following data were collected:
GS = 2.70
Water Content (%) 5 8 10 13 16 19
Bulk Density (kg/m3) 1870 2040 2130 2200 2160 2090
Dry Density (kg/m3)
Dry Density (kg/m3, AV = 0%)
(a) Calculate the dry density for each test and plot the graph of dry density
against water content, and from it determine the maximum dry density
and optimum moisture content.
(b) On the same graph, draw the dry density/water content curve for zero air
voids. Also determine the air void ratio at the maximum dry density.
(c) The fill was then compacted to form a road embankment. A Sand
Pouring Cylinder test was then conducted to measure the dry density of
the compacted fill with data as follow:
Mass of compacted fill removed from the hole 1.914 kg

Mass of compacted fill after oven drying 1.664 kg
Mass of sand-pouring cylinder before filling the hole with sand 3.426 kg
Mass of sand-pouring cylinder after filling the hole with sand 1.594 kg
Density of pouring sand 1450 kg/m3
Mass of sand in the cone of the sand-pouring cylinder 0.248 kg
The specifications require that the water content may vary above and below the
optimum value by ±3 % only and that a Relative Compaction of 97% must be
achieved. Determine therefore if the field compaction satisfied the
specifications.
Page 26 of 27
Appendix 1
Determination of emax and emin
Determination of e max
• place a mould (mass = M1 and volume = V1) under water and quickly pour soil into
it from just above the top
• strike off level the soil surface and determine the mass of mould+water+soil (M2)
M2 - M1 (G s + e max ) ρ w
ρ sat (min) = =
V1 1 + e max
G s ρ w - ρ sat (min) e max

∴ e max = and n max =
ρ sat (min) - ρ w 1 + e max
Determination of e min
• place a standard compaction mould (mass = M3 and volume =V3) under water
• place the soil in the mould in three layers of approximately equal thickness, each of
the layer is compacted using a vibrating hammer
• strike off level the soil surface and determine the mass of mould+soil+water (M4)
M4 - M3 (G s + e min ) ρ w
ρ sat (max) = =
V3 1 + e min
G s ρ w - ρ sat (max) e min

∴ e min = and n min =
ρ sat (max) - ρ w 1 + e min
Page 27 of 27
SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOLOGY Oct 2009
GROUND WATER Dr.Paul Ho
5 GROUND WATER
5.1 Formation of Ground Water
Water commonly gets into the soils and rocks when surface precipitation (rain or snow)
percolates (move downwards) through the interconnecting channels made by the voids in
soils or the cracks in rocks. It is then termed ground water.
Figure 5.1 Formation of ground water
5.2 Aquifer and Aquiclude
A body of soil or rock which holds ground water and allows water to move through itself is
called an aquifer; the opposite of an aquifer is an aquiclude (Figure 2).
Figure 5.2 Aquifer and aquiclude
1 of 7
5.3 Types and Zones of Ground Water
In soil, there are two types of ground water and they occur in distinct zones separated by the
water table or ground water level or phreatic surface (Figure 3). Ground water level
(symbol g.w.l.) or phreatic surface is the top level of saturation of a body of soil.
Types of ground water
(a) Phreatic or Gravitational water, which::

is subject to gravity forces
saturates the pore spaces (voids) in the soil below the water table
has a positive internal pore pressure (i.e., greater the atmospheric pressure)
tends to flow laterally.
(b) Vardose water, which :

may be transient percolating water moving down to join the phreatic surface (or water
table).
may be capillary water held above the water table by surface tension having a negative
internal pore pressure
Figure 5.3 Zones of ground water
2 of 7
Zones of ground water
(a) Saturated Zone: the top surface is at atmospheric pressure and is known as the water
table or the phreatic surface. Below this surface the soil is saturated with water subject
to positive hydrostatic pressure.
(b) Aeration zone: this zone is subdivided into 3 subzones.

Immediately above the phreatic surface, the soil remains saturated with water due
to capillary action which holds water below atmospheric pressure. Hence, the
pressure in the pore (or pore water pressure) is negative.
Above the capillary saturated one is a partially saturated subzone where water is
held by capillary action (surface tension) and absorption.
The top subzone occurs only when there is continuous upward evaporation and/or
downward percolation.
5.4 Unconfined Aquifer and Confined Aquifer
Unconfined aquifer
The surface water usually moves downwards through the void channels of a layer of pervious
(permeable) soil or rock to the top level of saturation or the ground water level (Figure 5.4).
An aquifer fed by direct downward percolation which establishes a water table is called an
unconfined aquifer. Water will normally fill a pit or borehole to the level of the ground
water table.
Aquifer
Impermeable layer
Figure 5.4 Unconfined aquifer
3 of 7
Confined Aquifer
An aquifer, which is sandwiched between two impermeable layers of soil or rock, is fed
with water from a source at some distance away is termed a confined aquifer. Water in a
confined aquifer is often subject to the pressure (artesian pressure) of a head of water higher
than the ground level immediately above and, if tapped by a cased borehole, a column of
water will rise above the ground surface level The level to which the water will rise in such a
situation is known as the piezometric surface or piezometric level. (Note that there is no
water table inside a confined aquifer.)
Aquifer
Figure 5.5 Confined aquifer
5.5 Pore Water Pressure
The water in an aquifer, whether confined or unconfined, has pressure at any point due to the
head of water above it. Since the water is in the void spaces in the soil or rock, i.e., in the
pores, this pressure (shown diagrammatically by the manometers in Figure 5.6) is known as
the pore water pressure (symbol u).
4 of 7
Pore water pressure at A

u = h1 γw
(a) Unconfined aquifer
Pore water pressure at B

u = h2 γw
(b) Confined aquifer
Figure 5.6 Pore Water Pressure in confined and unconfined aquifers
5 of 7
Positive Pore Water Pressure
Normally, water pressure increases positively with depth below the ground water level (g.w.l.)
as shown in Figure 5.7.
Pore water pressure at A

u = h1 γw
u
Figure 5.7 Normal increase of pore water pressure with depth
In some soils, particularly those with very small void spaces, the top of saturated (g.w.l.) is
modified by the surface tension effect of the very small channels formed by the
interconnecting pores. This is demonstrated by a simple experiment as shown in Figure 5.8.
Aabove the ground water leveling a soil, where it is partially saturated, the narrow channels
formed by interconnecting small voids act like a system of capillary tubes which suck up
water by surface tension. This phenomenon is termed soil suction.
Pore water pressure

u =- h γw
Figure 5.8 capillary rises due to surface tension and resulting pressure distribution
6 of 7
Monitoring (Measurement)of ground Water Level
Where normal positive water pressure exists below the water table it may be measured by the
use of instruments called standpipe and piezometer. (Negative pore water pressure is
measured using a tensiometer.)
Figure 5.9shows a typical standpipe and an open-hydraulic poezometer which are commonly
used in Hong Kong.
7 of 7
6 GROUND WATER FLOW
6.1 Introduction
The flow of water through soil is termed seepage and the soil property that governs seepage is
permeability (or hydraulic conductivity). Seepage is important in soil engineering, for
example:
The permeability of the soil of which an earth or rock-filled dam is constructed controls
the rate of loss of water through dam from the reservoir.
Soil Permeability controls the rate of foundation settlement on some soils.
Soil permeability influences the flow of water into or out of a slope cutting, which, in
turn, controls the strength of the soil at the sides of the cutting.
Soil permeability influences the flow of water out of a barrier, which in turn, controls the
rate of pollution transport.
6.2 Permeable and impermeable soils
Permeable soil: Water can easily flow through a soil in which the void spaces are numerous,
large and well connected. In such case the rate of flow is fast and the soil is said to be
permeable. Gravels and sands are examples of permeable soils.
Impermeable soil: If the flow of water in a soil is almost non-existent because the void
spaces are sparse, minute and not well connected, the soil is said to be impermeable. Clays
are examples of impermeable soils.
6.3 The mechanics of seepage
The void spaces in all soils are connected. The driving power which forces the water to
flow through interconnected voids from one point to another, against the frictional resistance
of the soil grain surfaces is the energy differences between the two points. This energy
difference is usually described equivalently in terms of a difference in energy head of water
or hydraulic head (symbol H). The unit is usually in meter (m)
Larger energy head
Difference
L in Head = H
Smaller energy head
Figure 6.1 Water through interconnected voids in a soil
For example, in Figure 7.1:

Water flows from point A to point B because the energy (or energy head of water) at A is
greater than B, and it is the head difference (H) between A and B that provides the
driving force.
The energy decreases when going from A to B because energy is used up in overcoming
the frictional resistance of the soil grain surfaces. That is, there is a head loss when the
water flows through the soil from one point to another.
The actual flow path from A to B is through the interconnected voids of the soil, at
varying velocity along the path. In seepage studies, the water is considered to flow
directly from A to B along the effective flow path (such as A-B) at some effective
velocity (average velocity). This velocity is small for soils (the maximum value being
0.6 m/sec) even in very permeable soils.
If the distance between A and B is L and the energy head difference (or head loss)
between A (higher head) and B (lower head) is H, the ratio (H/L) is known as the
hydraulic gradient (i). A large I value means a large driving force to move the water.
The rate of water flow through a soil may be described by Darcy’s Law
6.4 Energy head
In fluid mechanics, it is usual to express energy in terms of an equivalent head of water (or
height of water), the energy generated by a certain column height of water. According to
Bernoulli’s Equation, the total head (ht) of a fluid particle at a point consists of three
components:
u v2
ht = hz + + (1)
γw 2g
where ht = total head

hz = elevation head (measured from the datum and is positive if it is above the
datum)
u
= pressure head (positive if pressure is positive,i.e., larger than
γw
atmospheric pressure)
v2
= velocity head (v = velocity)
2g
For fluid through soil, the fluid velocity is usually too small to be of any significant
contribution to the total energy head and therefore velocity head is neglected, hence:
u
ht = hz + and is usually rewrote as ht = he + h p (2)
γw
where he = hz = elevation head

hp = pressure head
Since both elevation head he and pressure head hp contribute to the total head ht, it is the
difference in total head (which is usually termed hydraulic head H) between the two points
that causes water flow. The concept is illustrated in Figure 7.2.
H
Figure 6.2 Calculation of total head
Total head at X ht (X) = elevation head at X he(X) + pressure head at X hp(X)

= z 1 + h1
Total head at Y ht (Y) = elevation head at Y he(Y) + pressure head at Y hp(Y)

= z 1 + h1
Total head difference between A and B = ht (X) - ht (Y) = (z1 + h1) + (z2 + h2) = H
Again H is the hydraulic head.
Points to note:
Flow between two points occurs only when there is a difference in total head.
Any elevation can be selected for the datum as a basis for determining the elevation
head; but once chosen it can not be changed. It is only the difference in total head is
of interest..
Example - Calculation of Head
Static water table 2m

1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
Figure 6.3 Calculation of head using different datums
Fig 2 Calculation of head using different datum

(Datum at the top of the impermeable layer)
1. Calculation of Head at P
ht(P) = he(P) + hp(P) = 1 + 4 = 5 m
2. Calculation of Head at X
ht(X) = he(X) + hp(X) = 4 + 1 = 5 m
There is a static water table and the total head is constant throughout the saturated zone.
(Datum at the water table)
1. Calculation of Head at P
ht(P) = he(P) + hp(P) = 0 + 0 = 0 m
2. Calculation of Head at X
ht(X) = he(X) + hp(X) = (-1) + 1 = 0 m
When there is a static water table the head is constant throughout the saturated zone, but its
numerical value depends on the choice of datum. It is very important to carefully define the
datum. The use of imaginary standpipes can be helpful in visualising head. The head is then
given by the height of the water in the standpipe above the datum. Note also that it is
differences in head (not pressure) that cause flow
More examples:
In some cases, it is more convenient to first determine the elevation head and the total head
and back calculate the pressure head. The following two examples illustrate the procedures.
Figure 6.4 Downward flow
Figure 6.5 Upward flow

6.5 Darcy’s law
The flow of water through soil was first studied by Darcy in 1850s using a setup similarto
that shown in Figure 7.6. The soil examined was a sandymaterial.
Figure 6.6 Darcy’s experiment setup
Darcy’s experiment results indicated the following relationship:
Q h − h4
q= =k 3 A = k ⋅i ⋅ A (3)
t L
where q = flow rate (volume/time, m3/s)

Q = volume of flow collected in time t (volume, m3)
t = time required to collect Q
k = a constant known as coefficient of permeability (m/s)
h3 = the height above any datum the water rises in a standpipe at the entrance end of
the soil sample (m)
h4 = the height above the same datum the water rises in a standpipe at the exit end of
the soil sample (m)
L = length between the standpipes (m)
A = cross-sectional area of the sample perpendicular to the direction of flow (m2)
(h3 – h4) = total head difference = hydraulic head H (m)
(h3 − h4 )
i= = hydraulic gradient (dimensionless)
L
6.6 Flow velocity
Equation (3) may be rewritten as:
q Q
= = k ⋅i ⋅ (4)
A t⋅A
Referring to Figure 7.6, v is the velocity of downward movement of a drop of water from
position 1 to position 2. Thisvelocity is numerically equal to (k i). Hence k can be
interpreted as the velocity orsuperficial velocity for a hydraulic gradient of unity (i,e., i = 1).
v
So, k = or k = v (for i = 1) (5)
i
From position 3 to position 4 in Figure 7.6, a drop of water flows

at a faster rate than it does from position 1 to position 2 because
the average area of flow channel is reduced (Figure 7.7); but still
continuity must be satisfied, therefore:
q = v A = v s Av
Fig 6.7 Seepage velocity
 A  AL  V  v
∴ v s = v  = v   = v T  = (6)
 Av   Av L   Vv  n
v k ⋅i
or v s = = (7)
n n
where vs = seepage velocity

