08/02/2018

Soil Mechanics I

Physical Properties of Soils

Description
This section discusses about the origin of soils, soil
phases (and diagram), soil physical properties and
its relationship

Reference

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Origin of Soils
• Soil can be defined as an
assemblage of nonmetallic solid
particles (mineral grains)

• Commonly used terms such as

gravel, sand, silt, and clay are
the names of soils based on their
particle grain sizes.

• The names quartz, mica,

feldspar, etc. are based on their
crystal names.

Rock Cycles

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Rock Cycles
• Most original rock starts
forming from molten magma
(liquid) in the deep earth (to
the depth of 2885 km from
the base of crust).
• Magma cools down and solidifies when it
approaches the earth’s crust (about 4–6
km thick under the deep oceans and 25–
60 km thick on the continent) due to
tectonic and volcanic activities.
• Thus, igneous rocks, such
as basalt, granite, pumice,
and olivine, are formed.

Rock Cycles
• The next process is weathering.
• Solid igneous rocks on the earth’s surface are subjected to all
kinds of attacks in the environment, such as erosion by water
and air, thermal expansion and contraction, intrusion of plant
roots in the cracks, icing on the cracks, and chemical attack on
the surface.
• The surface of igneous rocks is weathered and broken down to
smaller sizes. The next process in the cycle is transportation.

• Broken fragments of
rock are displaced by
means of water run, glacier, and
sometimes by wind, and they
eventually settle down at a
certain distance from the
original location (deposition).

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Rock Cycles

• During the transportation process, particles further suffer

physical and chemical attacks, and they become smaller and
rounder.
• Deposited materials (sediments) are one type of soil.
• Thus, this type of soil originates from igneous rocks, and
particles have crystals similar to those in igneous rocks.

Rock Cycles
• Deposited soils on many occasions are subjected to many geological
years of cementation and compression that transform them to
sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, shale, limestone, and
dolomite, as well as many others.

• Rocks might go
through further
transformation due
to high heat and
pressure in deeper
earth but without
melting.
• This process is called
metamorphism, and
metamorphic rocks
are formed.

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Rock Cycles

• Transformation of
marble from
limestone by
metamorphism is a
good example of this.
• Metamorphic rocks
could be melted into
magma to complete
a rock cycle when
they go more deeply
into the earth.

Rock Cycles
Sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks are also subjected to
weathering, transportation, and deposition processes to form
sediments (soils).

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Rock Cycles
• Thus, these rocks can become the origins of soil particles in
addition to the ones from igneous rocks.
• All the preceding processes, including origin of soils,
weathering, transportation, and deposition, make different
types of soil in terms of particle sizes, shapes, mineral
compositions, etc.

Soil Particle shape

• Weathering and transportation processes produce a variety of
particle shapes, from angular to rounded.
• Since soil is an assemblage of particles, interlocking of those
particles and their contact mechanism—in particular, for
larger particles—determines many important mechanical
properties of soils such as strength, rigidity, permeability, and
compaction.
• For example, angular particle assembly will give more
resistance to sliding deformation (higher rigidity and strength)
as compared to rounded particle assembly.
• Soil angularity can be determined by comparing particle
shape (under a microscope, if needed) with the sample
shapes

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Soil Particle shape

Definitions (from FHWA NHI-06-088)
• Angular particles are those that
have been freshly broken up and are
characterized by jagged projections,
sharp ridges, and flat surfaces.
• Subangular particles are those that
have been weathered to the extent
that the sharper points and ridges
have been worn off.
• Subrounded particles are those that have been weathered to a
further degree than subangular particles.
• Rounded particles are those on which all projections have been
removed, with few irregularities in shape remaining.
• Well rounded particles are rounded particles in which the few
remaining irregularities have been removed.

Scanned Electron Microscope (SEM)

K7 Sand Shirasu Sand

Toyoura Sand Zeolite Sand

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Soil Particle shape

• For smaller particle assemblies, such as in clay minerals,
particle shapes are much flatter and sometimes flaky.
• In those smaller particle soils, short-range interparticle forces
play an important role to determine the behavior of soils.

