TERRE & ENVIRONNEMENT

Stéphan JORRY

The Eocene Nummulite Carbonates

(Central Tunisia and NE Libya):
Sedimentology, Depositional Environments,
and Application to Oil Reservoirs

2004

Institut Forel
Volume 48 Département de Minéralogie
Département de Géologie et Paléontologie
Section des Sciences de la Terre, Université de Genève
UNIVERSITÉ DE GENÈVE FACULTÉ DES SCIENCES
Département de Géologie et de Paléontologie Professeur E. DAVAUD

TOTAL EXPLORATION-PRODUCTION
Département de Sédimentologie Docteur B. CALINE

The Eocene Nummulite Carbonates

(Central Tunisia and NE Libya):
Sedimentology, Depositional Environments,
and Application to Oil Reservoirs

THÈSE

présentée à la Faculté des Sciences de l’Université de Genève

pour obtenir le grade de Docteur ès Sciences, mention Sciences de la Terre

par

Stéphan JORRY
de
Mâcon (France)

Thèse N°3540

GENÈVE
Atelier de reproduction de la Section de Physique
2004
«It may be re-urged that the young geologist must bear in mind, that to collect
specimens is the least part of his labour. If he collect fossils, he cannot go
wrong; if he be so fortunate as to find the bones of any of the higher animals,
he will, in all probability, make an important discovery. Let him, however,
remember that he will add greatly to the value of his fossils by labelling
every single specimen, by never mingling those from two formations, and by
describing the succession of the strata whence they are disinterred. But let
his aim be higher: by making sectional diagrams as accurately as possible of
every district which he visits (nor let him suppose that accuracy is a quality
to be acquired at will), by collecting for his own use, and carefully examining
numerous rock-specimens, and by acquiring the habit of patiently seeking the
cause of everything which meets his eye, and by comparing it with all that he
has himself seen or read of, he will, even if without any previous knowledge,
in a short time infallibly become a good geologist, and as certainly will he
enjoy the high satisfaction of contributing to the perfection of the history of
this wonderful world.»

Charles Darwin, 1849

Geology, in John F.W. Herschel (ed.),
A Manual of scientific enquiry;
prepared for the use of Her Majesty’s
Navy: and adapted for travellers in
general.
 Résumé
L ’Eocène correspond à une période prolifique
pour le développement des plates-formes
carbonatées à nummulites, qui se sont développées
préférentiellement le long des marges continentales
nord et sud de l’Océan Téthysien. A cette époque, la
prolifération des nummulites a contribué à produire des
quantités significatives de sédiments carbonatés, qui
furent principalement dominés par des grainstones à
nummulites et des packstones à débris de nummulites,
dont la taille est parfois équivalente à celle des silts.
Ces carbonates représentent aujourd’hui d’importants
réservoirs à hydrocarbures dans les régions
méditerranéennes, et sont concentrés principalement
dans les zones offshore de Tunisie (Golfe de Gabès) et
de Libye (Bassin de Sirte).
Le paléoenvironnement des nummulites reste
jusqu’à ce jour très peu connu, voir controversé si
l’on compare les différents modèles de dépôt qui ont
été proposés. Plusieurs difficultés dans l’interprétation
peuvent être invoquées:
•Al’heure actuelle, il n’existe plus d’environnement
carbonaté comparable à celui des nummulites.
Plusieurs environnements actuels où prolifèrent
des grands foraminifères sont bien décrits dans la
littérature (Mer Rouge, Indonésie, Baie du Japon),
mais les accumulations de tests sont bien loin
de représenter l’énorme production carbonatée
de l’Eocène. Sans équivalent actuel, il est donc
difficile d’évaluer la bathymétrie et les processus
sédimentaires de l’époque.
• La diversité des modèles de dépôts proposés
pour l’Eocène (Nemkov, 1962; Arni, 1965; Conte
et Lehman, 1974; Aigner, 1985; Kulka, 1985;
Moody, 1987; Bailey et al., 1989; Eichenseer and
Luterbacher, 1992; Loucks et al., 1998; Anketell
et al., 2000; Racey et al., 2001; Jorry et al.,
2003) et la rareté des structures sédimentaires de
haute énergie rend difficile la caractérisation des
environnements de dépôts sur le terrain. L’absence
d’algues et d’autres organismes photiques peut
aussi fréquemment s’observer.
• Les dépôts à nummulites sont toujours associés à
des faciès boueux et à débris de nummulites. Ces
sédiments sont généralement déposés latéralement
aux corps à nummulites, mais ils sont également
incorporés à la matrice de ces derniers. Les
débris de nummulites représentent parfois des
accumulations importantes, finement laminées, et
pouvant atteindre comme en Tunisie Centrale des
épaisseurs moyennes de 40 à 60 mètres. Bien que
ces dépôts ne représentent pas d’intérêts réservoirs,
les processus à l’origine de la fragmentation des
tests de nummulites sont inconnus.
Afin de répondre à ces différents problèmes
d’interprétations, la première partie de ce travail est
consacrée à l’étude de la nummulite, en tant que
particule sédimentaire. A ce stade, il est important de
rappeler que les nummulites ont développé des formes
discoïdales, qui étaient susceptibles d’être transportées
par les courants de fond. Par conséquent, nous avons
mené des études expérimentales dans le but de quantifier
le comportement hydrodynamique des nummulites,
ce paramètre n’ayant été que très peu documenté
auparavant. Aigner (1982) signale des valeurs de densité
et de vitesse critique d’érosion qui ont été calculées sur
des foraminifères actuels (Amphisorus) et Racey (2001)
fait référence à des travaux non publiés (rapports
internes BG Group) qui tendraient à montrer que les
nummulites peuvent être transportées jusque dans les
zones de plate-forme externe.
Pour cela, nous avons disposé d’un échantillonnage
de nummulites prélevées sur le terrain et qui ont été
soigneusement sélectionnées suivant des critères de
formes et de densité bien définis (formes variables,
densité les plus faibles). Des vitesses critiques
d’érosion (vitesses de courant à partir desquelles
les tests de nummulites sont déplacés) ont pu être
calculées à l’aide d’équations qui se basent 1) sur des
paramètres morphologiques et de densité mesurés sur
les nummulites ou 2) sur les vitesses de chutes mesurées
dans une colonne à décantation.
Nos résultats montrent et confirment que de
très faibles vitesses de courant de fond provoquent le
remaniement des tests de nummulites. Pour exemple,
une nummulite de 2 cm de diamètre et d’une densité
de 1.7 g/cm3 pourrait être transportée par des courants
de fond d’une vitesse de 3.3 cm/s et ce jusqu’à 50 m de
profondeur. Des mesures complémentaires de densité
et de porosité réalisées sur ces mêmes tests montrent
que la capacité de transport est très variable suivant le
degré de cimentation des loges et la nature du fluide
qui remplit l’espace poreux. Ainsi, deux nummulites de
taille très différente pourraient avoir un comportement
i
Résumé
eolian dunes
shoals and sand bars
onshore spreading
nummulite bank
original biocoenosis
or winnowed residual deposits
Figure 1. Modèle de dépôt synthétique montrant la diversité des paléoenvironnements à nummulites, en relation avec le trans-
port des nummulites par les courants marins.
hydrodynamique comparable. Il est alors possible
d’envisager que des dépôts à nummulites, qui présentent
une très forte hétérogénéité granulométrique, pourraient
tout à fait résulter d’un transport par les courants.
La conséquence directe de ces observations est
que la formation de structures sédimentaires de haute
énergie pourrait être indirectement inhibée par le dépôt
d’un sédiment résiduel et mal classé, un contraste
granulométrique étant la condition commune en faveur
de la préservation de toutes formes d’accumulations
sableuses créées par les courants marins et les vents.
Les premières descriptions de structures sédimentaires
de haute énergie, illustrées dans ce travail au chapître 3,
confirment néanmoins qu’un classement n’est bien sûr
pas exclu, et qu’il permet la formation et la préservation
exceptionnelle de telles figures sédimentaires.
L’observation de la structure de la paroi et de la
cimentation interne des nummulites a conduit à approcher
le problème de la préservation et de la fragmentation des
tests. La paroi des nummulites est composée, comme
pour de nombreux foraminifères des mers actuelles, d’un
réseau microporeux très dense, permettant sans doute
les échanges de gaz entre les symbiontes (diatomées)
et le milieu ambiant. Il pourrait également contribuer
à alléger considérablement le poids du test, qui atteint
plus de 8 cm de diamètre en Cyrénaïque, les plus
grands tests de nummulites observés en Mésopotamie
atteignant jusqu’à 16 cm de diamètre. D’après nos
études sur affleurement, et par comparaison avec des
observations sur des sédiments actuels et subactuels, la
cimentation précoce des loges semblerait induire une
relative rigidification de la structure du test, surtout s’il
est soumis à un remaniement par les courants marins.
Cette précipitation précoce de ciment à l’intérieur
ii
fair-weather wave base
offshore spreading
storm wave base
des loges de foraminifères a été clairement mise en
évidence pour les nummulites durant les deux études
de terrain. Par opposition, l’absence de précipitation de
ciment précoce à l’intérieur des loges de nummulites
contriburaient à fragiliser leur structure, favorisant
ainsi les processus de fragmentation, à l’origine de la
production de nummulithoclastes.
Les études conjointes du comportement
hydrodynamique et de la structure interne des
nummulites (constitution de la paroi et cimentation
précoce intragranulaire) permettent d’affirmer que
ces organismes unicellulaires ont globalement un
comportement hydrodynamique aléatoire, qui implique
des dépôts sédimentaires hétérogènes en terme de
granulométrie, et dont le remainement par les courants
marins n’est pas favorable à la formation des structures
sédimentaires de haute énergie. En revanche, leur
facilité à être transportés suggère nécessairement une
grande variabilité des environnements de dépôts, ce
que nous pensons être à l’origine de la diversité des
modèles de dépôt proposés pour l’Eocène (Figure 1).
Cette remarque est importante en terme d’exploration
pétrolière, car les nummulites pourraient composer des
réservoirs de taille et de nature très variable, pour autant
qu’un remaniement ait lieu.
Le deuxième volet de cette thèse concerne des
études de terrain en Afrique du Nord (Tunisie Centrale
et NE de la Libye) où affleurent des dépôts carbonatés
à nummulites d’âge Eocène. Ces études de terrain
ont pour but de fournir des modèles géologiques qui
contribuent à améliorer la prédiction des géométries et
des hétérogénéités internes des corps réservoirs détectés
en offshore Libye.