Av = air void ratio
VT = volume of sample (total volume)
Vv =volume of void
N =porosity
Note that both v and vs are fictitious (imaginary) quantities, but they can both be used to
compute the time required for water to move a given distance in soil.
6.7 Range of coefficient of permeability of soils
Because of the very large differences between grain sizes, density of packing and mixing
possibilities in natural soils, the values of coefficient of permeability for natural soils cover a
wide range. Figure 7.8 shows the range of values together with recommended methods for
the laboratory determination of the coefficient of permeability of particular soils.
Figure 6.8 Coefficient of permeability for various natural soils

6.8 Relationship between void ratio and permeability for coarse-grained soils
Gravels and sands have high values of coefficient of permeability. However, it is often
difficult to obtain samples of these types of sols in the field with disturbing their structure.
Once taken out their structure is changed and thire permeability property changes also.
Because of this reason, samples of these types of soils are usually tested from a loose state to
a dense state which covers the natural values.
The coefficient of permeability of coarse-grained soils are then determined at different void
ratios. (The respective void ratios can be determined by finding the densities and water
contents of the sample when saturated while knowing the specific gravity of the soil solid
grains.)
A graph of void ratio (e) against the corresponding permeability values (k) in log10 scale is
plotted. The resulting plot is a straight line as shown in Figure 7.9. Knowing the in-situ
void ratio (e) the corresponding (k) can be determined.
Figure 6.9 Example of the relationship between void ratio (e) and coefficient of
permeability log10(k) for coarse-grained soil
6.9 Laboratory measurement of coefficient of permeability for coarse-grained soils
(constant-head permeability test)
For coarse-grained soils with high permeability (> 1 x10-3 m/s), water can be allowed to flow
through easily under a constant driving head. The rate of flow can then be measured under
standard conditions (e.g., 1 m of head and 0.1 m test length of sample) in a reasonably short
period of time. In this case, a Constant-head permeaneter (Figure 7.10) is used to
determine the coefficient f permeability.
Q Figure 6.10 Constant-head permeameter
Maintain a constant head of water (hp) at the bottom of the sample by using an
overflow system.
Measure the head loss (H) through the test length (L) of the soil sample using two
H
manometers, M1 and M2, and calculate i =
L
Measure the time (t) required to collect a fixed volume of water (Q) flowing out.
Calculate the area (A) of the soil sample based on the known (measured) dimensions
of the permeability.
Q
Calculate the coefficient of permeability (k) by Darcy’s law: k =
t ⋅i ⋅ A
Repeat the test using various hp. Similar permeability values should be obtained.
6.10 Laboratory measurement of coefficient of permeability for fine-grained soils
(falling-head permeability test)
Sampling: Fine-grained soils (silts and clays) are more easily sampled in the field and
samples are taken with a clay cutter.
Figure 6.11 Sampling with a clay cutter
Push the clay cutter bottom into the ground

Removing the caly cutter from the ground
Trim flat the top and end of the sample
Attach the sample to the variable permeameter setup as shown in Figure 7.12
Figure 6.12 Falling-head permeameter

Test procedures
Open the tap connection to the water supply (Tap 1) while making sure that (Tap 2) is closed.
Leave Tap 1 on until the sample is saturated.
Open Tap 2 on the standpipe and allow the water level in the standpipe to rise almost to the
top of the graduated scale.
Close Tap 1 and allow the water in the standpipe to flow out through the sample under its
own head.
As soon as the water level in the standpipe starts to drop, start a stop watch or clock and
record the level every 10seconds.
Allow the water level in the standpipe o drop to just above Tap 2and then close the tap.
Calculation
From the data recorded, the coefficient of permeability can be determine as follow
a L h a log h − log10 h2
k= ⋅ ⋅ 2.3 log10 1 (8) or k= ⋅ L ⋅ 2.3 10 1 (9)
A t h2 A t 2 − t1
where k =coefficient of permeability

a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe
A= cross-sectional area of the soil sample
L = length of soil sample
T = time interval during which the head changes from h1 to h2 (This can rewritten
as (t2 – t1).
h1, h2 = level of water in the standpipe at tines t1 & t2
log10 h1 − log10 h2
In equation (9) the unknown is , log10 h1 − log10 h2
t 2 − t1
it is usual to plot a graph of (log10 h) t 2 − t1
Log10 h1
against (t), which is a straight line.
The slope of the straight lie curve is the value of the term
log10 h1 − log10 h2
as follow.
t 2 − t1
Log10 h2
6.11 Coefficient of permeability and fluid (water) temperature
The value of the coefficient of permeability of a soil also depends on the viscosity of the
water flowing through it. The viscosity is in turn a function of temperature. It is usual to
report the coefficient of permeability at any temperature (kT˚C) can be corrected to a
coefficient of permeability at 20˚C by using Figure 7.13 below
Home exercises
(1) Given the following data from a constant-head permeability test, compute the
coefficient of permeability k in m/s at 20˚C.
Volume of water collected from the permeameter = 0.035 m3

Time for collection = 550 seconds
Head difference as shown on the manometers = 2.2m
Length of sample over which head difference was indicated = 0.21 m
Diameter of sample = 0.1 m
Temperature of water = 25˚C
(2) In a falling-head pemeameter test the initial head of 1.5 m dropped to 0.5 m in 2.5
hours. The diameter of the standpipeis6 mm. The soil sample was 210mmlong by 105mm
diameter. Determine the coefficient of the soil.
7 EFFECTIVE STRESS, CRITICAL HYDRAULIC GRADIENT,
QUICK CONDITION AND FILTER DESIGN
7.1 TQtal Stress and Effrctive Stress
a cylinder of dry homogeneous soil with a as shown in

7.1. The cylinder of soil sits in the at a depth H below
Soil
Enlarged view
~~$~~:-::::.:r of soil grains
LL~~:,;...::.:.';';';":'~---"""'" Cross-sectional area "A"
. Considered to be a plane surface
between soil particles.
Fig. 7.1 Vertical stress in a dry soil
Let H = the depth of the cylinder

A = the cross-sectional area of the cylinder
W = the total weight of the soil particles in the cylinder
Yd = the dry unit weight of the soil in the cylinder
The downward pressure or stress created by the dry soil cylinder at depth H is
equal to WIA.
W/A = Yd H = 0-'
where cr' = effective vertical stress or intergranular pressure
7.1
Now suppose the same cylinder of soil contains a ground water level, as shown
in Fig.
--- ---
H
, ' I • , • < "
,
,
"
I
-, ,
nat cross- area ::: A
Fig. 7.2 Vertical stress in a soil with ground water
At the bottom of the soil cylinder, the total vertical stress (a v) is due to:
• The downward weight of the soil per unit area above the water table (which
is assumed to be dry and unit weight = Yd)'
• The downward weight of the soil and water per unit area below the water
table (which is assumed to be saturated and unit weight = Ysat).
Total vertical stress: a = W/A =
where a = total vertical stress

W = total weight of the soil and water in the cylinder
A = cross-sectional area of the cylinder
Yd = dry unit weight of the soil above ground water level (g.w.l.)
Ysat = saturated unit weight of the soil below g.w.l..
HI = depth of soil from ground surface down to g.w.l..
H2 = depth of soil from g.w.l. to bottom of the cylinder of soil
7,2
The EffectiYe Stress Equation (Karl Terzaghi's effective stress concept)
The of water in the void of the soil below the g. w.l. known as
the pore water pressure and in all directions, including in the upwards
or
minus the or
u Yw
where u = unit weight of water
Therefore, the effective stress at the bottom of the soil cylinder is given by the
equation:
effective stress (0') = total stress (0) - pore water pressure (0)
where y' = effective or submerged or buoyant unit weight
In conclusion:
0' = (0) - (0)
0' = sum of the downward pressure created by the effective weight of the
"soil" column at any depth
o = sum of the downward pressure created by the weight of the column
of soil garins plus water in the voids at that depth
o = the pressure of the water in the void spaces created by the column of
water existing above that depth
7.3
7.2 Upward Seepage
shows a model of a situation which can occur in a of foundation

construction works - upward In the model, water flows upwards
through a soil under an hydraulic head, h. The total the
total head at hence flows from A to
Overflow
head" I
h
t· · Elmtloo h"d
t • Pressure head Pressure head
~ ;:~':h:~;. ~f 1
at B at A
- Jd c DU' '011
Pressure head 0-- __ A Datum

.' .... : .... Datum_lo.:::-_ _ _-'-_ _ _--''--_ _ _ _ _--'-_
=h+a+d -- - --\., 0A C B
- _- fi~lItifiov>
- - fI~ttd =0 Pressure head = Total head - Elevation head
Fig. 7.3 Model of upward flow of water through soil
Pressure Head Elevation Head Total Head
A h + a + d o h + a + d
B a d a + d
The difference in total head between A and B is equal to:
(h + a + d) - (a + d) = h
The hydraulic gradient across the top and bottom of the soil column is given
by:
i-hid
7.4
Consider the pressures at the base of soil,(Le., point A), the total comes
from:
.. the saturated soil

.. the water above the soil
the total at A is by:

0' = Ysat d + Yw a
The pore water pressure at a is given by:

u = Yw (h + a + d)
The effective stress is given by:

0" 0' u
(effective stress total stress pore water pressure)
0" (Ysat d + Yw a) Yw (h + a + d)
(Ysat Yw (h)
y'd
It is the excess head h which causes the unpward seepage and reduces the
effective stress by and amount equal to Yw h (seepage pressure).
7.5
7.3 Critical Hydaulic Gradient
When the pressure (Yw h) reaches a value equal to the pressure

by the submerged or buoyant weight of the column of soil (1' d) the
or becomes zero,
y'd - h or hid ==
gradient value the

effective or intergranular stress is zero and the soil grains of the soil column
become effectively weightless, the soil is heaved up by the seepage pressure of
the water and is said to "boil". Anything that put on the soil will "sink" into it.
The Hovercraft Principle demonstrates this phenomenon:

• average pressure created by the weight of the hovercraft == WIA
• air pressure created beneath the hovercraft == p
when p = W/A, the hovercraft floats free and is essentially "weightless". There
is then almost no friction between the hovercraft and the ground.
~Skjrt to trap high pressure air
Air under high pressure

acting in all directions
I... Area of bottom = A

·1
Fig. 7.4 Hovercraft principle
7.6
Alternative Expressions for the Critical Hydraulic Gradient:
(A)
ie =
Yw
Y sat - Yw
ie -
Y
(B) Consider the following block diagram:
Volume Weight
Totals (1+e)
Block diagram of a saturated soil
since i c == Y
Yw
(GlS+e+ e) Yw -Yw
Ysat-Yw == (G s + e) -1
ie == ==
Yw Yw 1+ e
Gs - 1
ie =
1 + e
7.7
7.4 Tbe Quick CQndition
Consider the situation point in the

g.w.1. at surface
,', "
• • • ' • <
z
. ' .
, . '
A " .
"
, .'
[
0-' 0- - U
= Ysat Z - Yw Z
= (Ysat - Yw) Z
y' z
Apply a seepage pressure equal to Yw h, the effective stress may be modified to:
0-' y' z - Yw h
If the seepage pressure is great enough to make the effective stress become
zero, the soil boils and the condition is said to be in the quick condition. (the
critical hydraulic gradient is exceeded).
Only certain kinds of soil will subject to quick condition.
• Clay soils have some kind of cohesion. They have some strength even
though the effective stress is zero.
• Coarse granular soils (gravels and coarse sands), although with no cohesion,
have high values ofpermeabilities (k > 1 x 10-2 mis). Therefore, even under
considerable excess heads, the high permeability will allow the water to
escape easily without building up a hydraulic gradient which exceeds the
critical value.
• In fine sands, quick conditions are often established naturally or through
construction works. This is because fine sands have low values of
permeability (1 x 10-5 mis) and a lack of cohesion.
7.8
Examples of Quick Conditions
(a) Natural (Figure 7.6)
crtical hydraulic established in

is naturally upwards because of an artesian condition. When this
occurs, the sand is usually called quicksand.
.
..
,
Piezometric level
-----------{
.. . .
.'
. ,
.. Q., .......
:
I
"
. : ..
, . : .' , .
Seepage. ' .
. .. '
. . . . ... ·· ...
. ".
. '"
' " .'.
... . .... ' ... . . · . '.'
Fig. 7.6 Quick sand
7.9
(b) Man-made
Examples are in construction works of sheet piling and dam.
S pili
River
. '" E
, " ..
Qu cond s '. '

I .
1.··.··.·.··.·.··.··>r:t:t~ ...•• h
d
excess head
flow path length
'. ·.·.d/i=low 'of water .. :..... -:,' ..... ,.:': .. of upward seepage
•• ' ~ '.' .' ••••• '. '" • • < ' ••• '. • • • • • .' .' : '.' • ••••• \ ••• :
Fig. 7.6 Upward seepage inside a sheet piling cofferdam
Dam
Water level
Reservoir
-
- 1h (head difference)
.'. . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . ....