Scanned Electron Microscope (SEM)

Kaolin Clay Natural diatomite

Peat soil Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash

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▪ In general, soils consist of

① particles or grains (which is in solids state)
② liquid (water) and
③ gas (air).
▪ Water and Air filling spaces or voids between particles.

Water Solid

Air Va Air Wa=0

Vv
V
Vw Water Ww W

Vs Solids Ws

Assemble of particles Three phase diagram

Depends on the fluids filling the voids, soils can be divided

into three condition:
Ground surface
Air
Near
Dry
ground
soils
surface

Water
Partially Above
saturated ground
soils water table
Particle
Ground water table

Saturated Below
soils ground
water water table

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Dry soils

Air
Dry
soils
Particle
Water
Air

Particle

water

Wet soils or partially Water Particle

saturated soils
Air

Air

Water
Partially
saturated
soils
Particle Or
Wet soils

water

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Saturated soils Particle

Water

Air

Water

Particle

Saturated
soils
water

Phase diagram based on soil condition

Wet Soil or
Dry Soil Saturated Soil
Partially Saturated Soil

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Mass (M), Weight (W) and Volume (V)

• The mass, weight and volume of soils is the summation
of mass, weight and volume of solids and voids.

M  Ms  Mw
W  Ws  Ww
V  Vs  Vw  Va
M = total mass of soils (kg or gram)
W = total weight of soils (kN or N)
Ms = mass of solids (kg or gram)
Ws = weight of solids (kN or N)
Mw = mass of water (kg or gram)
Ww = weight of voids (kN or N)
V = total volume of soils (m3 or cm3) W  m g
Vs = volume of solids (m3 or cm3) g = gravitational constant (10 m2/s)
Vw = volume of water (m3 or cm3)
N = newton (kg.m2/s)
Va = volume of air (m3 or cm3)
m = mass (kg)

Mass density (ρ) and Weight density (γ)

• Mass density is defined as the ratio between total mass
and total volume of soils.
M

V

• Weight density (or

unit weight) is
defined as the ratio
between total weight
and total volume of
soils.
W

V

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Weight density (or Unit Weight) (γ)

• Basically, unit weight refers to a ratio between total
weight to total volume.
W

V
• However, its definition varies depending on the
condition of soils (saturated, dry or partially saturated
soil).
• There are several definitions of unit weight of soil:
– Bulk unit weight (b)
– Dry unit weight (dry)
– Saturated unit weight (sat)
– Submerged unit weight (or buoyant unit weight) (’)

Weight density (or Unit Weight) (γ)

Bulk unit weight (b)
When soil in wet condition (or
partially saturated condition), or
the void is filled with air and
water. In this condition, the unit
weight is referred as Bulk unit
weight (b).
Because water and air filled the a V Air Wa=0
void, bulk unit weight can be Vv
calculated as: V
Vw Water Ww W

W Ws  Ww
b   Solids
V Vs  Vw  Va Vs Ws

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Weight density (or Unit Weight) (γ)

Dry unit weight (b)
When soil in dry condition, or
the void is fully filled with air.
There is no water in the soil.
In this condition, the unit
weight is referred as dry unit
weight (d).
Because air filled the void,
dry unit weight can be
Va= Vv Air Wa=0
W
calculated as: V
W Ws
d   Solids
V Vs  Va Vs Ws

Weight density (or Unit Weight) (γ)

Saturated unit weight (sat)
When soil in saturated condition,
or the void is fully filled with
water. There is no air in the soil.
In this condition, the unit weight
is referred as saturated unit
weight (sat).
Because water filled the void,
Vw=Vv Water Ww
saturated unit weight can be
W
calculated as: V
W Ws  Ww
 sat   Solids
V Vs  Vw Vs Ws

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Weight density (or Unit Weight) (γ)