Au niveau des deux analogues terrain sélectionnés,
les investigations à l’affleurement ont tout d’abord
contribué de manière indéniable à une meilleure
connaissance de la géologie régionale. En effet, les aires
d’études sélectionnées n’avaient fait l’objet d’aucun
travail préalable sur les séries à l’affleurement, mise à
part quelques levés stratigraphiques qui figuraient dans
des livrets guides (Grocott et al., 1998; El Hawat and
Shelmani, 1993). D’autre part, les différences dans la
nature et dans l’extension stratigraphique des faciès
éocènes entre les deux régions a permis de répertorier
et de caractériser différents types d’accummulations
à nummulites, qui divergent de part leur taille, leur
géométrie, leur diagenèse et leur hétérogénéité interne.
En Tunisie Centrale, les travaux de terrain se sont
principalement concentrés autour du Plateau de Kesra
(situé à l’Ouest de la ville de Kairouan), dont le contour
est caractérisé par des parois éocènes abruptes, bien
continues latéralement. Des études complémentaires
ont été menées au sud ainsi qu’à l’ouest de cette zone,
permettant d’aboutir à une synthèse régionale de la
distribution des faciès à l’Yprésien supérieur. A Kesra,
les principales contributions de ce travail sont les
suivantes :
• L’identification de Nummulites et de
foraminifères planctoniques dans les séries d’âge
Yprésien supérieur ont conduit à dater l’intervalle
sédimentaire étudié, qui représente 2 Ma de
sédimentation pour le dépôt des Formations
Chouabine et El Garia;
• Sept faciès de dépôt ont été reconnus pour
la Formation El Garia, depuis les faciès à
nummulites de haute énergie jusqu’aux faciès à
reservoir rocks
non-reservoir rocks
30m
km
1 et du Paléocène;
1 km
N
W E
S d’une plate-forme carbonatée, en
Résumé
nummulithoclastes qui ont été déposés latéralement.
La variabilité dans la morphologie des nummulites
(taille et épaisseur du test) a été utilisée pour
distinguer les différents faciès à nummulites, qui
sont tous spécifiques d’un environnement de dépôt
précis. Les faciès dominés par des nummulites
larges et plates ainsi que par des formes à test
robuste caractérisent les environnements les
plus proximaux, alors que l’association avec des
foraminifères comme Discocyclina et Operculina
dénotent d’environnements plus profonds, au
niveau dans la partie distale de la plate-forme.
Les premières évidences publiées d’émersion
sub-aérienne confirment que le remaniement des
nummulites est possible jusque dans les zones
littorales;
• La reconstitution 3D des corps sédimentaires
affleurant au Plateau de Kesra a permis d’isoler
deux corps sédimentaires à nummulites de
haute énergie (Figure 2). L’accumulation la plus
importante de faciès à nummulites correspond à
l’amalgamation de dépôts carbonatés successifs,
qui se sont déposés dans des environnements peu
profonds de haute énergie. Latéralement, ces corps
évoluent en deux corps déconnectés en direction
de la partie distale de la plate-forme;
• L’extension des observations à l’échelle régionale
a contribué à montrer que la configuration de la
plate-forme à nummulites fût fortement influencée
par la présence de la structure anticlinale de
l’Oued Bahloul, qui a joué le rôle d’une barrière
environnementale majeure à l’Yprésien supérieur,
séparant un domaine marin ouvert d’un domaine
plus restreint et protégé. A Kesra, la distribution
des faciès a été en partie contrôlée par des
topographies héritées, qui résultent
de la réactivation de failles orientées
NO/SE au cours du Crétacé terminal
• Un modèle de dépôt est proposé
pour illustrer la distribution
des faciès à nummulites le long
relation avec la distribution des
failles observées pour la zone de
Kesra. Cette reconstitution paléo-
environnementale montre que les
Figure 2. Diagramme 3D montrant
l’architecture stratigraphique des car-
bonates de l’Yprésien supérieur (For-
mation El Garia, Plateau de Kesra;
d’après Jorry et al., 2003)
iii
Résumé
faciès potentiellement réservoirs se déposent
préférentiellement au sommet des paléo-reliefs. A
Kesra, les faciès à nummulites ont été accumulés
sous l’influence de courants marins de haute
énergie, sous une tranche d’eau relativement faible.
Au milieu de la plate-forme, des roches mères
peuvent être accumulées dans des dépressions
qui sont délimitées par des failles. Au sein de ces
dépressions, les apports importants de matière
organique, en partie d’origine continentale,
démontrent que la formation de roches mères peut
avoir lieu au sein du réservoir.
En Libye, la région de Ain ad-Dabusseyah (nord-
est de la Cyrénaïque) a été retenue comme second terrain
analogue. Bien que le dépôt de faciès à nummulites soit
plus récents qu’en Tunisie (Eocène moyen, Lutétien à
Bartonien), la qualité des affleurements a permis une
étude détaillée des différents faciès, de la succession des
séquences de dépôt et des corps sédimentaires associés.
Les principaux résultats issus de cette étude de terrain
sont les suivants:
• L’établissement de nouvelles coupes dans la
région de Ain ad-Dabusseyah a contribué à mieux
caractériser la variabilité latérale de faciès de la
Formation Dernah, qui restait peu documentée
jusqu’à présent;
• La détermination de Nummulites a permis
de subdiviser la Formation Dernah en trois
intervalles de dépôt bien distincts, du Lutétien
inférieur au Bartonien (Figure 3). Une charte
lithostratigraphique est proposée pour replacer
la succession des séries Eocènes du NE de la
Cyrénaïque dans un cadre biostratigraphique
précis, en pointant précisément les limites de
discontinuités stratigraphiques majeures, qui sont
interprétées comme des limites de séquences à
l’échelle de la marge sud de la Téthys;
• Treize faciès types ont été définis pour la
Formation Dernah. La diversité de ces faciès
est en relation avec une grande variabilité
des environnements de dépôts. Les domaines
intertidal et supratidal sont représentés par le
dépôt de carbonates fortement dolomitisés et
dissous, et par la présence de faciès éoliens
riches en nummulites. La plate-forme interne est
dominée par le dépôt de faciès packstones de type
lagunaires, riche en grands foraminifères comme
Orbitolites et Alveolina, lesquels sont associés à
des miliolidés et à des algues rouges. Des dépôts
de haute énergie sont également présents dans
le lagon, montrant la progradation de dunes
iv
hydrauliques à grands Orbitolites. La plate-forme
médiane est principalement dominée par des faciès
à nummulites. Latéralement aux nummulites,
d’autres faciès ont été observés, comme des
récifs coralliens, des lumachelles à gastéropodes
, ou encore des faciès de haute énergie à grandes
Discocyclines. La plate-forme externe est dominée
par des dépôts boueux à nummulites disséminées,
où les grands foraminifères comme Operculina
sont les plus représentatifs. Les dépôts de talus ont
été également reconnus, et montrent de grandes
clinoformes de progradation, composé d’un
matériel boueux carbonaté riche en foraminifères
planctoniques;
• L’analyse séquentielle, basée sur l’interprétation
des successions verticales de faciès en terme de
variations d’environnements de dépôt et sur la
reconnaissance des limites de discontinuités
stratigraphiques majeures, a permis de mettre en
évidence que l’Eocène des régions du nord-est
de la Cyrénaïque est organisé en trois principales
séquences de dépôts, dont les deux dernières sont
caractérisées par l’intercalation de deux cycles
transgressifs majeurs. Ces différentes séquences
ont été cartées autour de la coupe type de Ain ad-
Dabusseyah, et montrent des variations latérales
d’épaisseur;
• L’interprétation de géométries sur des panoramas
d’affleurement a permis de mettre en évidence
des périodes successives de progradation de la
plate-forme à nummulites au cours de l’Eocène
moyen. Les géométries des dépôts à nummulites
s’organisent souvent en corps lenticulaires
à extension variable, interprétés comme des
structures de banc au sens Arni (1965). Ces bancs
présentent d’importantes hétérogénéités internes
de faciès qui se marquent également par des
variations notables dans le type de porosité;
• Des reconstitutions paléogéographiques ont
été établies pour la zone de Ain ad-Dabusseyah.
Les différentes cartes illustrent l’évolution
stratigraphique et la distribution des faciès de la
plate-forme à nummulites au cours de l’Eocène
moyen, en relation avec des fluctuations du niveau
marin relatif. Deux paléoreliefs principaux sont
observés, au front desquels se dépose la ceinture de
faciès à nummulites. Les reconstitutions montrent
également que les périodes de transgression sont
très défavorables à la production carbonatée à
nummulites, la plate-forme étant alors dominée
par le dépôt de faciès plus externes, quasiment
dépourvus de nummulites;
 Résumé

modified from El Hawat and Shelmani (1993) from Serra-Kiel et al., 1998 NUMMULITES ASSOCIATION OF THE DERNAH FORMATION

Environment
(determination by Blondeau)

Stratigraphy
AL BAYDA Formations

Sequence
PLANKTON ZONES Larger
TIME Foraminifera
Epoch Age Lithology Facies
(Ma) Foraminifera Calc. Nanno. Shallow Benthic
Berggren et al Zones (SBZ)
(1995) Martini (1971)
OLIGOCENE

RUPELIAN

Lagoon
EARLY

Coralgal limestones P18 NP21 SBZ 21 N. beaumonti (B-form)