. . . ..
1
~ ,
. . . . . . '.
~
. . ., . . '"
... ' ". . ' ' ..... Sheet
. .' . '. . .' pile ... 'J' .. " . : '.
'. "" Upward ':
, .
.
.
~
.'.
Flow of water'·
~h~o~,g.h .SO.il~. . :,.:·.::.·,.,.> . . ,....,
- . ..
. .,
....
.......... .
. ~eepage' ,
, .
1
Fig. 7.7 Seepage under a dam
7.10
I
2. SITE INVESTIGATION FOR FOUNDATIONS

2.1 Introduction
Site investigation is a process whereby all the relevant information concerning the site
of a proposed civil engineering or building development, and its surrounding area, is
gathered. Site investigation can be a broad and extensive process and covers all tlle
techniques commonly employed. Ground investigation, on the other hand, is a
narrower process and is restricted to the in-depth investigation of materials beneath a
site and the ground conditions of the site.
Site investigation involves consideration and investigation of
• Geology, Soil Mechanics and Rock Mechanics
• Previous use of the site
• Nature of the surrounding area
2.2 Objectives of Site Investigation
• To assess the general suitability of the site and environs for the proposed
works.
• To enable an adequate and economic foundation design to be made.
• To plan the best method of construction; to foresee and provide against
difficulties and delays that may arise during construction due to ground and
other local conditions.
• To assess suitability of borrow pits for construction materials.
• To determine environmental changes caused by the proposed structure.
• To advise on the relative suitability of different sites, or different parts of the
same site.
• To investigate the safety of existing features and works.
• To determine the causes of failure of natural features and/or man-made
structures.
2.3 Information Required From A Site Investigation

The following information should be obtained in the course of a site investigation for
foundation engineering purposes:
(a) The general topography of the site as it affects foundation design and
construction.
(b) The location of buried services such as electric power and telephone cables,
water mains, and sewers.
( c) The general geology of the area with particular reference to the main geological
formations underlying the site.
(d) The previous history and use of the site including information on any defects or
failures of existing or fonner buildings attributable to foundation conditions,
and the possibility of contamination of the site by toxic waste materials.
(e) Any special features such as the possibility of earthquakes, flooding, slope
instability and soil erosion.
(f) The availability and quality oflocal constructional materials.
(g) Hydrographic and meteorological data.
(h) Soil and rock stratigraphy and ground-water conditions.
(i) Results of laboratory tests on soil and rock samples.
G) Results of chemical analyses on soil, fill materials, and ground-water to
determine possible deleterious effects on foundation structures.
(k) Results of chemical and bacteriological analyses on contaminated soils and
ground-water to determine health hazard risks.
) 2.4 Procedures Of Site Investigation

A site investigation will normally proceed in stages as follows: desk study; site
reconnaissance; detailed examination for design including ground investigation,
topographic survey and special studies; follow-up investigations during construction.
This may be followed by appraisal ofperfonnance. Some of the stages may overlap,
or be taken out of sequence. This staged procedure is illustrated in Figure 2.1.
2.4.1 Desk Studies
Much useful information about a site may already be available in existing records.
Therefore a desk study is necessary before any actual physical investigation of a site.
This information can be obtained from the following sources:
Maps, Plans and Reports

Geological maps and memoirs provide detailed geology of the area. In Hong
Kong, they are available on a scale of 1:20,000 for most areas. Topographic
maps are useful for studying general features of an area.
The publications of the Geotechnical Area Study Programme (GASP) provide
an important source of basic geotechnical information. These publications are
available from the Government Publication Centre. They generally contain
Engineering Geology, Terrain Classification, Erosion, Landform and Physical
Constraint Maps.
Past site investigation reports are often very useful and can often save time and
money in site investigations. The Geotechnical Information Unit of the
Geotechnical Engineering Office (GEO) contains numerous records of
boreholes from throughout the Territory, as will as useful records oflandslides,
rainfall and piezometric data, and laboratory test results on soil and rock
samples. Relevant data can be readily accessed by geographical location of the
site.
I
I
Site Investigation Investigation I
I
Design and Construction
Stage Activities I
I Progress
Recognition of need for project

I
I INITIAL PROJECT CONCEPTION
I
Desk Study I
Desk study, to obtai n
basic knowledge of
ground conditions
I
,I
I
,
I
I
I
I
I
Basic project
concept designs
~
I
Recognition af I
I
major problems I
I
J I
I
Site reconnaissance I Confirmation or
Preliminary
and preliminary
field investigations tI
amendment of
design concept
J I
I I
~
Design of main Pretiminar)! I Detailed
ground investigation Design
I I
I
I
Ground Investigation I
I
I
~
I
Main
Information recovered
during investigation
I tI
Modifications to
detailed design
J
Re~rt on Main
Ground Investi2ation
J
tI
I
I
Finalise DeSign of Project
I
I CONSTRUCTION
I
I
I
J I
J
Construction Record ing actual
ground conditions t Modifications to design
J
•
J
I
Further investigation Modifications to design

J I
I J
Post - construction
I COMPLETION OF CONSTRUCTION
I
I
I
•
I
+
Monitoring behaviour
I
Maintenance workS
in operation
I
•
Legend:
Exchange of information
Note: Flg"ure adopted from IAEG (1981).

..
Figure1,1- Stages of a Site Investigation

4-
Aerial Photographs
Aerial photographs are useful in studying the site history, possible ground
instability, surface erosion and hydrology, vegetation, photolineaments, surface
geological features such as colluvium, alluvium, fill, and boulder fields.
Services and Utilities

Detailed plans of existing services and utilities should be obtained from the
various utility companies, showing the position of drains, sewers, water mains,
electrical cables, gas mains, telephone ducts, tunnels etc.
Past Construction Records

Past construction records for both the site and for adjacent properties are
useful for site investigation. Several government departments possess valuable
information for the planning and execution of the site investigation. They are
the Civil Engineering Department , Building Ordinance Office, Highways
Department, Water Supplies Department, Drainage Services Department, and
Architectural Services Department. Non- government agencies such as Mass
Transit Railway Corporation, Kowloon Railway Corporation and other utility
companies can also provide valuable information on past construction records.
2.4.2 Preliminary Stage - Site Reconnaissance
At an early stage, a thorough visual examination should be made of the site. In the
intensely developed urban areas of Hong Kong, it will usually be necessary to inspect
existing slopes and retaining walls within and surrounding the site and adjacent
properties during the site reconnaissance stage.
Nearby cut slopes can reveal soil and rock types and their stability characteristics, as
can old excavations and quarries. Similarly, in the vicinity there may be embankments
or buildings and other structures having a settlement history because of the presence of
compressible or unstable soils. Other important evidence that might be obtained from
.} an inspection is the presence of underground excavations, such as basements and
tunnels. The behaviour of structures similar to those intended should also provide
useful information, and the absence of such structures may be significant, as may be
also the presence of a vacant site in the midst of otherwise intensive development.
2.4.3 Main Stage - Detailed Examination and Special Studies
For most projects, the design and .planning of construction will require a detailed
examination of the site and its surroundings. This examination includes ground
investigations and studies of special subjects. The methods of ground investigation
will be discussed in detail in the later sections. Special studies may entail studies of
hydrography, micrometeorology, sources of materials, disposal of waste materials and
other environmental considerations.
2.4.4 Construction Stage - Review and Monitoring During Construction
There is an inherent difficulty in forecasting ground conditions from ground

investigations carried out before the works are started sioce only a small proportion of
the ground is examined. The primary purpose of the review during construction is to
determine to what extent, if any, conclusions drawn from the ground investigation are
required to be revised. In some cases, additional information is found which may
necessitate amendment of the design or the construction procedure.
On many types of structures, such as earth dams, embankments on soft ground, some
large buildings with underground construction, excavations and tunnels, it is prudent to
consider regular observations by means of instrumentation in order to check that
construction works can proceed safely. Such observations may include measurement
ofpore pressure, seepage, earth pressure, settlement and lateral movements.
2.4.5 Post-construction
Instrumentation may be necessarily continued after construction in order to observe the
performance of the project during its operation. This is particularly necessary in the
case of earth darns, projects involving slopes and other important geotechnical works
for maintaining a safe structure under varying conditions, and in other cases for gaining
valuable data for future design.
2.5 Extent of Ground Investigation

2.5.1 General
The extent of the ground investigation is determined by the character and variability of
ground and groundwater, the type of project, and the amount of existing information.
It is important that the general character and variability of the ground should be
established before deciding on the basic principles of the design of the works.
2.5.2 Character and Variability of the Ground
The greater the natural variability of the ground, the greater will be the extent of the
ground investigation required to characterise the site.
In Hong Kong, soils derived from insitu rock weathering generally exhibit great
variability even within relatively short distances. Granitic and volcanic rocks, which
together form the major portion of the solid geology of the Territory, may be
weathered to soils typically to depths of 30 m to 10 m respectively. Under certain
geological conditions, granitic rocks may be weathered to over 100 m deep/ Examples
can be found in the Mid-levels area, Ma On Shan and Yuen Long. It is important to
recognise that ground conditions may not always improve with depth. For example,
hard rock at the ground surface may be underlain by thick zones of weaker material.
2.5.3 Nature of the Project
The lateral and vertical e,,1ent of the investigation should cover all ground that may be
significantly affected by the new works. Two typical examples are the zone of
stressed ground beneath the bottom of a group of piles and an adjacent slope, the
stability of which may be reduced by the works.
In areas where major structural defects in rock may occur, snch as karst features,
major shear and fault zones, more intensive investigation and greater exploration
depths than normally recommended may be required. Consideration may need to be
given to locating underground cavities within the zone of influence of the loaded area,
and to identifYing other possible significant features snch as steeply-dipping rockhead,
fractures and alternating soil and rock layers.
2.5.4 Location
:) The location of boreholes and other exploration points should only be plauned after the
desk study, site reconnaissance and geological mapping are completed. It is oftr.n
useful to locate boreholes at the intended positions of large deep foundations.
2.5.5 Spacing
The spacing of boreholes depends on the nature of the structure and uniformity of the
ground conditions and the area of the site under investigation. No hard and fast rnles
can be laid down. The following can serve as a guide:
Project Spacing (m)
Highway 300 - 600

Earth Dam 30 - 60
Borrow Pit 30 - 120
) Buildings 15 -30
Certain engineering works, such as dams, tunnels and major excavations, are
particularly sensitive to geological conditions, and the spacing and location of
exploration points should be more closely related to the detailed geology of the area
than is usual for other works.
2.5.6 Depth of Exploration
The depth of boreholes depends on the depth to which the project will affect the
ground or be affected by them. In determining the depths of exploration, the
following points should be considered:
• In general, all soils which will be affected will need to be investigated, and
boreholes will be taken down through fill, weak compressible soils, to rock
7
• In Hong Kong, it is common to drill into rock at least 5 m to establish

whether core stones, boulders or bedrock have been found. The final
depth of drilling will depend on the need to prove bedrock.
• In the case of foundations for structures the depth of exploration should be
at least l. 5 times the width of the loaded area, though this may not be
necessary in strong rocks.
• In soils experience has sholW that damaging settlement is unlikely when the
added stress in the soil due to the weight of structure is less than 10% of
the initial stress in the soil due to its OIW weight.
• In limestones and marble it may be necessary to drill dolW many metres
into rock to detect caves and karst features which would collapse under the
weight of a structure.
• For embankments on alluvial and marine soils, depth of exploration should
be sufficient to check shear failure through the foundation materials and to
) assess likely amount of settlement due to compressible materials.
• For cut slopes exploration should extend a minimum of 5 m below the toe
of the slope or 5 m into bedrock.
• For pavements exploration of 3 m below the formation level will probably
be sufficient.
• For pipelines I m below invert level will likely be sufficient.
2.6 Methods of Ground Investigation