Submerged unit weight (’)
Under water table, the weight of
soil is referred as Submerged unit
weight or buoyant unit weight. It
can be calculated by reducing
saturated unit weight with unit
weight of water.
 '   sat   w Vw=Vv Water Ww
W
V
Unit weight of water is usually
taken as constant (10 kN/m3) Vs Solids Ws

Porosity (n) and Void Ratio (e)

• Porosity (n) is ratio between
volume of void and total
volume
volume of void Vv Va  Vw
n  
total volume V V

• Void ratio (e) is ratio

between volume of void
and volume of solid

volume of void Vv Va  Vw
e  
volume of solid Vs Vs

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Water content (w) and Degree of Saturation (S)

• Water content (w) is ratio
between weight of water to
the weight of solid
weight of water Ww
w  100%
weight of solid Ws

• Degree of saturation (S) is

ratio between volume of • Degree of saturation (S)
water to the volume of void varies between 0 to 100%.
volume of water Vw • For dry soil, S= 0%
S  100%
volume of void Vv • For saturated soil, S= 100%

Unit weight of solid (s), Unit weight of water (w)

and Specific Gravity (Gs)
• Unit weight of solid (s) is • Unit weight of water (w)
a ratio between weight of is a ratio between weight
solid to the volume of of water to the volume of
solid. water.
weight of solid Ws weight of water Ww
s   w  
volume of solid Vs volume of water Vw

• Unit weight of water is

constant (w=10 kN/m3)
• Specific gravity (Gs) is a ratio between unit weight
of solid to the unit weight of water.
unit weight of solid  s Ws Vs
Gs   
unit weight of water  w w

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Exercise 1
For a given soil, w = 25% and γb = 18.5 kN/m3 are
measured. Determine void ratio (e) and degree of
saturation (S). Assume that Gs is 2.70.

Exercise 2
A soil sample weight 30.6 kg has volume 0.0183
m3. After put in to oven (24 hours, 105°C), the
weight decreases to 27.2 kg. Assume that specific
gravity is 2.65, determine:

a. Bulk unit weight f. Volume of air in m3

b. Dry unit weight g. Saturated unit weight
c. Water content h. How many litters of
d. Void ratio water need to added
e. Porosity to change the soil
condition become
saturated

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Relationship between soil parameter

n e
① e  1 n ② n
1 e

1 w
③  b  1  e Gs   w

④ w  Gs  S  e

Dry soil: Gs   w
d  ⑥
Gs  S  e
S=0%, thus: 1 e
⑤ b  w
1 e
Saturated soil: G e
  s w ⑦
S=100%, thus: sat 1 e

Exercise 3
Properties of Soil A: Gs=2.6; S=95% and e=0.9
Properties of Soil B: b=17 kN/m3; w=16%

How much volume of Soil B (in m3) required to be

mixed with 5 m3 Soil A to produce soil mixture with
w=20%?

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Exercise 4
For an organic soil, the void ratio (e) is found to be
10.0, and Gs is 2.35. If this soil is fully saturated,
find:
a) Total unit weight of the soil (γb)
b) Water content (w)
c) Does this soil sink in water?

Exercise 5
The dry unit weight of a soil is found to be 15.8
kN/m3 and its porosity (n) = 0.40. Determine:
a) The total unit weight of the soil (γb) when the
soil’s degree of saturation (S) is increased to
50%
b) The total unit weight of the soil (γb) when the
soil is fully saturated
c) The specific gravity (Gs) of this soil

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Exercise 6
Soil collected from the site is found to have γb =
18.5 kN/m3, w = 8.6%, and Gs = 2.67. After a heavy
rainfall overnight, 10% increase in the degree of
saturation S was observed. Determine:
a) The degree of saturation (S) of the soil before
the rainfall
b) The void ratio (e) of the soil before the rainfall
c) The water content (w) after 10% increase in S
d) The total unit weight (γb) after 10% increase in S

Exercise 7
In a construction site, 100 m3 of the volume is
excavated. γb, Gs, and w of the excavated soil are
18.5 kN/m3, 2.68, and 8.2%, respectively.

a) How heavy is the whole excavated soil?

b) What is the porosity of the soil?
c) If the excavated soil is dried out to 5% water
content at the site, how heavy does it become?