33

SB4 0.5 cm
N. lyelli (A-form)
P15 SBZ 18
0.25 cm
BARTONIAN

NP17
N. lyelli (B-form)
P14 Bartonian 0.5 cm

Carbonate Ramp
40 SBZ 17 sp.
DERNAH

P13
Nummulites,
MIDDLE

Discocyclinid
SBZ 16
P12 NP16
and Operculina
SB3 SBZ 15 Late Lutetian sp.
Limestones N. discorbinus (A-form)
LUTETIAN

SB2
EOCENE

c 0.25 cm
P11 SBZ 14
45 lime-Mudstones

NP15
b
Nummulitic Floatsones P10 SBZ 13
SB1

Earl
NP14 a SBZ 12
glauconitic horizon
N. gizehensis (B-form)
P9

y to
APOLLONIA

50 SBZ 11
NP13 0.5 cm
CUISIAN

P8

Mid
Slope
YPRESIAN

Planktonic N. discorbinus (B-form)

EARLY

dle
P7
NP12 SBZ 10
Foraminiferal 0.5 cm

Lute
Facies SBZ 9
ILERDIAN

tia
b NP11
P6 SBZ 8

n sp
a NP10 SBZ 7
.
SB0
MAASTRICHTIAN

N. perplexus (A-form)
CRETACEOUS

Deep Basin
ATHRUN

Bathyal - Neritic 0.5 cm

LATE

G. Tricarinata biozone N. gizehensis (B-form)

Facies
N. gizehensis (A-form) 0.5 cm
0.25 cm

Figure 3. Biostratigraphie des Formations éocènes Apollonia et Dernah, NE Cyrenaïque.

HIGHSTAND PLATFORM (stable passive margin) • Deux modèles de dépôts sont proposés pour illustrer
coastal dunes and foreshore deposits
la distribution des faciès au cours de l’Eocène moyen,
dolomite
Orbitolites sand waves en fonction du contrôle structural de la marge passive
restricted Orbitolites / Alveolina facies sud-téthysienne (Figure 4). Le premier modèle
représente une plate-forme carbonatée de type rampe,
qui se développe pendant les périodes de haut niveau
sea
leve
l marin. Les accumulations bioclastiques à nummulites,
prépondérante au niveau de la rampe médiane, occupent
lenticular nummulite bank néanmoins toutes les milieux de dépôts, en raison
prograding outer bank facies d’un fort remaniement. Ce remaniement s’effectue
principalement par les courants marins, donnant lieu
prograding Apollonia facies
à des apports conséquents de nummulites jusque dans
les zones protégées et évaporitiques. L’abondance
TRANSGRESSIVE PLATFORM (subsiding passive margin) de nummulites dans des dépôts éoliens témoigne
également de leur capacité à être transportées par les
lagoonal large discocyclinid and red algae facies
vents, puis accumulées le long des cordons dunaires
littoraux. Le second modèle caractérise la distribution
des faciès durant des périodes de trangression, qui sont
en relation avec des périodes de forte subsidence de la
sea
lev
el
marge passive. La configuration de la plate-forme est
fortement influencée par la présence de biohermes à
coraux, qui séparent un domaine lagunaire d’un domaine
marin ouvert. La production carbonatée à nummulites

Figure 4. Reconstitutions paléoenvironnementales de la

plate-forme carbonatée du nord de la Cyrénaïque au cours
de l’Eocène moyen

v
Résumé
est fortement ralentie pendant ces périodes
d’augmentation de l’espace d’accommodation,
réduite à une étroite ceinture de faciès en avant de
la barrière récifale.
La dernière partie de cette thèse consiste à établir
la comparaison entre les deux zones étudiées, à effectuer
un inventaire des différents corps réservoirs rencontrés
sur le terrain, à établir la correspondance entre les
données de terrain et les données de subsurface, et
enfin à corréler les zones d’étude (Tunisie, offshore
Libye et NE Cyrénaïque) pour replacer la répartition de
la production carbonatée à nummulites dans un cadre
paléogéographique connu au cours de l’Eocène.
Les faciès à nummulites de la Formation El Garia
sont interprétés comme des bioaccumulations peu
profondes, en permanence érodées et remaniées par les
courants marins au cours de l’Yprésien supérieur. Les
corps sédimentaires ainsi générés se caractérisent par
l’amalgamation de dépôts de haute énergie, résultant du
remaniement de tests de nummulites selon une direction
qui est oblique par rapport à la côte. A Kesra, l’intense
remaniement des dépôts à nummulites contribue
également à la production significative de faciès à
débris de nummulites. Les dépôts à nummulites de la
Formation Dernah débutent quant à eux au Lutétien
inférieur. L’environnement de dépôt est alors dominé
par les algues rouges, par opposition à l’environnement
calcaire de Tunisie Centrale. Les grands foraminifères
y sont beaucoup plus diversifiés, et les coraux sont
également bien développés, aggradant parfois sur plus
de vingt mètres de hauteur. En fonction des mouvements
relatifs de la marge passive (subsidence ou uplift),
différents corps sédimentaires sont générés, mais la
plupart des corps réservoirs se développent durant les
périodes de haut niveau marin qui témoignent d’une
relative stabilité de la marge passive. L’édification
des bancs à nummulites est interprétée comme
une production massive et in situ de la biocénose à
nummulites, qui semble être faiblement remaniée par
les courants marins.
Ces deux études de terrain démontrent que la
production carbonatée à nummulites peut être adaptée
à différentes conditions paléoenvironnementales
(algaire ou calcaire) et qu’elle a générée, suivant les
cas, différents dépôts sédimentaires potentiellement
réservoirs. Il apparait également indiscutable que
la géométrie des corps réservoirs est fortement
conditionnée par la topographie de la plate-forme (rampe
carbonatée ou plate-forme à topographie accidentée),
qui peut quant à elle varier au cours du dépôt. Le degré
vi
de remaniement apparaît comme un facteur essentiel
contrôlant la distribution géographique et les propriétés
pétrophysiques des différentes roches poreuses.
Dans le but de comparer les données de terrain avec
les données de subsurface, l’inventaire de tous les corps
sédimentaires présentant de bonnes qualités réservoir
a été établi. En Tunisie, ces faciès sont représentés
par les dépôts à nummulites de haute énergie, qui se
développent dans la partie peu profonde de la plate-
forme sous la forme de dunes carbonatées subtidales.
Ces dépôts, soumis au remaniement permanent par
les courants marins, sont très fortement cimentés, et
présentent une porosité de type intra-nummulite. Des
dépôts dolomitiques de type sabkha, à très forte porosité
moldique, ont été également identifiés dans les zones les
plus internes de la plate-forme. Ils se caractérisent par
une très forte porosité moldique, due à la dissolution
de tests de nummulites et d’autres bioclastes. En Libye,
des qualités réservoirs sont attribuées aux dépôts de
bancs à nummulites, dont les épaisseurs avoisinent
par endroit les 40 mètres. Ces faciès montrent une très
bonne préservation de la porosité intra-nummulite,
probablement en relation avec un faible remaniement
par les courants. Les faciès de plate-forme interne
présentent également de très bonnes qualités réservoirs,
et sont représentés par les faciès dolomitiques des
zones évaporitiques et les faciès éoliens du domaine
supratidal.
Les propriétés pétrophysiques et la préservation
de l’ensemble de ces faciès réservoirs dépendent
étroitement de leur évolution diagénétique, qui est
spécifique à chaque environnement de dépôt (Figure
5).
Les applications à la subsurface ont été effectuées
à différentes échelles. Nos résultats montrent tout
d’abord que les données de terrain permettent de prédire
les hétérogénéités internes et les variations latérales
de faciès, surtout lorsque les puits d’exploration sont
espacés de plusieurs kilomètres. Par comparaison
avec un champ de l’offshore Libye, l’organisation très
similaire des faciès avec ceux observés à Kesra pourrait
aboutir à une meilleure interprétation de l’architecture
interne de la plate-forme.
D’autre part, la caractérisation à l’affleurement
de la géométrie lenticulaire et kilométrique d’un banc à
nummulites peut prétendre à être détecté sur les lignes
sismiques. Une ré-interprétation d’une ligne provenant
toujours de l’offshore Libye montre bien que des
géométries similaires semblent constituer l’intervalle
réservoir.
 Résumé

Reservoir facies

Sedimentary bodies evaporitic beds supratidal carbonates nummulite bar nummulite bank

EVAPORATION

intertidal zone
Diagenetic zones water table
phreatic marine water

euhedral dolomite calcitic bridges, equigranular and

Cement marine and freshwater calcite calcitic mud
and dolomicrite drusy calcite
around echinoid fragments

moldic, intra-granular, intra-granular,

Porosity intra-granular
inter-crystalline matrix vuggy

vadose meteoric and

Diagenetic fluids hypersaline phreatic marine phreatic marine
phreatic marine

early dolomitization early vadose cementation early marine poor cementation and
Diagenetic processes and dissolution and dissolution and late burial cementation late burial dissolution

Figure 5. Diagramme simplifié illustrant les principales propriétés diagénétiques des roches potentiellement réservoir (déduit
des études d’analogue terrain en Tunisie Centrale et au NE de la Libye). Porosité en noir.