2.6.1 General
There is considerable variety of methods of ground investigation, and normally a

combination of methods is employed to cover the technical requirements and the range
of ground conditions that are encountered. Particular attention should be paid to the
safety of existing features, structures and services, as well as the safety of personnel,
during the course of ground investigation.
The selection of ground investigation methods may be influenced by the character of

the site. Particular ground conditions often dictate which specific investigation
technique should be used.
2.6.2 Excavation and Boreholes
(a) Shallow Trial Pits and Slope Surface Stripping
Shallow trial pits are usually dug by hand using a pick and shovel. They are used in
ground that will stand unsupported during excavation, and commonly extended to a
depth of about 3 m Timber shoring is usually provided to guard against sudden
collapse of the sides of the pit in order to protect the personnel working in the pit.
Shallow trial pits may also be dug by machine such as a hydraulic backhoe excavator.
Shallow trial pits have the following uses:
• permit the insitu condition of the ground to be examined in detail both

laterally and vertically
• allow mass properties to be assessed
• provide access for taking good quality block samples and for carrying out
insitu tests
• investigate the dimensions and construction details of old retaining walls
• ascertain the exact position of buried utilities and services
It is advisable to backfill pits as soon as possible after logging, sampling and testing
have been completed, since open pits can be a hazard.
Trial pits can be extended readily into trenches or slope surface stripping. The latter is
used extensively in Hong Kong to investigate both natural and man-made slopes, and
~) generally consists of a 0.5 m wide strip, extending from the crest to the toe of the
slope.
(bl Hand Auger Boring
The hand auger boring method uses light hand-operated equipment. Boreholes up io
200 mm diameter may be made in suitable ground conditions to a depth of about 5 m.
They can be used for groundwater observations and to obtain disturbed samples and
smaI1 open-tube samples.
(cl Light Cable Percussion Boring
Light cable percussion boring is an adaptation of common well-boring methods,

employing a clay cutter for dry cohesive soils, a shell or (baler) for granular soils, and a
chisel for breaking up rock and other hard layers. Since it cannot be used for boring
into or proving rock, and it is severely restricted in bouldery ground, its use is
') therefore curtailed. However, the method can be used to investigate the finer-grained
marine sediments and alluvium found in the flat coastal areas.
rdl Mechanical Augers
Mechanical augers, comprising a continuous-flight auger and a hollow stem, are.

suitable for augering soft cohesive soils and may be suitable for firm cohesive soils.
They are of limited use in soils with boulders or corestones and are therefore seldom
used in Hon Kong.
rei Rotary Open Hole Drilling and Rotary Core Drilling
Rotary drilling is the most common method of subsurface exploration used in Hong
Kong. The drilling fluid is commonly water, but drilling mud or air foam are ofter.
used with advantage.
There are two basic types of rotary drilling:

• Open hole (or full hole) drilling - the dri1l bit cuts all the material within
the diameter of the borehole
• Core drilling - an annular bit fixed to the outer rotating tube of a core-
barrel cuts a core that is returned within the inner stationary tube of the
core-barrel and brought to the surface for examination and testing.
Drill casing is normally used to support nnstable ground or to seal off open fissures
which causes a loss of drilling fluid.
Core drilling has the important advantage over open hole drilling of providing a core
sample while the hole is being advanced, and it is recommended for most situations.
However, open hole drilling is useful for rapid advancement of a borehole required for
field testing or instrument installation, and samples may be obtained between drill runs
even when the open hole technique is used.
~) Drilling rigs are available in a wide range of weights and power ratings in Hong Kong.
Rigs are normally skid mounted, with a typical configuration shown in Figure 2.2.
Inclined boreholes can often be used to great advantage in ground investigations.

While they are generally more costly than similar vertical holes, they often allow
additional geological data to be obtained.
m Wash Boring
Wash boring utilises the percussive action of a chisel bit to break up materials that is
flushed to the surface by water pumped down the hollow dri1l rods. In ground which is
liable to collapse, casing may be driven down to support the sides of the borehole, or
drilling mud may be used. The fragments of soil brought to the surface by the wash
water are not representative of the character and consistency of the materials being
penetrated, and the flushing water may disturb the surrounding ground. For these
reasons, wash boring is seldom used in Hong Kong.
2.6.3 Sampling the Ground

The main pUI]lose of sampling are to establish the subsurface geological profile in
detail, and to supply both disturbed and undisturbed materials for laboratory testing.
The selection of a sampling technique depends on the required quality of the sample,
the character of the ground and particularly, the extent of disturbance in sampling. The
principal causes of soil disturbance are listed in Table 2.l.
There are four main techniques for obtaining samples:
• taking disturbed sample from the dri1l tool or from excavating equipment,
• drive sampling, in which a sampler with a sharp cutting edge at its lower
end is forced into the ground either by a static thrust or by dyoamic impact,
• rotary sampling, in which a tube with a cutter is rotated into the ground,
thereby producing a core sample,
/0
Il'..._ - Bolt and clevis

Double sheave
4 -leg derrick Wire line

Manila rope --,11--1
Water swivel
Wire drum
Cathead k-'i\,- Chucking rod

hose
drill head
Trans miss lon-if-""",
Power unit _if-..,. pressure gouge displacement
Retractable ~;;;:n water pump
slide bose
skid
~~i~~~mE~iI~;:-
III
Drill
and
Drive shoe
o o Soil derived
CJ Flush type casing D from
00 r--.0 r---..r-. CJ G C) 0 D
Insitu Rock
Weathering
c::::;>
r--,I\
Diamond casing
~oQ~r \11
Drill rod Rock
Core-barrel
Reamer
Diamond bit
Note Figure adopted from Acker Drill Co. Inc. data.
Figure '2.'2.- Ty'picai Configuration of a Rotary Drilling Rig

Table ~.I- Principal Causes of Soil Disturbance
Before Sampling During Samp'ling After Sampling
Stress relief Stress relief Stress relief
Swelling Remoulding Migra tion of wa ter

within the sample
Compaction Displacement Loss of moisture
Displacement Shattering Overheating
Bose heave Stones at the culling shoe Vibration
Piping Mixing or segregation Chemical changes
Caving Failure to recover Disturbance during

extrusion
Note: Table adopted from Clayton et 01 (19821.
:.)
/2-
• taking block samples, specially cut by hand from a trial pit, shaft or
heading.
2.6.3.1 Sample Quality

Care should be taken when sampling soil and rock to ensure that the sample is
representative of the particular material to be investigated, and that its disturbance
during sampling will not adversely affect the results of the test to be performed upon it.
Disturbance is dependent on the method of sampling. There are two main categories
of soil samples:
• Undisturbed Samples. These samples are required mainly for shear
strength and consolidation tests and are obtained by techniques which aim
at preserving the insitu structure and water content of the soil.
• Disturbed Samples. The sample is one having the same particle size
distribution as the insitu soil but in which the soil structure has been
significantly damaged or completely destroyed. The water content may be
different from that of the insitu soil Disturbed samples are used maiuly for
soil classification tests and compaction tests.
Table 2.2 provides a useful basis for classifYing samples in terms of quality.
2.6.3.2 Types of Samplers
(1) Open-Tube Sampler

The 100 mm diameter open-tube sampler, often termed the UIOO sampler, is a
fairly robust sampler that can be used for many Hong Kong soils, but the
driving action during sampling is likely to introduce some disturbance. The
highest sample quality that can be obtained is class 2 at best.
) (2) Thin-walled Samplers

The thin-walled samplers are used for soils that are particularly sensitive to
sampling disturbance, and consist of a thin-walled steel tube whose lower end
is shaped to form a cutting edge with a small inside clearance. These samplers
generally give class 1 samples in all fine cohesive soils, including sensitive clays.
(3) Thin-walled Stationary Piston Sampler

1hls sampler consists of thin-walled sample tube containing a close-fitting
sliding piston, which is slightly coned at its lower face. Figure 2.3 shows the
basic details of a stationary piston sampler. The sampler is normally used in
low strength fine soils and gives class 1 samples in silt and clay, including
sensitive clay. Its ability to take samples below the disturbed zone and to hold
them during recovery gives an advantage over the thin-walled sampler.
Table~.t· Soil Sample Quality Classification
Soil Properties that

Sample Quality
Can Be Reliably Determined
Class 1 Classification, moisture content, density,

strength, deformation and consolidation
characteristics
Class 2 Classification, moisture content, density
Class 3 Classification, moisture content
Class' Classification
Class 5 None (approximate sequence of

materials only)
Notes: ( 1 ) Large diameter class 1 and .class 2 samples are often sufficient
to allow the' fabric' of the soil to be examined. Sometimes
this maY;<l!so be done usiM .closs 3 and closs t. samples.
. (2) Pemoulded properties c·a.n h.e obtoln'ed using class 1 to cla'ss'
'samples. . .
\3 } Table "aken from as 5930 ! BSI.1981a I.
1---- Coupler to hollow drill rods
Sampler head _~~ IS-Sl--- Piston rod screw clamp.

left hand thread
I b t - - - Spring-loaded cone clamps
1--+-- Piston rod
9 - - Thin-walled sample tube. samples

commonly 75 ar 100 mm diameter
by 1m long
' - - - - piston with .rubber sealing ring

and vacuum release screw
Figure 2., - ThIn-walled Stationary Piston Sampler

(4) Split Barrel Standard Penetration Test Sampler
The split barrel sampler is used in the standard penetration test. It is used to
recover small samples and gives class 3 or class 4 samples. It is used mainly
in sand. A typical split barrel sampler is illustrated in Figure 2.4.
(5) Rotary Core Samplers

These are the core-barrels used in conjunction with the rotary core drilling
procedures. The quality of samples may vary considerably depending on the
character of the ground and the type of coring equipment used. There are
different types of core-barrels, some of them are:
• Single-tube core-barrels. They are seldom used, as the core-barrel
rotates directly against the core and core recovery is usually
unsatisfactory.
• Double-tube core-barrels. These can normally be used in fresh to
moderately decomposed rocks ..
• Triple-tube core-barrel. These core-barrels protect the core from
drilling fluid and damage during extrusion. They are suitable for use
in fresh to moderately decomposed rock and some of the stronger
highly decomposed materials. They are particularly useful in coring
highly fractured and jointed rock. When coring soils derived from
insitu rock weathering, these barrels fitted with a retractable shoe
are normally used. High quality (class I) core samples of soils can
be obtained using the large diameter triple-tube core-barrels.
• Mazier core-barrel. This sampler is far more commonly used in
Hong Kong than other samplers. A typical Mazier sampler is
shown in Figure 2.5. The Mazier core-barrel has an inner plastic
Iioer which protects the sample during transportation to the
laboratory. The 74 mm diameter core obtained with the Mazier is
compatible with the commonly-used laboratory triaxial testing
apparatus. It should be noted that the Mazier has a tungsten
carbide tipped cutting shoe and is therefore not suitable for coring
fresh to moderately decomposed rock. Samples of class I to class 2
can be obtained using the Mazier sampler.
• Wireline core-barrel. This sampler incorporates a line mechanism
for withdrawing the inner barrel up through the drill rods without
withdrawing the outer barrel or rods from the hole. This core-
barrel may be used in fresh to moderately decomposed rock, and in
very deep veltical or inclioed holes to achieve more rapid drilling
progress.
(6) Block Samples

Block samples are cut by hand from materials exposed in trial pits and
excavations in order to obtain samples with the least possible disturbance.
10
50
.I. v
,
. .I
R;)..-- Connection to BW
or lorger drill rods
-,---- ,..---.....
VJ·....- - Driving shoe
.. _-
Notes : (I) Figure baud on BS 1377 (BSI.1975 b l.
121 A slightly Inlarged Inn.r dlamlter 01 the 'Dill barr.l Is permiti.d, provided
removable lin.,s are always .ud which hOYt. an'liIllde dlam.t.r 0'
35mm • .
(3) A ball valv. In the bas. 01 the coupling "cis' .$hown 'In ",<5T'" I UB5 a I Is also
permitted.
'" AII.dlm.n ..ons Art in infllim.tr~I·.
Figure 2.4· S pUt Barrel Sampler for Standard Penetra'tion Test