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Particle Size Distribution

• Particle size plays a dominant role in distinguishing soil types.
• Commonly used names of soil such as gravel, sand, silt, and
clay are based on their grain sizes.

USCS: ASTM D2487

Coarse grained Fine grained

Gravel Sand
Boulders Cobbles Clay/Silt
Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine
Size (mm) 300 75 19 4.75 2.0 0.425 0.075

AASTHO: ASTM D3282

Coarse grained Fine grained

Sand
Boulders Gravel Clay/Silt
Coarse Fine
Size (mm) 75 2.0 0.425 0.075

Measurement of soil grain size

For coarse grain: For fine grain:

0.425 mm
2 mm 19 mm

0.075 mm

Clay Silt

Sand Gravel

Mechanical Sieve Analysis Hydrometer Analysis

(ASTM D422 and ASTM D1140) (ASTM D442, ASTM
D152 and ASTM D1140)

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Particle Size Sieve No. Opening Size Note

Gravel (>#4)
Distribution #4 ---- 4.75 mm ----------
Standard Sieve Sizes #6 ---- 3.35 mm Course Sand
– Coarse grained #8 ---- 2.36 mm (#4 to #10)

#10 ---- 2.00 mm ----------

(ASTM E11-09) #16 ---- 1.18 mm
Medium Sand
#20 ---- 0.85 mm
(#10 to #40)
#30 ---- 0.60 mm
#40 ---- 0.425 mm ----------
#50 ---- 0.300 mm
#60 ---- 0.250 mm
Fine Sand
#80 ---- 0.180 mm (#40 to #200)
#100 ---- 0.150 mm
#140 ---- 0.106 mm
#170 ---- 0.088 mm
#200 ---- 0.075 mm ----------
Clay or Silt
(<#200)

Particle Size Distribution

Hydrometer Analysis
(ASTM D422, D152 and D1140)

Diameter of soil grains calculated based on

sedimentation principle following Stokes
Law:
18 L
D
Gs  1 w t
Where:
D = diameter of soil particle
Gs = specific gravity of soil particle
 = viscosity of water
w = unit weight of water
L = effective length (length measured
from water surface in the cylinder to the
center of gravity of hydrometer)
t = time

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Particle Size Distribution

Fine grained Coarse grained

- Hydrometer - - Sieve Analysis -
0.075 mm 4.75 mm 75 mm

Silt/Clay Sand Gravel Cobbles

Particle Size Distribution

Fine grained Coarse grained

- Hydrometer - - Sieve Analysis -
0.075 mm 4.75 mm 75 mm

Silt/Clay Sand Gravel Cobbles

%Gravel (10%)

%Sand (70%)

%Silt and Clay

(20%)

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Particle Size Distribution

Particle diameter corresponds to a certain percent finer.

D60 = Diameter of soil particle corresponding to 60% finer in

the particle size distribution

D30 = Diameter of soil particle corresponding to 30% finer in

the particle size distribution

D10 = Diameter of soil particle corresponding to 10% finer in

the particle size distribution

Particle Size Distribution

Fine grained Coarse grained

- Hydrometer - - Sieve Analysis -
0.075 mm 4.75 mm 75 mm

Silt/Clay Sand Gravel Cobbles

60%

D60 = 1.18 mm
30%

10% D30 = 0.25 mm

D10 = 0.02 mm

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Particle Size Distribution

Important coefficient based on Particle Size Distribution for soil
classification:

Cu = Coefficient of Uniformity
= D60/D10
Cc = Coefficient of Gradation or Coefficient of Curvature
= (D30)2/(D60 x D10)

Other text book use symbol Cg to represent Coefficient of

Gradation or Coefficient of Curvature

Particle Size Distribution

Well Graded Soil Gap Graded Soil Poorly Graded Soil

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Particle Size Distribution

Particle Size Distribution

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Particle Size Distribution

• For smooth gradation curves, the range of Cc
values is between 1 and 3.
• Soils with 1 < Cc < 3 are considered well-graded
soils as long as Cu > 4 for gravels or Cu > 6 for
sands, according to the USCS.
• On the other hand, soils with Cc > 3 or Cc < 1 are
called gap-graded soils.