Aussi, nous avons tenté d’établir une
correspondance entre les structures sédimentaires
détectées à l’affleurement et les probables équivalences
sur carottes de forage, afin de contraindre une
meilleure interprétation des environnements de
dépôts. Des structures caractéristiques de dépôts de
bancs à nummulites, comme la présence de poches de
bioturbation et la disposition aléatoire des nummulites,
peut être mise en évidence sur différents intervalles
carottés. Les imbrications fréquentes de nummulites
rencontrées dans les dépôts fortement remaniés de
Tunisie Centrale pourraient correspondre, sur carottes,
à des changements drastiques dans les directions
d’imbrication des tests de nummulites.
CENTRAL TUNISIA
une limite de corrélation majeure, qui coïncide
avec une chute drastique du niveau marin relatif
à l’échelle de la marge sud de la Téthys. En
Tunisie, cette limite correspond à un arrêt brutal
de la production carbonatée à nummulites, puis
à l’émersion généralisée de la zone de Kesra.
En Libye, au- dessus de cette même limite, des
remaniements importants de faciès de plate-forme
sont détectés dans les zones de talus et de bassin;
• la transition entre l’Eocène et l’Oligocène est
bien marquée sur les deux régions étudiées. En
Tunisie, l’Eocène moyen est en contact direct avec
(NW OFFSHORE LIBYA) NE CYRENAICA

6 7 8 OLIGOCENE
5 MIDDLE EOCENE / OLIGOCENE BOUNDARY

La corrélation des séquences de dépôt entre la 4

Tunisie et la Libye a été contrainte par la présence de MIDDLE EOCENE

trois limites de discontinuité stratigraphiques majeures 1

(Figure 6) : 1 CHOUABINE FORMATION

YPRESIAN / LUTETIAN BOUNDARY
2 APOLLONIA FORMATION

• les deux sites d’études montrent l’absence 3 EL GARIA FORMATION

2

4 DERNAH FORMATION

de faciès d’âge Paléocène. Une discontinuité 5 SOUAR FORMATION EARLY EOCENE

stratigraphique importante, estimée à 14 Ma en 6 FORTUNA FORMATION

KETATNA FORMATION
7

Tunisie Centrale, caractérise donc le contact entre 8 BAYDA FORMATION

LATE CRETACEOUS / EARLY EOCENE BOUNDARY

les faciès du Crétacé supérieur et ceux composant

Figure 6. Corrélation des surfaces stratigraphiques majeu-
les séries Eocène; res entre la Tunisie Centrale et le NE de la Libye, du Cré-
• la limite Yprésien/Lutétien apparaît comme tacé à l’Oligocène.

vii
Résumé
l’Oligocène, dont les faciès gréseux remplissent
les dépressions structurales. En Libye, l’Eocène
supérieur est également absent, et une discontinuité
marque le passage du sommet de l’Eocène moyen
à l’Oligocène.
En replaçant cette corrélation dans un cadre
paléogéographique connu pour la marge sud de la Tethys
à l’Eocène, il est possible d’expliquer le diachronisme
des dépôts à nummulites d’Afrique du Nord, qui
semble être en relation avec la structuration de la marge
téthysienne. A l’Eocène inférieur, les nummulites
sont surtout concentrées dans les régions de Tunisie
Centrale ainsi que dans le Golfe de Gabès (Figure 7).
En Cyrénaïque, la prédominance d’environnements
de bassin ne permet pas l’installation d’une plate-
forme carbonatée. A la limite Yprésien/Lutétien, la
distribution de la production carbonatée à nummulites
montre très nettement un déplacement de la ceinture de
faciès en direction des régions sud-est. La disparition
des nummulites en Tunisie Centrale correspondrait
à une chute importante du niveau marin relatif, et
l’installation progressive des nummulites au NE de la
Cyrénaïque serait en relation avec la structuration de la
zone en paléoreliefs au Lutétien inférieur.
Cette «migration» de la niche écologique des
nummulites semble être en relation avec un changement
drastique du paléoenvironnement, probablement
conditionné par des événements tectoniques globaux.
Tous les éléments de terrain concordent à suggérer
qu’un mouvement général d’uplift de la marge sud
téthysienne a eu lieu à la limite Yprésien/Lutétien,
et qu’il pourrait être responsable des importantes
modifications environnementales et du déplacement de
la production carbonatée à nummulites.
References
Aigner, T., 1982. Event stratification in nummulite
accumulations and shell beds from the Eocene of
Egypt. In: Einsele, G. and Seilacher, A. (Eds.): Cyclic
Event Stratification, Springer Verlag, pp. 248-262.
Aigner, T., 1985. Biofabrics as dynamic indicators in
nummulite accumulations. Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology, 55, 131-134.
viii
slope and basinal carbonate muds
nummulite carbonate factory
undifferentiated carbonate platform
shallow marine and coastal carbonates
evaporitic zones
Deltaic, coastal and shallow marine clastics
emerged land
clastics
EARLY LUTETIAN
slope and basinal carbonate muds
nummulite carbonate factory
Kesra undifferentiated carbonate platform
shallow marine and coastal carbonates
evaporitic zones
emerged land
Al Jurf field
Ras el Hilal
LATE YPRESIAN
Figure 7. Paléogéographie des régions sud-ouest de Médi-
terranée de l’Eocène inférieur à l’Eocène moyen, caracté-
risant la migration sud-est de l’usine carbonatée à nummu-
lites (cartes élaborées d’après les reconstitutions proposées
par El Hawat et Argnani, 2001 - Bishop, 1988 - Zaïer et al.,
1998).
Anketell, J.M. and Mriheel, I.Y., 2000. Depositional
environment and diagenesis of the Eocene Jdeir
Formation, Gabes-Tripoli Basin, western offshore
Libya. Journal of Petroleum Geology, 23 (4), 425-
447.
Arni, P., 1965. L’évolution des Nummulitinae en tant
que facteur de modification des dépôts littoraux.
Colloque International de Micropaléontologie
(Dakar), Mémoires du BRGM, 32, 7-20.
Bailey, H.W., Dungworth, G., Hardy, M., Scull,
D. and Vaughan, R.D., 1989. A Fresh Approach
of the Metlaoui. Actes des IIemes Journées de
Géologie Tunisienne appliquée à la recherche des
Hydrocarbures, 281-307.
Bishop, W.F., 1988. Petroleum geology of East-Central
Tunisia. AAPG Bull., V.72, 9, 1033-1058.
Comte, D. and Lehamnn, P., 1974. Sur les carbonates
de l’Yprésien et du Lutétien basal de la Tunisie
centrale. Compagnie Francaise des Pétroles, Notes
et Mémoires, 11, 275-292.
 Résumé

El Hawat, A.S. and Shelmani, M.A., 1993. Short notes

and guidebook on the geology of Al Jabal al Akhdar,
Cyrenaica, NE Libya. Earth Science Society of Libya,
Geolibya, Benghazi, 70p.
Grocott, J., Moody, R.T.J., Brown, A. and Loucks,
R., 1998. Tertiary to Recent Larger Foraminifera:
Their Depostional Environments and Importance as
Petroleum Reservoirs. Field Trip Guide.
Jorry, S., Davaud, E. and Caline, B., 2003. Structurally
controlled distribution of nummulite deposits :
Example of the Ypresian El Garia Formation (Kesra
Plateau, Central Tunisia). Journal of Petroleum
Geology, 23 (6), 283-306.
Kulka, A., 1985. Arni sedimentological model in the
Tatra Eocene. Kwartalnik Geologiczny, 29 (1), 31-
64.
Loucks, R.G., Moody, R.T.J., Bellis, J.K. and Brown,
A.A., 1998. Regional depositional setting and pore
network systems of the El Garia Formation (Metlaoui
Group, Lower Eocene), offshore Tunisia. In:
Macgregor, D.S., Moody, R.T.J. and Clark-Lowes,
D.D., (Eds.): Petroleum Geology of North Africa.
Geol. Soc. Lond., Spec. Publ., 132, 355-374.
Moody, R.T.J., 1987. The Ypresian carbonates of
Tunisia-a model of foraminiferal facies distribution.
In: Hart, M.B. (Ed.): Micropalaeontology of
Carbonate Environments. B.M.S. Series, Ellis
Horwood, Chichester, pp.82-92.
Nemkov, G.I., 1962. Remarques sur la paléoécologie
des Nummulites. Vopr. Micropaleontol., SSSR, 6,
64-72, Traduction B.R.G.M.
Racey, A., 2001. A review of Eocene nummulite
accumulations: Structure, formation and reservoir
potential. Journ. Petrol. Geol., 24 (1), 79-100.
Racey, A., Bailey, H.W., Beckett, D., Gallagher, T.,
Hampton, M.J. and Mc Quilken, J., 2001. The
petroleum geology of the Early Eocene El Garia
Formation, Hasdrubal field, offshore Tunisia. Journal
of Petroleum Geology, 24 (1), 29-53.
Zaïer, A., Beji-Sassi, A., Sassi, S. and Moody, R.T.J.,
1998. Basin evolution and deposition during the
Early Paleogene in Tunisia. In: Petroleum Geology
of North Africa (eds. D.S. Macgregor, R.T.J. Moody
and D.D. Clark-Lowes), Geological Society of
London, Special Publication, 132, 375-393.