~
.
Sedime nt tube
, ,
~,
~ :'"- l" 1\
Drill rod coupling " ~I I .
t'- ~V- Drill bit
.~
1<>.; ~j
~
'/
\,-" .. ",-- Flush water
Flush duct V Z< ~y
v ~ (Q) Coring Soft Material
Swivel
'/ ~ (Inner tube extended)
%?':::
~
Retract or spring
rf1
~ t:: Drill bit
\\
~ ~ t
( J '
p,i Ir- vent \~ .. '1-_-..:1 ...
" ' - Flush water
Mobile Inner ~
, '- 0..) (b) Coring Harder Material
~~
tube h ead
(Inner tube retracted)
Outer tube
. - •
Inner tu be
I--- Liner, core 74mm
Spring core- diameter by 1m long
~
catche r
Drill bi !
Inner barrel cutting shoe. 72 mm internal
diameter (max. protrusion 50 mm)
Figure t." - Example of a Retractable TrIple-tube Core- barrel (Mazier)

lB
2.6.3.3 Frequency of Sampling and Testing in Boreholes
The frequency of sampling and testing in a borehole depends on the available

information about the ground conditions and the technical objectives of the
investigation. The following are some suggested guidelines for selecting the frequency
of sampling and testing:
• In soils derived from insitu rock weathering, colluvium and some fill
materials, the ground profile can be defined by taking samples using a
triple-tube core-barreL Samples should be taken at the top of each zone or
layer in the ground, and thereafter at 1.5 to 3 m intervals, followed by a
SPT.
• For moderately decomposed to fresh rock, continuous rotary core sampling
should be undertaken.
• In soft clays, it is generally good practice to obtain at least one complete
profile for the site using the continuous piston sampling technique.
• In coarse granular soil, such as gravel, it is advisable to take disturbed
samples from the drill tools together with split barrel standard penetration
test samples at about I m intervals.
• The cone penetration, pressuremeter and packer test, as well as
discontinuity surveys, are generally taken continuously.
2.6.4 Groundwater and Piezometers
2.6.4.1 General
The determination of groundwater pressures is of the utmost importance since they

have a profound influence on the behaviour of the ground during and after the
construction of engineering works. The location of highly permeable zones in the
ground and the measurement of water pressure in each is particularly important where
deep excavation or tunnelling is required, since special measures may be necessary to
) deal with the groundwater. For accurate measurement of groundwater pressures, it is
generally necessary to install piezometers.
The monitoring of groundwater levels and pore pressures, and their response to
rainfall, is carried out routinely in Hong Kong, as this information is vital to the desigo
and construction of slopes, excavations in hillsides and site formation works.
It may be necessary to measure negative pore water pressures, or soil suction. In

many cases, existing groundwater data in the vicinity of the site will be available in the
Geotechnical Information Unit of GEO, and may be useful in planniog an appropriate
groundwater monitoring scheme.
2.6.4.2 Methods of Determining Groundwater Pressures
All methods for measuring groundwater pressure require some flow of water into or
out of the measuring device before the recorded pressure can reach equilibrium with
the actual groundwater pressure. The tiroe required for a measuring device to indicate
the true groundwater pressure is know as the response time. This response time
depends on the quantity of water required to operat e the device, the characteristics of
the piezometer, the permeability of the porous e',ement in the piezometer, and the
permeability of the ground. The choice of piezometer type depends on the predicted
water pressures, access for reading, service life and response time required. The
following give a brief description of the methods for measuring groundwater pressures.
(aJ Obse7l'ation in Boreholes and Excavations
The crudest method of determining the groundwater level is by observation in an open

borehole or excavation. This method may involve a long response time unless the
ground is very permeable, and observations should be made at regular time intervals
until it is established that the water level has reached equih'brinm. The reliability of
water level observations in boreholes or excavations can be improved by the
installation ofa standpipe (not to be confused with the standpipe piezometer).
.) Measurement by Piezometers
(bJ
The commonly used types of piezometers are briefly described below. Typical
piezometers and their installations are illustrated in Figures 2.6 and 2.7.
Standpipe Piezometers
The standpipe piezometer, perhaps better termed the open-hydraulic

piezometer, consists of a tube with a porous filter element on the end that can
be sealed into the ground at the appropriate level (Figure 2.6). The
Casagrande-type device is the most frequently installed standpipe piezometer.
The main advantage of an open-hydraulic piezometer are its simplicity and

reliability. Its main disadvantage is slow response time in soils of low
permeability.
) Hydraulic Piezometers
In these piezometers, which are also termed closed-hydraulic piezometers,

the groundwater pressure is detected in a small piezometer tip with porous
walls and conducted through small diameter plastic tubes to a remote point,
where the pressure is measured, usually with a mercury manometer, or a
pressure transducer.
This piezometer has a small response time and can be used for measuring rapid
changes in pore water pressure.
Electrical Piezometers
Electrical piezometers have a pressure transducer located close to the porous

element. Very rapid response times can be achieved provided the tip is de-
aired.
)
-....I ,j
~tiloted plastic cop---,

protective drained metal I
""C
-4---PVC pipe. 19mm 1.0.
le
surface box' locka: ) I> .. • Ih . "mw4&. -rW lower pcrt perforated
Concrete plug ·k1::
o a
• 0 W 0 II •
o 0
o o
....
" 0'"
Borehole '1
o o
o
19mm1.0. 11'41- ceme~t- be~lonite
• plastic pipe ~~ grout
_'" 'l'
. . ".
·Gravel or sa-nd
backfill 1'
\ . '.:
Tamped bentonite pellets
•
"
.. J"
.'
. .... .. '
"
.' ~
,I
.,,' . or ~entonite balls

,,
,,"
I-J.--.- Low air entry porous
plastic filter or similar.
Perf.orcited plastic
pipe.wrapped with . .
Graded sand
.'
•• 300mm x 35mm 0.0.
filter f a b r i c - - - u ' filter '1 -=l4-- Piezometer tip
see detail at rc ) o ,.
:';1
'~I
. ' r - - bentonite pellets
or bentonite balls
.'•
;"
-
HUO;ill~
Y,4/-- Cement - bentonite
grout, tremied)
. (a) Standpipe (b) Open- hydraulic Piezometer Ic) Casagrande-type

Open-hydraulic Piezometer
Not to scale
Figure t.b- Typical standpipe and Open-hydraulic Piezometers

~
<;)
5005q. I
Ground level Lockable CQst iron
,. in urban a.reG. SO max .--:'-'..,
,...,',.. hingtd cever
Ground level "
~in rural area.

III
r- 'j ~).::: ~~+-Cast iron box
e
'E ~
0
::::
0
0
'--f--Protective cap with vent hole
1'1
0
~
~~·t,. Concrete
Drain conduit laid to

nominal I: SO fall to Y;"f--I:I cemenl-benlonite
daylight face - - - - - - ' - - grout or concrlte plug
.5 P"7if-- Standpipe
E
-) ~ r,..f-- S.ntonite seat
.6
E
0
0
III
~
e
~ .i;; '--
~
Oft
8. "go
C
Oft
&ci
-
>
..
--
':', '.'
H - - Piezomelor lip
c
'il
0
0
III
.~ /"o7I---Sonlonill seat
8
III
~t~--I: 1 cemenl- benlonite groul
,.
Bottom of hole
"NotIS: (I) S.cat,· ·1. dlagiammalic.

U) All dlm.n.ion. Gr.· 'In millimtlilS.
Figure ?1 - Typical Installation Details of a Piezometer In a Borehole

~ .~i
.~:; j J.
Table'.~ - Evaluation of Piezometer Types
~
~ ~
Remote Other
.."
Do"
C> ~
~
~
Piezometer
Type
Pressure
Range
Response
Time
O~-Qiring
Capability
Reading
Capability
long-term
Reliability
AdvClntages Disadvantages
Recommendalions
"-
First choie. 'or m.asurem.nt
AtmozpherM: Nol normally. Ch.ap. simple to within positive pressure rang.
Open- to lop 01 Self bul possible read & mamlain; Vandal damage unless ropicS r.spons. or remote
hydraulic Slow
de-airing Very good insitu permeability often irreparable.
ICasagrande}
standpipe with bubbler
Ift,asuremenl
reading required; response
level sy~tem peaks can ... d.lected by u ..
possible. of Harcrow buck.ts s),st.m.
Depends on. pressure
measuring system Gauge hou$~ usually
Claud- 11 Mercury manometer .. Fairly ch.ap, required; regular
hYdraulic Any very good insitu permeability de-airing necessar),; Useful when remole reading.
ILow air po~itive Moderllte Can be
de-aired Yes 2) !lourdo.n gauge - poor measurement uncovered tubing and 'or ottesian prei5l.Ur•••
In,ry pressure In hUmId atmosphere
possible J can be liable to rodeont
prusure) 3) Pressure transducer- mode vandal attock or daMoge
moderate but easily proof if required. if left exposed, ,
.1;
.. Close-d- -1
replaced
Fairly cheop J
As above; very
'iii
0
hydraulic
(High oil'
atmosphere
to any Moderote Can bt
de-aired Ves As above
insitu p.rmeabilily
measurements in regUlar de-airing
reqUtred when
Usef~1
suchons.
'0( measuring .small
I\. entry positive low permeability
pressure J pressure soil are possible. measuring suctions.
Any
Canna' be Yes
Moderate to poor. but Fairly cheap; No melhod at Only suitable when tip olmolt
Pneumatic positive
de~Qired:only
Rapid partially sell some head Very little long term no gauge house checking .if po,.. waleI' always below grou!"dwater ,."..,
loss over or pore all' preasur. and no lorg.. suchons QCcur.
pressure de-airing long distcnce experience ooroilable required. is Measured.
SiRnal .quarrt~ degenerateoS
Electric Any Yes. but WI h hme. Instrument As above f ex~..nsiYe I
Vi,brqling
wire type
positive
pressure
Rapid As abOW' special cabl.
required
lif~ about ten years, -but
relJability 0' instrument - zero reodm~ lobi..
to drift on cannot Nol geMrally recommend.d.
thai cannot be checked be ch.cked.
is always suspect
Yes, but wah
EI.ctric Any
r.,islance
typo
p.osi.tivc
p.I:'essuff'
Rapid As above- care bll:cause
of transmission
Poor - "5 ab.... Hot r • .c.omm.nd.d.
losses
-t
a\mosphe'r. Moderolo Cc:m be Chll:ap. sirnple to Vandol damage 011 In First ~ for measuring
~-
Tensiomt!'tor 10 positive 10 rapid de-aired Ves Good read and Maintain. ir".~~Qbl"r r.,GuIAr PQ'" ..\ICIion.
_ C
•> 0
pressure d.... oarUlg r.qu".d .
ii ';: of
"'u
~ "
InstrUMent liff' one to Not accurate
z~ P~)lChrorneter
Be-low ~, Not
almosphere Variable r"levanl
Shod
distances only
two years: liute long
t.rm experienci - b.t ... n 0 Gnd -1
atmosphere.
Res.earch Itoge at the maMent
---- - - - - - - - ~~~~--
Lavailable
--~~ ______ ____________
~
~~------ ~-- ---------~~~ ..
6....,
. .~.:. _r '.' .,
The main disadvantage of the electrical piezometer is that it requires
calibration, which cannot be checked easily after installation. It also cannot be
used for insitu penneability measurements. It has not been widely used in
Hong Kong.
Pneumatic Piezometers
Pneumatic systems comprise two air-filled tubes connecting the measuring

point to a valve located close to the porous element.
These piezometers are cheap and easy to install and has rapid response times.
They cannot be checked after installation and cannot be used for insitu
permeability measurements.
2.6.5 Tests in Boreholes
This section describes the various tests that may be conducted as supplementary to a
ground investigation carried out by boreholes. These tests are generally undertaken as
an integral part of borehole investigation. Some of the commonly used tests are
described below.
(a) Standard Penetration Tests (SPT)
The SPT is a frequently used dynamic penetration test. The test results have been
related empirically to soil parameters and foundation conditions, especially in sands
and gravels. In Hong Kong, a penetration test often used is known as the GCO probe,
the details of which is shown in Figure 2.S.
This test is simple and inexpensive. The soil strength parameters which can be inferred
are very approximate, but give a useful guide in gronnd conditions. The test should
be discontinued when the blow count reaches 100 or if the hammer bounces and
~) insignificant penetration is achieved.
The resulting N value is defined as the number of blows required to drive the standard
split spoon sampler a distance of 300 nun. The sampler is initially driven 150 mm to
penetrate through any disturbed material at the bottom of the borehole before the test
is carried out. The number of blows required for each 75 mm advance should be
recorded. The following gives the correlation ofN values with some soil parameters.
Relatb'e Density of Sand
'N' Relative Density
0-4 Very loose

4 - 10 Loose
10 - 30 Medium dense
30 - 50 Dense
> 50 Very dense
" 13 'j
r-'
I I
Upper anvil.
65 ¢ • 65
I I ';""_ _l..,/LS' chamter
1 - - - Guide rod. 20 ¢
...-
If) 201&
N
II II
II 1\
... r II II
o I
II>
45' chomter
11 II
I II L 10kg 51 iding hammer
with handles.
I , 1051& • 150 Coupler
- r
I
I I
I
r--- Lower anvi t. ,.13 'j
~-,J 651& .65
I I
- I
Extension rod.
l3¢ (to b e added
L.
as require d)
o
o
o '"
N
, :,~-- Coupler.
:) , , see detail x=l=I==
4
Point
#---point.
~ see detail
Not .. : (1) All dImensions are in mllllmetres.