Particle Size Distribution

• The final structures of
clay are established from
the balance of interactive
forces and external forces
applied to the clay Final clay structure with particles’
assemblage. interactive and external forces

• The external forces are due to the stress induced in a

soil element, including soil’s gravitational weight.
• The applied external forces and nonparallel clay particle
orientations move particles’ positions away from their
equilibrium distance, and thus the final interparticle
forces among adjacent particles can be either attractive
or repulsive.

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Particle Size Distribution

• If the final interparticle forces are
repulsive, the particles want to separate
from each other when the boundary
Dispersed Clay
confinements are removed. This is a
situation of dispersed clay.
• On the contrary, if the interparticle forces
are attractive, then particles want to come
together, making flocculated clay. In
flocculated clays, surface and edge charges
play an important role. If the edge charges
are positive, most likely the edges are
attracted to the flat surfaces of other clay Card-house
particles. This makes a card-house structure flocculated Structure
of flocculated clay, most commonly in
saltwater environments.

Particle Size Distribution

• In freshwater environments, more face-
to-face flocculated structures are formed
due to negative charges at the edges.
Face-to-face
flocculated structure

• The relative particle positions are dependent on various

environmental factors as discussed earlier.
• If the environmental factors change after the formation of the
original clay structure, clay will possess a potentially different
structure.
• In a hydrometer test to determine finer particle sizes, Calgon
solution (or other deflocculation agents) is added to soil and
water solution to break down lumped soil particles. The solution
changes a chemical condition of the suspension from flocculated
to dispersed so that individual particle diameters are measured.

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Atterberg Limits and Indices

• Water plays a very significant role in the engineering
behavior of clays.
• When the water content changes, clay changes its
character in a surprising manner.
– When clay particles are in a large amount of water, it is
similar to a lean soup (liquid)
– At a slightly drier state, it becomes similar to a soft butter
(plastic).
– At a further dried stage, it behaves like a cheese (semi-
solid).
– At a very dry stage, it is like a hard candy (solid).

Atterberg Limits and Indices

• So, depended on the water content, soil has four phases:
① Liquid phase; ② Plastic phase; ③ Semi-solid phase and
④ Solid phase
• There are three boundaries between two phases:
① Liquid Limit: water content between liquid phase and plastic phase
② Plastic Limit: water content between plastic phase and semi solid phase
③ Shrinkage limit: water content between semi-solid phase and solid phase
Add water:
volume
Volume (V)

constant

Semi-solid Plastic Liquid

Solid phase Water
phase phase phase content (w)
wS wP wL
Shrinkage Limit (SL) Plastic Limit (PL) Liquid Limit (LL)

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Atterberg Limits and Indices

Liquid Limit
ASTM D4318: Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit
and Plasticity Index of Soils

Preparation of Fill device until Cut the center Lift device and drop it
equipment and 2/3 height with with groove with constant rate.
materials wet soil Count the number of
blows to close groove ½
inch
Repeat with different water content

Atterberg Limits and Indices

Liquid Limit
ASTM D4318: Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit
and Plasticity Index of Soils
Run test 4 times
with different water
content:
• 2 test < 25 blows
• 2 test > 25 blows

Use semi
logarithmic scale
to plot data:
• Water content: normal scale
Liquid limit is when water
• Blow count: logarithmic scale
content @ N=25

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Atterberg Limits and Indices

Liquid Limit
ASTM D4318: Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit
and Plasticity Index of Soils

Preparation of Fill device until Cut the center Lift device and drop it
equipment and 2/3 height with with groove with constant rate.
materials wet soil Count the number of
blows to close groove ½
inch
Repeat with different water content

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