ix
 Abstract
T he Eocene corresponds to a prolific period
for the development of nummulite carbonate
platforms along the continental margins of the Tethyan
Ocean. The proliferation of nummulites has produced
a significant amount of carbonate sediments, mainly
comprising nummulitic grainstones and silt-sized
nummulithoclastic packstones. These carbonates
compose important hydrocarbon reservoirs in
Mediterranean regions, as both in offshore Tunisia
(Gulf of Gabès) and Libya (NW offshore zones and
Sirte Basin).
The palaeoenvironment of nummulites remains
poorly known and debated if we compare the different
depositional models that have been proposed in
literature. Several difficulties in interpretation may be
put forward:
• there is no recent counterpart for the prolific
accumulations of nummulites. In the present-
day seas, several environments with living larger
foraminifera are known (Red Sea and Indo-
Pacific province), but the accummulations of
foraminifera tests are not comparable with the
huge Eocene carbonate productivity. This lack of
modern analogues makes difficult the evaluation
of bathymetry and sedimentary processes at the
origin of such carbonate deposits;
• the diversity of the depositional models that
are proposed for the Eocene (Nemkov, 1962;
Arni, 1965; Conte et Lehman, 1974; Aigner,
1985; Kulka, 1985; Moody, 1987; Bailey et al.,
1989; Eichenseer and Luterbacher, 1992; Loucks
et al., 1998; Anketell et al., 2000; Racey et al.,
2001; Jorry et al., 2003) and the rarity of high-
energy sedimentary structures complicates the
caracterization of the depositional environments
at outcrops. The rarity of algae as other photic
organisms can be also observed;
• the nummulite deposits are always associated
with muddy and nummulithoclastic facies.
These sediments are mostly deposited laterally
to nummulite sandy facies, and they can be also
incorporated within the matrix of nummulite
packstones. Debris of nummulites can form fine-
laminated and thick accummulations of about 40
to 60-m-thick. Although these deposits do not
characterize good reservoir rocks, processes at the
origin of the fragmentation of nummulite tests are
unknown;
In order to answer to these different problems of
interpretation, the first part of this thesis focuses on
the study of nummulites, considered as sedimentary
particle. At this stage, this is important to point out
that nummulites have developed discoidal forms that
were available to be transported by bottom currents. As
consequence, we proceeded to experimental studies for
quantifying the hydrodynamic behaviour of nummulites,
this parameter being poorly documented before. Aigner
(1982) gives density and threshold shear velocity that
have been measured on the living Amphisorus larger
foraminifera, and Racey (2001) points out the avaibility
of nummulites for transportation by reference of
unpublished data (internal report from British Gas).
Our experimentation based on fossil nummulites
which have been collected at outcrop and selected
according to variable sizes and low apparent density
values. Critical shear velocities, i.e. bottom current
velocities required for the displacement of a particle,
have been calculated from equations that are based 1)
on morphological parameters and apparent densities
measured on nummulites or 2) on settling velocities
measured on nummulites in a settling tube.
Our results show and confirm that very low bottom
current velocities allow the reworking of nummulite
tests. For example, a nummulite of 2 cm in diameter
and of 1.7 g/cm3 of density can be moved by 3.3 cm/s
bottom currents until 50 m of water depth.
Complementary porosity and density
measurements that have been performed on the
same nummulite tests show that their avaibility for
transportation is highly variable, depending on the
degree of cementation of chambers and on the nature
of the fluid that infilled the porous network (sea water,
or gas that are produced by the decay of the organic
matter after the cell’s death). In this way, nummulites
of different size could have a similar hydrodynamic
behaviour. Moreover, the deposition of heterogranular
assemblages that are frequently observed at outcrops
could be explain as resulting from the reworking of
nummulites by sea currents.
As consequence, the formation of high-energy
sedimentary structures could be inhibited by the
deposition of a poor-sorted residual sediment, a
granulometric contrast being the common condition
that is favourable for the preservation of a sandy
accummulation created by sea currents or by wind.
Therefore, first descriptions of high-energy sedimentary
structures that are illustrated in this work confirm that a
granulometric sorting cannot be excluded, particpitating
to the exceptional preservation of such sedimentary
xi
Abstract
structures in the Eocene beds.
Observations of walls’ structure and of internal
cements within nummulite chambers lead to argue
processes at the origin of the preservation and
fragmentation of nummulite tests.
As observed for several living foraminifers,
the walls of nummulites are microperforated. This
microporous network could contribute to gas exchanges
between symbionts (diatoms) and the surrounding
medium. It could also participate to lighten test
structure, that may reach more than 8 cm of diameter in
Cyrenaica, the largest being observed in Mesopotamia
(16 cm of diameter).
By comparing with observations on modern
living sands, it appears that the early cementation
within foraminifera chambers leads to rigidify the
test structure, especially if the test is submitted to the
reworking by marine currents. This early precipitation
of cement within chambers has been also clearly
evidenced for fossil nummulites. By contrast, the
absence of early precipitation of marine cement within
chambers leads to fragilize the test structure that could
be favourable to fragmentation processes, at the origin
of nummulithoclast production.
The study of the hydrodynamic behaviour
and of the internal structure of nummulites allow to
evidence that these unicellular organisms had an erratic
hydrodynamic behaviour, at the origin of the deposition
of heterogranular sediments, whose reworking is not
favourable to the formation of high-energy sedimentary
structures. On the other hand, their availibility to
be transported implies highly variable depositional
environments that can explain the important diversity
of the depositional models established for the Eocene
nummulite series. In term of petroleum exploration,
the accummulation of nummulites could form different
reservoirs that could be variable in size and nature,
taking account that a reworking occurred.
The second part of this thesis concerns outcrop
studies in North Africa (Central Tunisia and NE Libya)
where Eocene nummulite carbonate facies are exposed.
The aim of these outcrop studies is to elaborate some
geological models that contribute to a better prediction
of geometries and internal heterogeneities of libyan
offshore reservoir bodies.
Investigations at outcrop have significantly
contributed to a better knowledge of the regional
geology. Any previous studies have been realized on
these outcrops, except for type sections that have been
described in field books (Grocott et al., 1998; El Hawat
xii
and Shelmani, 1993). Moreover, regional differences
of nature and of stratigraphic extension of the Eocene
facies allowed to document various type of nummulite
bioaccummulations, which differ in size, geometry,
diagenesis and in internal heterogeneities.
In Central Tunisia, the outcrop study was mainly
concentrated around the Kesra Plateau (located west
of Kairouan), characterized by an excellent lateral
continuity of the outcrops. Complementary observations
have been made southward and westward to Maktar in
order to establish a regional synthetis of the Late Ypresian
facies distribution. At Kesra, main contributions of this
work can be summerized as follow:
• Identification of Nummulites and planktonic
foraminifers from the late Ypresian carbonate
series led to define age dating, that represents 2
Ma of deposition for both the Chouabine and the
El Garia Formations ;
• Seven depositional facies have been identified
for the El Garia Formation, from the high-energy
nummulitic facies to the nummulithoclastic
accumulations, which have been laterally
deposited. The variability of the nummulite
morphology (size and shape) have been used
to distinguish several nummulitic subfacies, in
respect to different depositional environments.
First published evidences of sub-aerial exposure
and of high-energy sedimentary structures on
nummulite deposits are documented;
• 3D reconstruction of sedimentary bodies over
the Kesra Plateau has evidenced two high-energy
nummulite bodies. The thicker accumulation of
nummulite facies corresponds to a predominant
carbonate production during successive periods
of high-energy settings. Laterally, these stacked
bodies evolve into two main disconnected bodies
toward the distal part of the platform;
• Extended observations at a regional scale
indicate that the configuration of the late Ypresian
nummulite platform was strongly influenced by the
presence of the Oued Bahloul anticline structure,
which formed a major environmental barrier
between an open-marine and a more restricted
settings. At Kesra, the distribution of facies is
strongly controlled by the inherited topography,
which results from reactivation of NW-SE faults
during the late Cretaceous and the Palaeocene;
• A 3D facies model is proposed to illustrate the
relation between facies and fault distributions
observed in the Kesra area. The facies distribution
of the carbonate platform shows that good
potential reservoirs are only located at the top of
the paleo-highs. At Kesra, the nummulite reservoir
facies are formed by high-energy currents under