(2) The hammer should be proyldod with a 22 mm dlametor central hot •. The
hammer should b. drilled out as n.cessary so thot Its weight (including
hondlu) is 10.0 ! 0.1 kg.
(3) The point should b. sufflclontly -shorp that x ~ 1.5 mm.
(') Only stroight exl.n.lon rods should be utilised I rod. d.vlollng 5 mm or more
1rom Q JtraI.g~t line a1 any point Ihould not be used.
Figure 2.8-- Geo Probe

Consistency of Cohesive Soil
'N" Consistency
0- 1 Very soft
1-4 Soft
4-8 Finn
8 - 15 Stiff
15 - 30 Very stiff
> 30 Hard
(b) Vane Tests
A vane on the end of a solid rod is forced into the soil and then rotated (Figure 2.9).
The torque required to rotate the vane can be related to thll shear strength of the soil.
The test can be extended to measure the remoulded strength of the soil by turning the
vane through ten complete rotations.
The test is normally restricted to fairly uniform, cohesive, fully saturated soils, and is
used mainly for clay having an undrained shear strength of up to about 75 kPa. In
Hong Kong, the vane test is invaluable in the marine sediments.
The main advantage of the test is that it causes little disturbance of the ground. For
non-uniform soils, soils contain thin layers of laminations of sand or dense silt, and
soils with rootlets and other coarse particles, the test may give erroneous results.
(c) Permeability Tests
Permeability tests can be carried out at various depths in the borehole as drilling
progresses. Figure 2.10 shows a suitable test arrangement. Pore pressures should be
) in equilibrium before the test is performed, and with clays of low permeability it can
take several months for the pore pressure set up by the drilling of the borehole to
equalise.
The coefficient of permeability k, can be calculated from the results of variable head
(rising or falling) or constant head tests carried out in boreholes or standpipe
piezometers. These tests are strictly applicable only to the measurement of
permeability of soils below groundwater leve~ although an approximate assessment
may be made above this level. In Hong Kong, it is often necessary to measure
permeability above the water table.
(d) Packer (Water Absorption) Tests
The packer or Lugeon test gives a measure of the acceptance by insitu rock of water
under pressure. The test is used to assess the amount of grout that the Rock will
accept, to check the effectiveness of grouting, to obtain a measure of the amount of
Torque measuring
instrument J
c =:: ~,::: :'':1
p-
"
I ,
:' I
"" Sleeve (pocked

with grease)-
"
""
" - _d
"
;-'''
Extension rods "
)
.Rod and pipe coupler

Intermediate ':r
steady bearing
Borehole casing
"
"""
,I
I'
""
o
Extension pipe
SECTION
Vane protecting shoe
" Bottom steady bearing

c I,
) 'O'E Vane rod "" c

'E
in sleeve "
dill "
.
.-'5
'0.<:
MO
~
.J:> "
""
""
E
"1
0
Vane
VIEW FROM
BOTTdM
(a) Boreho(e. (b)' Penetration (c) Details

Vane Test Vane Test of Vane
Note Figure based on as 1377 (SSI. 1975bl.
Figure '2.~ - Vane Shear Devices

-
H91l0w drill. rods or GI pipe
With watel.ilghl couplings
r- - (or standpipe piezometer)
Groun",d level
'] . FA-
Gro'Jnd wolfr level H'-
-;;-------.+
t E
-: "- - - The water level inside the
casing to be maintained at
the same level Q5 the
sround water
I - r,,-
""" '.
,
Borehole casing
o "
o "
N
"
. .....- - - Sand
"
"
--
-l-----,----- bi: ;;0:
V ~
"
io ~ /
V /
.,g V '/
o
o
~
...L-..---V
/
V.
~ ~ '1/:,,/,..---- Bentonite seal (Allapulgite
V~ may be used in soline water)
II: ~
~ V
~---------~ ~-----~--~
~ ~
Graded filter malerial

SQnd ---"'d ?_ /:~ '::~ _
8Qse of stQndpipe perforated ~';IP 0 f:::

witll 3 mm diQmeter holes
(rings of 1I0ies to be at IS clc • :':1100
.~:
I:~
10 .;
12 number holes per ring I
wrapped in filter fQbric .:.·.1·
p "
Screw - on cap ----t~j. ·:~I--';or·::J: -
. ", ',' .. ----r-----'-
I- I -I
100- 150 diQmeter borehole
Noles : (IlScolo is diagrQmmatic.

(21' All dimensions ait.-In
";Ulimetru .
Figure 2.10- Typical Arrangement for Field Permeability Test

fracturing of the rock, or to give an approximate value of the permeability of the rock
mass adjacent to the borehole.
When the packer test is carned out at shallow depths, as is frequently the case in Hong
Kong, the applied water pressure must be limited to a value that will not cause
hydraulic fracturing of the ground.
(e) Plate Tests
The plate test is one particular application of the vertical loading test. wherever
practicable, the test should be conducted in a borehole which is of sufficient diameter
for a technician to enter, clean out the bottom, and bed the plate evenly on undisturbed
ground. Careful attention should be directed towards safety for operators working
below ground. The main use of the test is to determine the strength and deformation
characteristics for the ground.
) (f) Pressnremeter Tests
In a pressuremeter test, a probe is inserted into a pocket below the bottom of a

borehole and expanded laterally by compressed air or gas. The applied pressures and
resulting deformations are measured and enable the strength and deformation
characteristics of the ground to be investigated.
(g) Borehole Discontinuity Snrveys
(1) Impression Packer Survey
An impression packer survey provides an assessment of the orientation and

aperture of discontinuities in a borehole in rock by means of an inflatable
rubber membrane which presses an impressionable thermoplastic film against
the borehole wall. The impression packer can be used to provide data for the
design ofrock slopes, excavations and tunnels.
)
(2) Core Orientators
Several devices are available for determining the orientation of drill core, of
which the Craelius core orientator has been widely used.
2.6.6 Other Insitu Tests
Other insitu tests, for which a borehole either is unnecessary or is only an incidental
part of the test procedure, are descnoed in this section. The geophysical methods of
ground investigation are discussed in a separate section. These other insitu tests
include:
• Probing and Penetration Testing

• Pumping Tests
• Field Density Test
• Insitu Stress Measurements
• Bearing Tests
• Insitu Direct Shear Tests
• large-scale Field Trials
Details of some of the above tests are described below.
2.6.6.1 Probing and Penetration Tests
Probing from the surface is probably the oldest method of investigating the depth to a
hard layer where the overlying material is weak and not too thick. The method has
been developed in Holland to produce the Dutch cone penetrometer in which a cone is
pushed downwards through soil and the resistance to penetration recorded against
depth.
The cone penetration test is relatively quick to carry out, and inexpensive in
comparison with boring, sampling and laboratory testing. It has traditionally been used
to predict driving resistance, skin friction, and the end bearing capacity of driven piles
in granular soils. It has also been used to give an indication of the continuous soil
profile and as a rapid means of interpolating between boreholes. In addition, there is
sub stantial published information relating cone resistance value with other soil
parameters.
Because of limited cone capacity, penetration normally has to be terminated where

dense sand or gravel, highly to moderately decomposed rock, or cobbles are
encountered. For this reason, cone penetration testing in Hong Kong has been limited
to recent alluvial and marine sediments.
There are two distinct types of cone penetration testS: one where the probe is driven
into the soil by means of some form of hammer blow (Dynamic Cone Test); the other
where the probe is forced into the soil by static load (Static Cone Test).
2.6.6.2 Pumping Test
A pumping test involves pumping at a steady known flow from a well and observing
the drawdown effect on groundwater levels at some distance away from the pumped
well In response to pumping, phreatic and piezometric levels around the pumping
well will fall, creating a cone of depression. The flermeability of the ground is
obtained by a study of the shape of the cone of depression. Based on the data obtained
from the test, the coefficient of permeability, transmissivity and storage can be
determined for a greater mass of ground than by the use of the borehole test. The
results can be used in the evaluation of dewatering requirements and groundwater
resources.
2.6.6.3 Discontinuity Surveys
Discontinuities such as joints usually control the mechanical behaviour of a rock mass.
where surface exposure or outcrops of the rocks exist, a joint survey may be carried
out to assess the risk ofjoint-controlled instability, e.g. in cut slopes and excavations.
Using the Fadum chart, the foundation must be split up into the shapes shown
on Fig.f. j . Then from the chart:
Shape m II / as = q/ (kN/m2)
1 0.5 1.75 0.133 5.32

•••
. ;) .
,">
.~: . 2 0.5 1.75 0.133 5.32
3 0.5 0.25 0.048 1.92
4 0.5 0.75 0.109 4.36
:. Vertical stress = 1+2-3-4 = 10.64~6.28 = 4.36 kN/m2
r----:--..,...---..,
I
x·-....--L---~ =
I
2 4
1 3
Figure r. 3
2.6.6.4 Field Density Tests
Field testing of soil bulk density is a common and useful procedure. A major use of
such testing is for the control of compaction for embankments, earth dams and
highways. Most of the available methods of field density testing depend on the
removal of a representative sample of soil, followed by determinations of the mass of
the sample and the volume it occupied prior to removal. The nuclear methods are an
exception to this general rule.
All the field density test methods require physical access to the soil insitu. Therefore,
they are normally restricted to soil within 2 to 3 m of the surface, although they can
also be used equally well within caissons or shafts. The following are some of the
commonly used methods:
• Sand Replacement Method

• Core Cutter Method
• Weight in Water Method
• Water Displacement Method
• Rubber Balloon Method
• Nuclear Methods
2.6.6.5 Insitu Stress Measurement
The stresses existing in a ground mass before changes caused by the application of
loads or the formation of a cavity within the mass are referred to as the initial insitu
state of stress. These stresses are the resultant of gravitational stress and residual
stresses related to the geological history of the mass.
Data on insitu stresses in rock and soil masses are increasingly important in design and
construction of large civil engineering projects. The most favourable orientation,
shape, excavation sequence and support of large and complex underground cavities are
dependent on insitu stresses.
Methods of insitu stress measurement in rock include:

• Over-coring Methods
• Flat Jack or Slotting Methods
• Hydrofracturing Techniques
In soil, the methods include:

• Self Boring Pressuremeter
• Hydrofracturing
• Hydraulic Pressure Cells
2.6.6.6 Bearing Tests
Insitu I~ading te~s involve measuring the applied load and penetration of a plate being
pushed IDto a soil or rock mass. The test Can be carried out in shallow pits or trenches,
or at depth in the bottom of a borehole, pit or adit. In soils, the test is carried out to
determine the shear strength and deformation characteristics. The ultimate load is
often not attainable in rocks, where the test is more frequently used to determine the
deformation characteristics.
2.6.6.7 Insitu Direct Shear Tests
In this test, a sample of soil or rock is prepared and subjected to direct shearing insitu.
The test is generally designed to measure the peak shear strength of the intact materia~
or of a discontinuity, as a function of the normal stress acting on the shear plane.
Many of these tests are performed at the dam sites.
2.6.6.8 Large-scale Field Trials
Large-scale field trials are carried out in such a manner that the ground is tested on a
scale and under conditions comparable with those prevailing in the project under
investigation. They are not standard tests, and should be designed to suit the
individual requirements of the proposed works and the particular ground on which or
within which they are to be performed. A trial embankment is an example of large-
scale field tests.
In many projects, considerable value can be derived from trials carried out before the
co=encement of the permanent works. A wide range of construction methods is
co=only tested in trials, e.g. pile tests, ground anchor tests, compaction tests for
earth works, experimental shafts and adits for tunnels, grouting, trial blasts for
explosives and dewatering.
2.6.6.9. Back Analysis
Natural or man-made conditions on a site sometimes create phenomena which may be

used to assess parameters that are otherwise difficult to assess or which may be used as
a check on laboratory measurements. Examples of such phenomena are slope failures
and settlement of structures.
All applications of back analysis should be accompanied by rigorous geological and

geotechnical investigations, which should include a thorough review of the history of
the problem and examination of relevant climatic and groundwater records.
In Hong Kong, numerous landslides are caused by intense rainfall every year, and back
analysis is sometimes carried out to derive shear strength parameters as part of the
design procedure for slope remedial or preventive works.
2.6.7 Geophysical Methods
2.6.7.1 General
Geophysical Surveying is a specialised method of ground investigation. Its aims are;

3J
• to locate some form of subsurface anomaly where the materials on either

side of a boundary have markedly different physical properties. Typical
examples of such a boundary are a fault, underground services, a cavity, or
a boundary between two different rock types;
• to deduce soil and rock parameters;
• to estimate the depth to bedrock or to groundwater;
• to determine the thickness of soil strata;
• to provide an economical and rapid way of ground investigation.
There are certain limitations to the use of geophysical methods. Some of these are:
• It is limited to sites without surface disturbance or excessive noise.