few metres of water depth. At the middle of the
platform, source rocks can be accumulated into
intra-shelf depressions, which are delimited by
normal faults.
In Libya, the region of Ain ad-Dabusseyah (NE
Cyrenaica) has been selected as a second outcrop
analogue. Although the Eocene facies are younger
than in Tunisia, deposited during the Middle Eocene
(Lutetian to Bartonian), the good quality of exposures
led to easily observe facies, succession of depositional
sequences and associated sedimentary bodies. Main
results of this study are:
• The establishment of new sections for the area
of Ain ad-Dabusseyah has contributed to better
characterize the lateral facies variability of the
Dernah Formation;
• The determination of Nummulites allows to
divide the Dernah Formation into three distinct
time intervals, from early Lutetian to Bartonian. A
stratigraphic chart is proposed for characterizing
the Eocene series from NE Libya, pointing out
three major stratigraphic boundaries;
• The identification of 13 standard facies reveals a
high variability of the depositional environments.
Intertidal and supratidal facies are represented by
dolomitized and dissolved carbonates and by the
occurence of eolian deposits. The inner platform
is dominated by the deposition of lagoonal
packstones enrich in large foraminifers (Orbitolites,
Alveolina), miliolids and red algae. High-energy
facies are also deposited in protected settings,
showing the progradation of Orbitolites hydraulic
dunes. Mid-platform settings are characterized by
the deposition of nummulite facies. Other facies
are laterally intercalated: coralgal reefs, gastropod-
shell beds, high-energy Discocyclinidae rudstones.
The outer platform is dominated by muddy facies
with disseminated nummulites and Operculina.
Slope facies are characterized by large prograding
muddy clinoforms;
• Three main depositional sequences have been
recognized for characterizing the Eocene facies
succession of NE Cyrenaica, transgressive cycles
being intercalated between the two last sequences.
These depositional sequences have been mapped
around the type section of Ain ad-Dabusseyah,
showing lateral variations of thickness; the
interpretation of geometries at outcrop allows to
characterize the successive progradation of the
nummulite carbonate platform during the Middle
Eocene, where lenticular nummulite banks were
developed;
• Paleogeographical reconstructions have been
established for the area of Ain ad-Dabusseyah. The
Abstract
different maps illustrate the stratigraphic evolution
and the facies distribution of the nummulitic
platform during the Middle Eocene, according
to the relative sea level fluctuations. These maps
evidenced two principal paleohighs, in front of
which the nummulite facies belt was developed;
• Two facies models are proposed for illustrating
the distribution of the paleoenvironments during
the middle Eocene, according to the structural
control of the south-tethyan passive margin. The
first depositional model represents a carbonate
ramp developed during periods of highstand.
The nummulitic accumulations, dominant in
mid-ramp settings, are found in all depositional
areas because of the reworking. This reworking,
mainly created by wave-induced currents, allows
deposition of nummulites in protected and
evaporitic zones. The dominance of nummulites
in eolian facies points out their availability to
be transported by winds and accumulated along
coastal dunes. The second model characterizes the
development of a rimmed-platform during periods
of accommodation increasing (transgessive
system tract). Along this platform, the facies
distribution is mainly conditioned by the presence
of coralgal bioherms, which have constituted a
major environmental barrier, separating lagoonal
and open marine settings. During transgression,
the nummulite carbonate production is strongly
reduced, constituting a narrow facies belt in front
of the reefal barrier.
The last part of this thesis deals with 1) the
comparison between both outcrop analogues, 2) the
characterization of the reservoir bodies that have been
detected at outcrop, 3) the correspondence between
outcrops and subsurface reservoirs, 4) the correlation
of the Eocene series from Central Tunisia, offshore
Gabès Gulf and NE Cyrenaica, in order to detect the
distribution of the nummulite carbonate factory at lower
to middle Eocene times.
Nummulite facies from the El Garia Formation
are interpreted as shallow bioaccumulations, permantly
eroded and reworked by marine currents during the
late Ypresian. Generated sedimentary bodies are
characterized by stacked high-energy facies, resulting
from the reworking of nummulite tests, in respect
with a transportation that is oblique towards the coast.
At Kesra, the important reworking of nummulite
facies contributes to a significant production of
nummulithoclastic facies. The deposition of the
nummulite facies of the Dernah Formation started
during the early Lutetian. By contrast with the late
Ypresian calcareous depositional environment of
Central Tunisia, red algae were dominant in Northern
xiii
Abstract
Cyrenaica. Large foraminifers were more diversified
and corals are also well developed, sometimes forming
20-m-high aggrading bodies. Depending on the relative
movement of the passive margin (subsident or uplifted),
diverse sedimentary bodies are generated; most of the
reservoir bodies are developed during highstand sea
levels, corresponding to periods of relative stability of
the continental margin. The edification of nummulite
banks is interpreted as the result of a massive carbonate
production originated from the nummulite biocoenosis,
but nummulites are also transported toward the inner
parts of the platform.
Both outcrop studies demonstrate that the
nummulite carbonate production can adapt to variable
paleoenvironmental conditions (algal or calcareous
medium), generating different sedimentary bodies
that can form good potential reservoirs. Invariably, the
geometry of these reservoir bodies is controlled by the
topography of the platform (carbonate ramps or isolated
platforms) that can vary during deposition. The degree
of reworking is a fundamental parameter controlling the
spatial distribution and petrophysical properties of the
different reservoir rocks.
All the different sedimentary bodies presenting
good reservoir qualities have been classified. In Tunisia,
these reservoir facies are dominantly represented by
high-energy nummulite beds that develop subtidal
carbonate dunes in the shallow part of the platform.
These facies, permantly reworked by sea currents, are
early and highly cemented, and show a preserved intra-
nummulite porosity. Extremely porous dolomitic facies
have been also defined as evaporitic facies deposited in
inner platform settings (sabkha). The important moldic
porosity that characterize these dolomites reflects the
dissolution of nummulite tests and other bioclasts.
In Libya, good reservoir qualities are attributed to
nummulite bank facies, which depositonal thicknesses
range from 10 to 40-m-thick. These facies show a good
preservation of the intra-nummulite porosity, in relation
with a low reworking during deposition and the absence
of burial diagenesis. Inner platform facies are also
characterized by good reservoir qualities, especially for
dolomitic layers from the evaporitic zones and eolian
facies deposited in supratidal settings.
Petrophysical properties and preservation of the
reservoir facies strongly depend on the overprinted
diagenetic processes that are specific to each depositional
environment.
Applications to subsurface reservoirs have been
realized at different scale. Our results show that outcrop
data allow predictions of the internal heterogenities and
of lateral facies variations, especially when exploration
wells are separated from several kilometers. Applied to
a giant libyan offshore field, the Kesra model allows a
xiv
better interpretation of the internal architecture of the
subsurface carbonate platform, showing a very similar
organization in the facies succession.
On the other hand, the large lenticular nummulite
banks that have been described at outcrop expect to
be detected on seismic lines. A new interpretation on
a libyan offshore seismic line shows that sedimentary
bodies with similar shape and facies constitute the
reservoir interval.
For having a better interpretation of the depositional
environments, we have also attempt to establish a
correspondence between sedimentary structures
observed at outcrop and at cores. Characteristic structures
of nummulite bank facies (bioturbation pockets and
randomly oriented nummulites) can be recognized on
different cored intervals. The frequent imbrications of
nummulite tests that are mostly observed in the highly
reworked nummulite facies are easily detected on cores,
often surrounded by drastic changes in the direction of
imbrication.
The correlation of the Eocene depositional
sequences between Tunisia and Libya has been
established thanks to the presence of three major
stratigraphic boundaries:
• Both studied areas show the absence of Paleocene
strata. A stratigraphic boundary, the hiatus of
which being estimated about 14 Ma in Central
Tunisia, characterizes the contact between the late
Cretaceous and the early Eocene facies;
• At the scale of the southern margin of the Tethys,
the Ypresian/Lutetian boundary appears to be a
major guideline for correlation that coincides with
a drastic drop of the relative sea level (pointing
out on the sea level curve). In Tunisia, this
boundary corresponds to an abrupt breakdown
of the nummulite carbonate production, then to a
generalized emersion of the Kesra zone. In Libya,
submarine slumps of mid-ramp nummulitic
facies are deposited above the Ypresian/Lutetian
boundary;
• The transition between Eocene and Oligocene
facies is well individualized in both areas. In
Tunisia, a terrigeneous Oligocene sedimentation
occurs within the tectonic depressions, overlying
sometines the middle Eocene deposits. In Libya,the
late Eocene is also missing, and the transition
middle Eocene / Oligocene is locally pointed out
by an unconformity (evidences of terra rossa and
paleosoil facies at the top of the West Dernah
roadcut).
 Abstract

Replacing this correlation in a paleogeographic

context established for the southern margin of the
Eocene Tethyan Ocean, it is possible to evidence the
diachronism of the nummulite facies from Northern
Africa, which is related to differential compressive
tectonic of the southern tethyan margin. At the early
Eocene, nummulites were preferentially concentrated in
the western basins (Central Tunisia and Gulf of Gabès).
In Cyrenaica, the dominance of basinal settings does
not allowed the installation of a carbonate platform. At
the Ypresian/Lutetian boundary, the distribution of the
nummulite carbonate factory shows a clear displacement
of the facies belt westward to the cyrenaican promontory.
The disappearence of nummulites in Central Tunisia
could corresponding to an important sea level drop,
and the progressive settlement of nummulites in
Northern Cyrenaica could be in relation with the uplift
movements of Al Jabal al Akhdar structural high during
the early Lutetian.

This paleogeographical «migration» of nummulites

is probably under the control of global tectonic affecting
the Tethyan regions, especially due to the continuous
NW drift of the Africa plate. All outcrop elements agree
with a global uplift of the southern tethyan margin at the
Ypresian/Lutetian boundary that could be responsable
for important environmental modifications and for the
displacement of the nummulite carbonate production.

xv
 Table of contents

Résumé............................................................................................................................................................i

Abstract.........................................................................................................................................................xi

List of Figures.............................................................................................................................................xix

List of Tables................................................................................................................................................ xx

Remerciements...........................................................................................................................................xxi

Chapter 1: Introduction................................................................................................................................1

1.1 Scope of the study................................................................................................................................................1

1.2 Offshore data........................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.3 Previous works in Central Tunisia and NE Libya............................................................................................... 2

Chapter 2: Nummulite Bioaccumulations: Biocoenose or Taphocenose ?..............................................5

2.1 Generalities about of the Eocene nummulite deposits......................................................................................... 5

2.2 Ecological considerations on living and fossil Nummulites................................................................................ 6
2.3 Experimental measurements on Nummulites.......................................................................................................8
2.3.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................................. 8
2.3.2 Methodology.............................................................................................................................................9
2.3.3 Porosity and bulk density measurements................................................................................................. 9
2.3.4 The hydrodynamic behaviour of nummulites........................................................................................ 11
2.3.5 Implications in depositional processes.................................................................................................. 13
2.4 Conclusions........................................................................................................................................................ 15

Chapter 3: Study of the Eocene Nummulite Carbonates from Central Tunisia

(Kesra Plateau, West Kairouan)....................................................................................... 17

3.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................................... 17
3.2 Tectonic settings.................................................................................................................................................17
3.2.1 Structural settings of Central Tunisia and the Gulf of Gabes................................................................ 17
3.2.2 Structural trends at the Kesra Plateau (West Kairouan)........................................................................ 19
3.3 Materials and methods....................................................................................................................................... 21
3.4 Field observations.............................................................................................................................................. 22
3.4.1 Biostratigraphy, sedimentology and petrography of the studied Formations....................................... 22
3.4.2 Sedimentological description of sections.............................................................................................. 24
3.4.3 Characterization of high-energy sedimentary structures....................................................................... 28
3.5 Interpretation...................................................................................................................................................... 30
3.5.1 Establishment of standard facies............................................................................................................ 30
3.5.2 Analysis of the organic matter content of Facies 6................................................................................ 31
3.5.3 Depositional model for the El Garia Formation.................................................................................... 33
3.5.4 Sequence stratigraphy.............................................................................................................................35
3.5.5 Stratigraphic evolution of the depositional model according to the observed sedimentary
sequences........................................................................................................................................... 42
3.5.6 Palaeogeographical reconstruction of the nummulite carbonate platform during the late
Ypresian..............................................................................................................................................43
3.5.7 Structurally controlled distribution of nummulite deposits in Central Tunisia..................................... 45
3.5.8 3D facies model of the El Garia Formation........................................................................................... 45
3.6 Conclusions........................................................................................................................................................ 48

xvii
Chapter 4: Study of the Eocene Nummulite Carbonates from Northern Libya
(Ras el Hilal, NE Cyrenaica)............................................................................................. 49
4.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................................... 49
4.2 Tectonic settings of Al Jabal al Akhdar............................................................................................................. 49
4.3 Materials and methods....................................................................................................................................... 51
4.4 Field observations.............................................................................................................................................. 51
4.4.1 Lithostratigraphy.................................................................................................................................... 51
4.4.2 Sedimentological description of sections.............................................................................................. 53
4.5 Interpretation...................................................................................................................................................... 58
4.5.1 Establishment of standard facies............................................................................................................ 58
4.5.2 Sequence stratigraphy.............................................................................................................................61
4.5.3 Palaeogeographical reconstruction of the northern cyrenaican carbonate platform during
the Middle Eocene............................................................................................................................. 66
4.5.4 Stratigraphic evolution of the depositional model................................................................................. 69
4.6 Conclusions........................................................................................................................................................ 70