• They can locate strata boundaries only if the physical properties of the
adjacent materials are significantly different.
• It is always necessary to check the results against data obtained by direct
)
methods such as boring.
• They must be considered mainly as supplementary methods.
• They do not give direct quantitative data on soil or rock parameters, such
as strength and compressibility.
The main methods of geophysical exploration are:
• Seismic methods - measuring velocity of sonlc waves

• Resistivity methods - measuring electrical conductivity
• Gravimetric methods - determining variations in density
• Magoetic methods - measuring magoetic susceptibility
The applicability of geophysical methods are summarised in Table 2.3 and some of the
above methods are described below.
2.6.7.2 Seismic Methods

OJ
Classification of Seismic Waves
Basically, there are three types of seismic waves which may be observed in
engineering seismology. These are compressional (P), shear (S), and Rayleigh surface
waves (Figure 2.11). The first two are body waves which may propagate along the
surface or into the subsurface, returning to the surface by reflection or refraction. The
third propagates only along the surface as a disturbance whose amplitude dies out
rapidly with depth.
Each of these types of waves travels with a different velocity. The P waves travel at
the highest velocity. In a given materia~ the S waves travel at roughly on-half of the P
waves velocity. The Rayleigh surface waves travels at approximately 0.9 the velocity
of the S waves. In engineering seismology, nearly all work is based upon the P wave
because the first seismic arrival, which is most easily recognised and timed, is always a
P wave. Typical velocities of some co=on rocks are shown in Table 2.4.
I
I I
V V
Table 2.:~- Field Geophysical Techniques Used in Ground Investigations
Technique Application Remarks II

I
Seismic refraction Mapping of subsurface ma'~riQI interfaces (including A hammer impulse may be used for shallow investigations. but
groundwater table J. Determination of compression explosive charges arc needed (or deep investigations (> 30m).
wave velocities. Location of geological features Excessive background 'noisC" may pr.eclude surveys ot some
I e.g. faults and caverns'. sites. May be unreliable unless velocities increase with depth
and bedrock surface is regular. Variable weathering patterns
often complicate interpretation. Data are indirect and represent
'"c:
0
averages.
-----,
0
Determination of material proper ties 'of the ground Uphole. downhole and closshole surveys arc carried oul.
-.
01
VI
>
c:
Seismic direct methods
(sonic wove velocities, dynamic moduli and rock-
mass. quality). location of geological features.
Data ore indirect and represent overages, and may be aff ... c\ed
by other moss characterislics.
----_._---
Ele't11lcal resistivity Mapping of subsurface material interfaces (including Variable weatherin.9 patterns often complicate interpretation.
""0
saltwater boundaries). Estimation 01 soil resistivity Water ,able loca\lon otten limits the depth for practical study
c Ihence corrosivityL Location of geological features. as conductivity rises sharply in saturated materials l. makes
CI and undtrground cQvities, e.g. disu:sed tunnels. differentiation between horizons impossible.
-'
Gravimetric location of geological features. Normally used only to locate cavities, e.g. in karst lerroin.
Magnetic Location of buried metalliferous man-made objects Large scale surveys arc generaUy carried oul from an aircroft.
I e.g. cables and pipelines} and geological features.
Seismic retle-clion Mapping of the seabed and malerial interfaces Long continuous traces can be obtained. Background 'noisC",
..
c:
below the seabed. solid waste on Ihe seabed. gos bubbles trapped within
sediments, and variable weathering patterns often complicate
interpretation. Does not provide sound velocities. Computation of
-"
0 depths to inter'Clces requires velocity dala obtained by other
means, e.g. borehote cOrlelation ,laboratory tests (Table 13).
-.
01
VI
>
Side scan sonar Mapping of the seabed (surface only). Location of rock
outcrops, gravel deposits, pipelines, wrecks, etc.
The technique does not give Qccuro te distances or deplhs to an
objecl. Qnd is generally used as 0 search toot only .
-c:
..
c:
Magnetic location of metalliferous man-mode objects on or
beloW the seabed (including sunken vessels).
Sunken objects on the seabed can render Ihe location of
specific objects ditficult .
J
~
CI EchO sounding Bathymetric mapping to determine waler depths. Suspended sediments created by dredging the seabed can render
:L the dredged levels obtained by this method unreliable. '
The trace abtainod by tho echo sounder should bo checkod
against depths. obtained by conventional mrlhods, e.g. by the
use of Q gravity corer.
----- ---- --- --- ---- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
'"
I'
33
Primary (P)
Shear (S)
Shear (S)
Rayleigh (R)
Figure 'l.1I Types of Seismic Waves
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY
Basalt 5200 -6400 Gypsum 2000 -3500
Dolerite 5800 -6600 Limestone 2800-7000
Granite (decomposed) 800 - 1000 Sandstone 1400 -4400
Granite 5500 - 6100 Shale 2100-4400
METAMORPHIC Ur-:CONSOUDAIgD DEPOSIIS
Gneiss 3700 -7000 Alluvium 300-600
Marble 3700 -6900 Fill 300 -1100
Quartzite 5600 - 6100 Clay (well 1500 -2000
Schist 3500 -5700 Clay (sandy) 2000 -2400
Tablet.4 Velocities (m/s) of compressional waves of some common rock

Seismic Refraction Method
Seismic techniques comprise two types, seismic refi-a.;tion and seismic reflection.
seismic refraction is more commonly used than reflectio!l. Both methods depend on
the fact that shock waves travel through different kind 0 f soil and rock with different
speed. Waves travel faster through rock than they do tlll :)Ugh soil.
The seismic refraction method is illustrated in Figure 2.1 L A shock wave, generated
from either a hammer blow, a dropped weight or a small explosive charge, is sent from
the source. This shock wave travels tluough the stra:a in tluee different ways to a
series of geophones (very sensitive earth microphones: which measure the time taken
for the wave to travel from the source to the point ill question. For short distances
from the source, geophones pick up both the direct wave (Path A) and refracted wave
(Path B). At a certain distance from the source, the refracted wave reaches the
geophone befure the direct wave (Path C). This is possible if the velocity ofthe lower
layer is higher than that in the upper layer. This distance is often called the critical
) distance.
Ifthe time of arrival of the waves are plotted relative to the positions of the geophones
as in Figure 2. 12a, a time-distance plot for the first arrivals (solid line) will show a
break point which corresponds to the critical distance (Xl)' From this plot, the
velocities (VI and V 2 ) of sonic waves in the upper and lower stratum respectively can
be determined from the slopes of the straight line segments. Based on the critical
distance, the velocities of the strata, the depth of the lower stratum (Zl) can be
calculated according to the following equation:
For a three-layered system, the thickness of the second stratum (Z2) can be given as:
Wbere V3 is the velocity of waves in the third stratum; and

X2 is the critical distance for the second break point in the distance-time
data curve.
An example illustrating the calculation of velocities and depths of strata using the
above equations is shown in Figure 2.13.
2.6.7.3 Resistivity Method
Resistivity method relies on different materials having different resistance to the flow
of electric current. The resistivity of a soil decreases as both the water content and the
concentration of salts increase.
Explosion or
hammer·blow
wave
Ca.)
I ...... First arrivals

I
I -0 <> Second arrivals
I
I
Travel
~-Slo?e 'il"~
I
time I
0- I
t
"e
t!..\o~
"I"
I
I
I
I
I
I
'" I I
I r 1 I ~
Distance x
(b)
1t
Upper stratum
(velocity v,)
lower stratum
(velocity v.)
2,= x, ( V2 - v, )1,1
2 V2 + v,
Figure '2..\'2... Seismic Reflection Survey (a) Paths of shock waves;· (b) Arrival time vs,
distance plot
shot geophones ~
point
..,If,
. . "
V, =7PO. ;n!s'
. ... . .
. ..... '.'
Vs- 5000 mls ~-

(a)
200
1 150
~
E -- -- ----- V.= 5000 mi.
..
~ 100
.i;
ffi
50 -
,,
V, = 700 mi.:
°O~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
50 x, 100 X2 150 200
geophone distance (m)
(b)
o.s
2, =!U .(Vl- VI)
2 Vl+ V,
_.6Zm ( 1500m/. - 700m/ s )0.5
2 JSoom/sl + 7oom/s l
= 20. 2m
0-
Zl=~.{V3-Vl)" _B
2 V3 + Vl 6
=135m (sooom/s - lsoom/s)O.5_~
2 5000m/s + 15OOm/s 6
= 46.1m
Figure l?13 Example of calculations from a Seismic Reflection Survey: (a) Geologica! cross
section showing physical setup; (b) Arrival time vs. distance plot.
The resistivity method involves the passing of an electrical current into the ground
through two metal electrodes and measuring the potential difference between two
similar electrodes (Figure 2. 14a). Figures 2.14b and 2.14c show an example of using
this method to find variations in soil thickness.
2.6.7.4 Gravimetric Method
A very precisely positioned and levelled instrument (gravimeter) is used to measure the
earth's gravitational field to a high degree of accuracy. The data is usually contoured
and presented in map form as anomalies, ie., differences between the theoretical and
observed gravity. In ground investigation, the gravimetric method or gravity survey is
normally limited to locating large cavities or faults. An example of using this method
to detect a cave is illustrated in Figure 2.15.
2.6.7.5 Magnetic Method
Local changes in the earth's magnetic field are associated with changes in rock types.
In suitable circumstances, measuring the magnetic field may locate boundaries (e.g.
faults or dykes) between rocks which display magnetic contrasts. A variety of
instruments have been designed to measure different parameters of the geomagnetic
field. The most commonly used in site exploration is the Proton magnetometer.
Figure 2.16 illustrates the variation of magnetic field over subsurface geology.
However, the main use of this method in civil engineering is the location of buried
metalliferous man-made objects, such as cables or pipelines. It can sometimes be used
to locate old mine shafts and areas of fill
2.6.7.6 Marine Geophysics
With suitable modifications of equipment, the above land based survey techniques may
be extended to the marine environment. Of greater use, however, are the teclmiques
) that have been developed specifically for offshore work. These techniques are
described below.
Eclto-Sounding
A continuous water depth profile along the track of survey vessel is obtained by using
an instrument that measures the time taken for a short pulse of a high frequency sound
wave to travel from a transducer attached to the survey vessel down to the seabed and
back again. Such profiles are usually combined to produce a bathymetric chart.
Continuous Seismic Reflection Profiling
The use of continuous seismic reflection profiling should always be considered as a

complementary aid to exploratory boreholes in major offshore investigations. An
extension of the echo-sounding principle is used to provide information on sub-seabed
acoustic reflectors which usually correspond to changes in material types.
Poten1iometer d V
Current
electrode
(a.)
......
. ......... .
' geological
limestone cross-section
: :burl~d: : :-
'sl~k ~ol~ :
o 10m
high P L..'_.,-'
scale
t
apparent
ground
shows
position
of burled
sink-hole
resistance
p
traverse distance
lC)
Figure 1..l4 Resistivity Method: (a) Electrodes and system arrangements; (b) Geological
cross section buried sink hole; (c) Resistivity data showing positon of sink
hole.
gravity
+
- ; I -......--'~.....-o~-I-normal
field
value
_ '" gravimeter _ _ surface
·0·············
. .....
....
: .. cave
..
.
.. ::::
: rock
. . . .. . .
Figure 2. t"- Gravimetric Method: Detection of Heavy Ores and Cave Subsurface
magnetic
field In
oersted +
~'"-"l""''':::::;I-==;''-==-+'= normal
magnetometer
." v v v y v y " v v y v y v v
v v v v v v v v v v y v v y
"Yvvvvvv"v.".,.,."
,, ,
-~- round surface
· y V V Y Y v y v v v v y y
"'IVVVVYV.,v.,.,.,.,
• V Y Y v y v v v v v v v y
y v v v v y v v v v v v v
-.,vv.,.,.,.,.,,,.,.,.,
""""vvv.,y.,.,.,.,
• V V V Y V Y V V V V V Y
Figure 2..1 G Magnetic Method: Variation of Magnetic Field over Subsurface Geology
There are two main limitations to this technique. Firstly, it cannot usually delineate the
boundary between two different materials that have similar geophysical characteristics.
Secondly, in water depths of less than about 2 In, near-seabed reflectors may be
obscured by multiple reflections originating from the seabed.
Side SCatl Sonar
This is an undenvater acoustic technique analogous to oblique aerial photography,

enabling discontinuities and profiles offset from the line of traverse to be recorded for
subsequent bathymetric charting by echo-sounding or other techniques. The system is
particularly useful in searches for rock outcrops, pipelines, trenches and seabed
obstructions, such as wrecks.
2.6.7.7 Borehole Logging
Certain geophysical techniques may be adapted to provide logs of boreholes that are
analogous to conventional geological logs. These borehole logs may be used for
geological correlation purposes across a site. The normal techniques consist of seismic
(structural data), electrical (stratigraphical data), gamma gamma (density data), natural
gamma (stratigraphical data) and caliper (borehole diameter data). The data obtained
should always be correlated against the examination and testing of borehole samples
and against the results of other insitu tests.
2.6.8 Laboratory Tests
2.6.8.1 General
Laboratory testing is considered to be a part of the ground investigation, and the

overall site investigation would normally not be complete without it. The main
objectives oflaboratory testing of samples of soil and rock are:
• to identiJY and classifY the samples with a view to making use of past
experience with materials of similar geologic age, origin and condition, and
• to obtain soil and rock parameters relevant to the technical objectives of the
investigation
As general guidance, the test method to be used should have direct relevance to the
engineering problem at hand and should simulate the field conditions as closely liS
possible.
2.6.8.2 Tests on Soils
The following lists the categories and ranges of laboratory tests on soil and
groundwater:
Soil Classification Tests:
• Moisture content
• Liquid and plastic limits (Atterberg limits)
• Specific gravity
• Particle size distribution
• Laboratory vane shear
Chemical and Corrosivity Tests on soils and Groundwater:
• Organic matter content

• Sulphate content
• Sulphide content
• pH value
• Chloride ion content
• Carbonate content
• Resistivity
• Redox potential
• Bacteriological tests
Soil Strength Tests:
• Triaxial compression tests:

- Quick undrained
- Consolidated drained
- Consolidated undrained with measorement of pore water pressure
• Direct shear test
Soil Deformation Tests:
• Consolidation:
:) - One-dimensional consolidation (Oedometer test)
- Triaxial consolidation
- Rowe cell
• Modulus of deformation
Soil Permeability Tests:
• Constant head test

• Falling head test
• Triaxial permeability test
• Rowe cell
Soil Compaction Tests:
• Dry density/moisture content relationship

2.6.8.3 Tests on Rock
Rock Classification Tests:
• Water content, porosity, density, absorptioll, swelling, and slake durability