Chapter 5 : Sedimentological Synthesis of Tunisian and Libyan Eocene Carbonates,

and Application to the subsurface reservoirs in NW Offshore Libya.......................... 71

5.1 Sedimentological comparison of both outcrop analogues................................................................................ 71

5.2 Diagenesis of the potential reservoirs................................................................................................................72
5.2.1 Case study from Northern Cyrenaica.....................................................................................................72
5.2.2 Case study from Central Tunisia............................................................................................................ 74
5.3 Implications for the interpretation of subsurface reservoirs............................................................................. 76
5.3.1 Contribution in understanding geometry and internal heterogeneities of the reservoir........................ 76
5.3.2 Prediction of intra-reservoir source rocks..............................................................................................77
5.3.3 Interpretation of sedimentary structures: comparison with facies from drilled intervals in
NW offshore Libya (B and D structures).......................................................................................... 77
5.4 Distribution of the nummulite carbonate factory from Early to Middle Eocene: the «south-
eastern migration»......................................................................................................................................... 78

Chapter 6: Conclusions............................................................................................................................ 83

References.................................................................................................................................................. 85

List of Plates................................................................................................................................................ 95

List of Appendix........................................................................................................................................ 169

xviii
 List of figures
Figure 1. Main tectonic elements from tunisian and libyan offshore zones..................................................................1
Figure 2. Time structure map near top Cherahil and seismic facies interpretation of an E-W random line from
NW offshore Libya............................................................................................................................................ 2
Figure 3. Lithostratigraphic nomenclature of the Metlaoui Group................................................................................ 2
Figure 4. Palaeogeographic reconstruction of the Metlaoui facies................................................................................ 2
Figure 5. Geological map of northern Cyrenaica........................................................................................................... 3
Figure 6. Geographic distribution of the Eocene nummulite carbonate deposits.......................................................... 5
Figure 7. Comparison between different facies models characterizing the nummulite palaeoenvironment................ 7
Figure 8. The reproduction cycle of Nummulites.......................................................................................................... 8
Figure 9. Characterization of the internal structure of fossil nummulite tests.............................................................10
Figure 10. Quantification of the macroporosity of nummulite by X-ray microtomography and image analysis....... 11
Figure 11. Relation between the intraskeletal porosity and the bulk density of nummulites...................................... 12
Figure 12. Relation between computed threshold shear velocity and the density of nummulites of different sizes,
and prediction of the water depth under which nummulites can be transported, taking account different
height and period of waves............................................................................................................................. 13
Figure 13. Comparison between fringes of marine cement of present-day foraminifera and fossil nummulites....... 14
Figure 14. Nummulites of different size may have the same hydrodynamic behaviour. They will be gathered by
current action and will form an heterogranulometric assemblage................................................................. 15
Figure 15. Synthetic facies model shwoing the diversification of nummulites palaeoenvironments, according to
the transportation by currents.......................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 16. Geographic location of the Kesra Plateau, Central Tunisia, West Kairouan..............................................17
Figure 17. Structural map of the Mediterranean zone..................................................................................................18
Figure 18. Synthesis of the main structural trends in northern tunisian regions and in the Gabes Gulf .................... 19
Figure 19. Tectonic and geological patterns of the Cretaceous-Eocene series in Central Tunisia.............................. 20
Figure 20. Interpretation of the main structural patterns on the Kesra Plateau........................................................... 21
Figure 21. General stratigraphy of outcropping rocks in the Kesra Plateau................................................................ 22
Figure 22. Illustration of the facies heterogeneity of the El Garia Formation (late Ypresian, Kesra Plateau)............ 22
Figure 23. Localization of the measured sections on Kesra Plateau............................................................................24
Figure 24. Characterization of large-scale carbonate dunes illustrating the reworking of nummulite-rich
sediments in shallow subtidal settings (Behiret Kesra, Kesra Plateau)..........................................................29
Figure 25. Construction of a theoretic model based on the method of the most frequent stratigraphic facies
transitions........................................................................................................................................................ 33
Figure 27. Characterization at outcrop of the main sequence boundaries (from late Cretaceous to early Eocene,
Kesra Plateau)..................................................................................................................................................34
Figure 26. Distribution of bioclasts and of mineralogical components along the theoretic facies model of the El
Garia Formation.............................................................................................................................................. 34
Figure 28. Characterization of the intra-El Garia boundary.........................................................................................36
Figure 29. Correlation of depositional sequences of the El Garia Formation between eastern and western zones of
the Kesra Plateau............................................................................................................................................. 38
Figure 30. Cross-section diagrams of the El Garia Formation, Kesra Plateau............................................................ 38
Figure 31. 2D outcrop mapping of the cliff of Dir Daba, located on the northern flank of the Kesra Plateau........... 39
Figure 32. 2D outcrop mapping of a cliff face located near the centre of the Kesra Plateau...................................... 39
Figure 33. 3D fence diagram of the stratigraphic architecture of late Ypresian carbonates (El Garia Formation,
Kesra Plateau)..................................................................................................................................................41
Figure 34. Evolution of the depositional profile of the late Ypresian nummulitic carbonates of Kesra, according
to the sequence stratigraphy framework......................................................................................................... 42
Figure 35. General view of extended observations in Central Tunisia........................................................................ 43
Figure 36. Palaeogeographical maps showing the distribution of late Ypresian facies in the Kesra-Maktar area..... 44
Figure 37. Structural control on facies distribution in the Kesra area......................................................................... 46
Figure 38. Illustration of the tectonic pattern which conditioned a major lateral variation of facies (northern flank
of the Kesra Plateau)....................................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 39. 3D facies model showing the distribution of the late Ypresian carbonate deposits in Kesra area.............47
Figure 40. Geographical location and geomorphology of the studied area in Libya (NE Cyrenaica)........................ 50
Figure 42. Localization of sections in the area of Ain ad-Dabusseyah, NE Cyrenaica.............................................. 50
Figure 41. Structural evolution of Al Jabal al Akhdar anticlinorium...........................................................................50
Figure 43. Stratigraphical subdivisions of the Eocene Apollonia and Dernah Formations, NE Cyrenaica................52

xix
Figure 44. Characterization of a major flooding event at the section of Cyrene, NE Cyrenaica................................ 56
Figure 45. Mapping of the extension of the middle Eocene depositional sequences in the area of Ain ad-
Dabusseyah, NE Cyrenaica............................................................................................................................. 62
Figure 46. Geometry and sedimentary heterogeneities of a nummulite bank............................................................. 65
Figure 47. 3D correlation diagram showing the interfingering between sandy (nummulites and Orbitolites
deposits) and muddy carbonates (Apollonia, Operculina and chalky facies)................................................ 65
Figure 48. Paleogeographical maps showing the evolution of the middle Eocene carbonate platform in NE
Cyrenaica, from early Lutetian to Bartonian times........................................................................................ 67
Figure 49. Paleoenvironmental reconstruction of the Northern Cyrenaican carbonate platform at the middle
Eocene, in respect to the subsidence rate of the continental passive margin................................................. 68
Figure 50. Simplified diagram illustrating main diagenetic features of the potential reservoir rocks (derived from
outcrop studies in Central Tunisia and NE Libya)..........................................................................................75
Figure 51. Stratigraphical architecture of a nummulite platform from NW offshore Libya, and comparison with
the analogue from Central Tunisia (Kesra Plateau)........................................................................................ 75
Figure 52. Interpretation of a seismic line indicating lenticular nummulite banks that are interfingered with
deeper nummulithoclastic facies in distal settings..........................................................................................75
Figure 53. Correlation of main stratigraphical boundaries between Central Tunisia and NE Libya, from late
Cretaceous to Oligocene..................................................................................................................................78
Figure 54. Paleogeography of the south-western Mediterranean regions at the early to middle Eocene times,
characterizing the «south-eastern migration» of the nummulite carbonate factory.......................................80

List of Tables
Table 1. Shape parameters, density, settling velocity measured on nummulites......................................................... 12
Table 2. Classification of nummulite deposits based on the variability of nummulite morphology........................... 30
Table 3. Petroleum potential from Central Tunisia, based on Rock-Eval pyrolysis.................................................... 32
Table 4. Standard facies from the Dernah Formation, NE Libya................................................................................ 59
Table 5. Recapitulative table comparing the nummulite-reservoir analogues from Central Tunisia and NE
Libya................................................................................................................................................................72

xx
 Remerciements

C e travail a été réalisé en grande partie au bénéfice de nombreuses collaborations et rencontres, tant sur le
terrain qu’au laboratoire, sans lesquelles je n’aurai pas pu aboutir à la synthèse de mes recherches.

En premier lieu, j’adresse ma plus profonde gratitude au Professeur ERIC DAVAUD, directeur du Département de
Géologie et de Paléontologie de la Faculté des Sciences de Genève, pour m’avoir proposé une charge d’assistant
en 1999. Sa disponibilité irréprochable et sa grande expérience dans l’étude des environnements carbonatés m’ont
permis d’exploiter de nombreuses pistes que j’ai découvert au fil de ce travail. Je le remercie très sincèrement pour
toutes les connaissances qu’il m’a apporté sur les environnements et les processus sédimentaires actuels et anciens,
qu’il a su me transmettre toujours avec le même enthousiasme, la même générosité et surtout la plus grande clarté,
tant sur le terrain qu’à Genève.