• Sonic wave velocity (sound velocity)
• Thin section
• Point load
Rock Strength and Deformation Tests:
• Uniaxial compressive strength and deformability

• Triaxial compression
• Direct and indirect tensile strength
Rock discontinuity Strength Tests:

• Direct shear
2.7 Site Investigation Report

The site investigation report is a consideration of all available information from desk
studies, site reconnaissance and ground investigations, such as data from boreholes,
trial pits, site observations, historical records, insitu tests, geophysical surveys and
laboratory tests. Most site investigation reports follow a fairly stereotyped pattern
under the following headings.
Introduction
The report should have an introduction stating for whom the work was done, the
nature of the investigation and its general location, the purpose for which the
investigation was made and the period of time over which the work was carried out.
It should also state the terms of reference, for example whether the investigation was
merely to obtain a limited amount of factual data for assessment by the design
engineer, or whether a full investigation was required with boring, field tests,
laboratory tests, and an analysis of the results to consider possible methods of
foundation design and construction and to calculate the allowable bearing pressures.
It is sometimes the practice for a site investigation report to be divided into two parts:
(1) a factual report, and (2) an interpretative report. Part 1 inCludes all the factual
data from the desk study, field investigation, and laboratory tests, Part 2 comprises the
interpretation of the data by an engineering geologist or by the engineer or both of
these. It is not unusual for Part 2 to be withheld from contractors tendering for the
construction work. An experienced contractor has the capability to make his own
judgement on excavation difficulties, quantities of groundwater to be pumped, and the
installation of piles from the factual information in a sufficiently detailed Part 1 report.
General Description of the Site
TIlls part of the report should describe the general connguration and surface features
of the site. Any useful information derived from historical records on previous usage
of the site should also be described. ObseIVations regarding flooding, sea or wind
erosion, subsidence, earthquakes, and slope instability should be included as well. Any
nearby buildings showing signs of settlement cracking should be noted.
General Geology of the Area
An accouot should be given of the geology of the site. The soil and rock types
identified and descn'bed in the report should be linked with the known geology of the
site. Attention should be drawn to any known faults, quarries, springs, swallow holes,
mines or shafts, or other features which will have a bearing on the fouodation work.
Description of Soil Conditions Found in Boreholes and Other lnsitu Tests
The final borehole logs should be based on the visual examination and description the
samples, the laboratory tests results where appropriate, the driller's or inspector's daily
report fonns and what is known of the geology of the site. Being an interpretation of
grouod data which may at times be conflicting, the logs should be finalised only when
the appropriate field and laboratory work has been completed. Most organisations
carrying out site investigation have standard fonns for borehole logs. Figure 2.17
shows an example of a borehole log. The borehole logs are usually assembled in an
appendix of the report.
TIlls part of the report should not be a mere catalogue of the borehole records. It is a
general description of the soil conditions with reference to the connguration of the
grouod and variations in level of the various strata and the grouodwater table. If a
number of Boreholes have been sunk on a site, it is a good practice to draw one or
more cross-sections through the site to show the variations and level of particular
strata which may be of significance in the engineering problem. A typical section is
illustrated in Figure 2.18.
Laboratory Test Results
The description should be limited to a brief mention of the various types of tests which
were made and attention drawn to any results which are uousual or of particular
significance. For details of the results the reader should be referred to a table of
results with charts and diagrams.
Discussion of Results of Investigation in Relation to Foundation Design and

Construction
This is the heart of the report and the writer should endeavour to discuss the problem
clearly and concisely. This portion of the report should be broken down into a
number of subheadings. First, uoder general, a description is given of the main
structures and the related loading, together with a general assessment of the grouod
conditions and the types of fouodation which could be adopted. The remainder of the
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• Stnc!l dISII/flue! ,o.mpl'
From I,t. lormotion drowlnll no. A/301ft, Dtlgll'lol
ground !n'l to.fort ,onslrl,l(t,ol'l 01 IIU goIlIlIo'lII
alld ploY9round Well cpproJ:. IlmPO,
f lorg. dillurb'd Mmpt.
Typi 01 b;rlflg/d"lhng
Rotary ar,!!lt\9
U16,IOO Undisturbed O'rlvt Illrnplti 01 75 !11m
or lOOmm d'il. \ blow tounl, d'pth}
o Oio~.ttr 01 bonni1dr,III"II:
o 00 - ._20... lLO mm
I 5PT hn., Igmpl. B 20 _ 11 SOm
11 50 _ U lOin
101 mit!
egmm
Celt 22/2 22/2 2l/2 2HZ 2412 2", Stondord P.n.!rohofl lui N volu.; 12.\0.1& 10m 7Bmm
liC d.pth 1.2 1.2 Il.2 Il.2 11.1
I 1 bill_ '01,11'11 I ptrlttr;t,lln I
Co.,n9 tlltou
Cuing '.2 '.2 12.1 12.1 12.1
2 o 00• • 2011\ PW
WOI.t l.O U 3.5 7. 1.6 .20 -H.leln HW
Figure 2_17- Example of a Borehole Log (sheet I of 2)

Pro)t" Prall"! A JOO 1<10. ~T/Ol/lf
Bortnolt N. ."
, Co-otdu'lO!ts E~ N !!ll!...!! SI"II'I'I N. , .1 ,
Loc.Ollon Lo. T"
Cito",nlS LI'".I . I: 5 IIIPD
~°'iitd
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:~;:n =1'I.,~c~
" .1 N. ~=u
Conlro,lor A. N. COlllpon), O"."IOllon V.rh'al

Oalt of world 22/2/86 .. 2~fll66
• ;; Ol'pln
., Sornpl •
l't
02 .i;
~-
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bornl Co.'''g Fi.ld TISII. torr Ltg_"" Otllih
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~
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5ampl" 01111
Instrurnenlatlon "".
1~.1
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• ••
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lor d.h).I.). ,
;; J" 10'
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N
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, -
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-
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107 101 Wf1lk. )'tHow'"h brown. In';;:':;'OI'l .. lor. 1\0;/";"[
oecompone: ,oaru-;t;;r..: iill:':'~JTr: Irel:'l
10.7 - II·Om .
N;l reco ... ,)' from H.D -U 5:n.
f-
11.5 N. .' . Smelt GlSturb.d lomple 1<10.10 I:ontelnl c.:-u. ",7
ROlar), lagl lQ(lIlSQ mrn , I~ •Ox•• 11.5
pinkish brown, IDL'Id)' Sili with lem,
I-
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boting
12 .1
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X.X •
lIC'
lli t.li,1 granltt lulurt iHig"'y 10 '~rnplI!lly

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".,." 12.1 71.5
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12.5 71.1
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~
~
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71.1
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7 •
13
13·2 7U
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os angular grav.1 01 12·5 • 12.&m . I- J
2' 2
J
f~ ·••.•••
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7.
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-
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. - .......
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~ 15.5 76.1
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.6; Piullrn.ltr
A llCl 7S L • •• Ihi,k ,hlotlt. infill 01 17.1 -11.5m.
Sub-horizontal. 511'100lh onG plonor, tighl.
•• whit.-stointd Joint cool.d with koolin
-2'12 100
, • • •~
Ia.I 73.5
ot 11.0111,
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-
Rlmarks : llstnd : pront uuG: LOng),lor LU

Pinolllet,r A"b Inlloll.d 01 11.3m d.~lh btloW ,round • Small disturb.d sompl.
typt 0/ boring I driLlin\i :
~
lutlo,_ wilh SOnG IIII_r ftom 1I.lm 10 li.lm. htnlonll.
Lor,1 lIilturb.d lompi. Rotory drillinl
1101 from 12.1m to '.ifnl pinomillt Allo inltall.d 01
7.5Sm IIlpln b.la," ground lutfoe.t will'l 10111$ ml.t from
U76.100 Undislurtltel drive samplu of 76 nuft FIUIl'ling lII'dil.<lII : Waht
8.1m to 1.lIm, b.nlona, sral Irolll 1.'111 10 '.Sm. end or 100 mm dio. (blow COl.lnl, Iftplhl
u/YIfnl-btIiIOnii_ oroul Itom. L.5m 10 ground surloc ••
O.emtitr 01 borinO J (lriJlinl ;
0 10/01;" 101llpl.
0.00 - 8.2011'1 tLOmm
Mornin\i I ,y,ning waitt l,v.1 , I Sf'T linn IOmplt

8.10 ·1I·50m lOlmm
11.50 -\2 10m 19 111m
1210 - 1&.\0111 1limm
0011 I I
510n(lord p.n.lroliOon lui N volut.
I blo. eo~11 p.neltGlion I
aN •• plh CGlinl lub., :
S.. +"II
PIt~tObiUl1 tut 0·00 - I 10<11 PW
COlillg 2 nQ ·12.10111. HW
WOI., I
-
Figure '2.17- Example of a Borehole Log (sheet 2 of 2)
a.H.tl
1.200
$colu11/2500 horizon'ol
1/250 v,rtiGol
• P'01
=) ~ Slit)' lon'
fZJStiff bo"IIIf.r;jo),
51 Sandslon. ond Ihol, b.drooll
Figure:2.1 B Typical Section Through Boreholes

subheadings call refer either to particular structures or to possible types of foundation
design for any individual structure.
For example, in the case of strip foundations, the required foundation depth should be
stated, then the allowable bearing pressures, and then the settlements to be expected
with these pressures. In the case of pile foundations, the report should give the
bearing stratum to which piles should be driven, the required penetration of piles into
this stratum, the working loads to be adopted per pile and the expected settlements.
In writing this section of the report, care should be taken to avoid wishful thinking
based on preconceived ideas on the foundation design. The recommendations for
foundation design must be based on the facts stated in the report. The report should
also include recommendations for safety measures during construction, for monitoring
behaviour during and after construction, and for post-construction maintenance.
Conclusion
This last section of the report may include a brief summary of the investigation
procedure and the main conclusions which have been drawn from it.

CON4341 - Notes

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CBE2021 SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOLOGY

1 Definition of Engineering Soil

Engineering soil is defined as an un-cemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed

2 Definition of Soil Mechanics, Soil Engineering and Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical Engineering: It is defined as the sub-discipline of civil engineering that involves

3 Geotechnical Engineering Problems

There are three basic problems:

(b) Deformation Problem: it involves whether a structure performs satisfactorily even

4 History of Soil Mechanics

5 Origins and Modes of Formation of Soils

• METAMORPHIC ROCKS: rocks formed by changing the composition and texture of

Figure 1 shows diagrammatically how soil is derived from rock.

Figure 1: Soil formation process: weathering, erosion, transportation & deposition

6 Some Factors Affecting the Formation of Solid Rocks to Soils

• Nature and composition of parent rocks.

7 Some Engineering Soil Terminology

COLLUVIAL SOILS (COLLUVIUM). Materials such as deposits of sand and gravel

DRIFTS. A geological term used to describe superficial unconsolidated deposits of recent

MECHANICAL WEATHERING. It is the disintegration of rock by purely physical means,

CHEMICAL WEATHERING. It is the action of water, atmospheric gases and organic

9 Distribution of Soils in Hong Kong

Figure 2 shows grammatically typical distribution of soils in Hong Kong.

Fig. 2 Soil distribution in Hong Kong.

1. MASS – VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS

Soil is usually modelled as a “THREE-PHASE” material, consisting of:

Solid mineral particles (solid phase) -

Pore fluid (liquid phase) -

Pore gas (gas phase) -

Fig. 2.1 Unit Solid Volume Model

Go to Appendix 1 for explanation of symbols.

It is useful to consider each phase individually as shown in Table 1.

Phase Volume Mass Weight

Table 1 Distribution by Volume, Mass, and Weight

For most engineering applications the following units are used:

Length metres (m)

• Expressed as a decimal or percentage (usually percentage).

For example, for a very loose sand with e = 0.8,

n = 0.8 (x 100%) = 44%

Air Void Ratio, AV:

Expressed as kg/m3 or Mg/m3

Density of Soil Solid Grains, ρS:

MS = mass of soil solid grains

Specific Gravity of Soil Solid Grains, GS:

Density of Water, ρw:

MT = total mass of soil

Dry Density of Soil, ρd:

Saturated Density of Soil, ρsat:

S = 100%, (i.e., VA = 0 or Vw = Vv and therefore MT = MS + VV x ρW)

Submerged (buoyant) Density of Soil, ρsub or ρ’:

ρsub (or ρ’) = ρsat - ρw

where g is the acceleration due to gravity. g = 9.81 m/s2

Hence the unit weight of water,

For soil, say if ρ = 2100 kg/m3,

(Note: 1 kg-m/s2 = 1 N (Newton))

8 Useful Mass-Volume Relationships

Phase Volume Mass

Unit Solid Volume Model

VV = e (since: e = VV / VS, and VS = 1)

VT = 1 + e (since VT = VS + VV, VS=1, and VV = e)

VA = e (1 - S) (since S = VW / VV, VW = VV - VA, and VV = e)

VW = e S (since S = VW / VV, and VV = e)

V W = w GS (since VW = MW / ρW, and MW = w MS = w GS ρW)

MA = 0 (mass of air is negligible compared with other phases)