Je remercie ensuite la compagnie Elf puis Total pour avoir élaboré, financé et coencadré ce projet de recherche,
notamment grâce à la contribution du Docteur BRUNO CALINE. Je lui suis infiniment reconnaissant pour sa disponibilité,
pour son aide et pour ses conseils qui ont toujours été d’une grande pertinence. Je le remercie également pour m’avoir
fait découvrir et impliquer à plusieurs reprises dans le monde du géologue pétrolier, et pour ses choix judicieux des
deux analogues terrains, en Tunisie et en Libye.
Au sein de la compagnie Total, je remercie également le Docteur PIERRE MASSE pour sa collaboration sur le terrain
et à Pau, et pour les nombreuses discussions que nous avons eu «autour» des nummulites. Je salue également la
disponibilité du Docteur HERBERT EICHENSEER et de PHILIPPE CHARPENTIER, avec qui les discussions ont toujours été
très enrichissantes.
J’adresse également mes remerciements à RICHARD LABOURDETTE sans qui je n’aurai pu réaliser le travail de
modélisation à l’aide du logiciel GoSed, PATRICK SIMEONE pour son appui logistique à la carothèque du Centre de Pau,
ainsi que SOLANGE CANTALOUBE pour sa collaboration au projet.

Je remercie infiniment le Professeur AHMED EL HAWAT de l’Université de Benghazi, qui a su apporter les soutiens
logistiques et scientifiques nécessaires à la réalisation de la campagne de terrain sur la côte Nord de la Cyrénaïque
en 2000. Sa grande connaissance de la géologie régionale ainsi que ses qualités de géologues de terrain ont pu
m’apporter une aide précieuse dans la direction et l’aboutissement de mes relevés de terrain. Egalement, je n’aurai
pu mené cette campagne sans l’aide de HASSAN EL BARGHATI et de ADEL O BEIDI (Total Libye), ainsi que YVES
NARDINI (Université de Genève). Tous les trois ont contribué fortement à un séjour merveilleux dans une région
remplie d’histoire et de paysages insolites, qu’il serait impossible d’oublier.

J’aimerai ensuite remercier très sincèrement le Docteur ALPHONSE BLONDEAU, qui du haut de ces 80 ans a réalisé
la détermination des espèces de nummulites qui sont citées dans ce travail. Sa collaboration a apporté des pièces
comptables très importantes dans le cadre des reconstitutions paléogéographiques proposées pour la Cyrénaïque.

Je salue également le Professeur CHRISTIAN DUPUIS (Faculté Polytechnique de Mons) pour les discussions que
nous avons eu à propos de mon travail, ainsi que pour m’avoir prêté des lames minces d’échantillons en provenance
du Plateau de Juggurta en Tunisie occidentale. Je tiens également à le remercier pour son accueil chaleureux à Mons
et pour son invitation à tenir une conférence à la Faculté Polytechnique.

Je remercie infiniment le Professeur JEAN-PAUL LOREAU de l’Université de Bourgogne, pour m’avoir transmis sa
passion pour la géologie et son intérêt pour les sciences dès mon arrivée à Dijon, ainsi que pour tous ses conseils
dans l’orientation de mes études. J’affiche aujourd’hui un profond respect pour tous les moments passés ensemble et
qui pouvaient durer des heures, sur le terrain ou comme dans ce fameux bureau du boulevard Gabriel, mais pendant
lesquels le temps n’avait plus d’importance tant mon apprentissage était riche. Un souvenir impérissable restera pour
moi notre collaboration sur le terrain en 1998, au détour d’un méandre de l’Armançon.

A l’Université de Genève, mes remerciements s’adressent tout d’abord au Professeur ROLAND WERNLI pour les
déterminations de foraminifères planctoniques qu’il a réalisé au début de ma thèse, ainsi que pour ses conseils
avisés pour la littérature. Je remercie le Professeur GEORGES GORIN de m’avoir consacré du temps pour investir
des analyses de matière organique sur mes échantillons de Tunisie. Merci également à ROSSANA MARTINI pour les
analyses au microscope électronique à balayage et à JACQUELINE FELLMANN dont je salue l’efficacité dans les tâches
administratives.

xxi
 Je dois remercier tout particulièrement FRANÇOIS GISCHIG et PIERRE DESJACQUES pour la préparation des nombreux
échantillons qui furent analysés au cours de cette étude. Je salue leur ingéniosité face à tous les problèmes que nous
avons pu rencontrer, qui furent logistiques, techniques, matériel, ou bien aquatique !

Je remercie également tout le corps assistant du Département de Géologie de Genève, sans qui je n’aurai pu
assoiffer mon esprit de curiosité vis à vis des différents travaux de recherches qui ont été menés au sein du laboratoire.
J’adresse des remerciements tout particulier à BENJAMIN SALLIER, YVES NARDINI, CYRIL RUCHONNET et MICHAËL
FUCHS, avec qui j’ai profité à plusieurs reprises de très agréables moments de terrain.
Je remercie très sincèrement PIERRE LE GUERN, avec qui j’ai partagé bureau, terrain et amitié pendant ces cinq
dernières années. Je crois que l’enrichissement scientifique aura été mutuel tant il y a eu de moments impliqués dans
nos travaux respectifs. Merci pour tous ces instants passés ensemble, de la côte ouest tyrrhénienne de Sardaigne, en
passant par les plateaux calcaires de Tunisie Centrale, et ce jusqu’aux confins du bush de Namibie.

Je tiens tout naturellement à remercier ma famille, en particulier ma mère ANNIE JORRY ainsi que mes beaux-
parents, ODETTE et CHRISTIAN COLAS, qui m’ont toujours soutenu de près comme de loin dans ma tâche. Enfin, je
tiens à remercier ma femme, CATHERINE, pour la patience, le soutient et l’amour dont elle a fait preuve durant ces
cinq dernières années, et sans qui je n’aurais pu parvenir à la rédaction de ce manuscrit.

Ce travail de thèse est dédié à la mémoire du Professeur Jean-Paul LOREAU (1940-2004),

avec qui tout a commencé, un jour de septembre 1994, dans un amphithéâtre de Mirande.

xxii
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Scope of the study
T his subject was initiated by the Elf company
in 1999. The outcrop investigations have
been triggered by the discovery of oil reservoirs in the
nummulite carbonates from NW offshore Libya, on
structure B. Two preliminary field trips were organized
on the Eocene facies in order to document different
outcrop exposures from southern Mediterranean
regions. The Kesra Plateau and the region of Ain ad-
Dabusseyah were selected as good reservoir analogues,
respectively in Central Tunisia and in NE Libya.
The problematic of this work is oriented around
two principal directions :
1- The fundamental research on nummulite facies.
The study of the nummulite bioaccumulations implies
to focus on the sedimentology of these carbonate
environments, in which depositional processes remain
poorly known. Regarding these larger foraminifers,
many questions remain about palaeoecology, living
environment, and availibility to transportation. In order
to answer to these questions, our research has been
concentrated on the study of the internal structure of
nummulites and their hydrodynamic behaviour, which is
fundamental to argue processes of transport, deposition,
preservation and fragmentation of such foraminifers,
and on a detailed sedimentological approach at outcrop
(log sections, microfacies analysis, palaeogeographical
reconstructions, sequence stratigraphy and 3D
characterization of sedimentary bodies).
2- The application to the subsurface reservoirs.
As for many carbonated reservoirs, the observations at
outcrop are required in order to improve prediction of
stratigraphic architectures and internal heterogeneities at
the subsurface scale. In regards to exploration interests in
the Libyan offshore area (Structure B, licence operated
by Total), the thorough examination and interpretation
of outcropping nummulitic series must contribute for
precising shape and size of sedimentary bodies, which
are difficult to detect on seismic lines, the spatial
relations between the different sedimentary bodies and
the potential reservoirs, and the internal heterogeneities
of the reservoir bodies.
1.2 Offshore data
The carbonate nummulite deposits represent
important economic activities in the Mediterranean
regions. The El Garia Formation, belonging the
Metlaoui Group, constitutes the nummulite reservoir.
Current exploration focuses in the Gulf of Gabes where
the fields are estimated to contain 1.5 billion barrels of
recoverable oils (from Mbendi website, www.mbendi.
co.za/indy/oilg/ogus/af/tu/). The main fields include
Ashtart, Hadrubal, and Salambo in offshore Tunisia, Al
Jurf and Bouri in offshore Libya.
Ashtart is a major oil field in Tunisia, having
produced more than 150 million bbl of oil from 15 wells
(Oil and Gas Journal, 1985). Water injection began
during late 1975, and 32-36% of original oil in place (720
millions bbl) was estimated ultimately to be recovered
(Anz and Ellouz, 1985). A few gas discoveries and
one oil discovery have been made southeast of Ashtart
(Bishop, 1988). In 1999, the production dropped from
about 19000 bbl/day to about 18000 bbl/day (Mobbs,
1999).
Libya is Africa’s major oil producer and one of
Europe’s biggest North African oil suppliers. Supplies
from North Africa to Europe destinations have the
advantage of being both timely and cost effective.
Libya’s economy is based on oil and exports contribute
between 75% and 90% of State revenues. Libya has
proven reserves of 29.5 billion barrels of oil and a
production capacity of 1.4 million barrels per day.
Exploration of the trend in Libyan Mediterranean waters
has led to several oil finds. In the northwestern offshore,
the main exploration targets are located in a folded
transfer zone, where the anticline axes are aligned along
a NE/SW trend (Figure 1). This zone comprises the
largest offshore field of Bouri (40000-80000 bbl/day),
discovered by Agip-ENI in 1976, which has proven
reserves of 2 billion barrels and a possible 5 billion
barrels of oil and 2.5 Tcf of gas. Close to this «giant»,
two main structures (B and D), operating by Total and
by Wintershall as a partner, represent also potential
targets (Figure 2). Both anticlines are bordered by
transverse normal faults, which are perpendicular to the
anticline axes. The Al Jurf field (B structure) produces
Ashart
Bouri
B D
A
C
Tripoli
Figure 1. Main tectonic elements from tunisian and libyan
offshore zones (Caline et al., 2003)
1
Chapter 1

oil since 2000 (10000 bbl/day). Three wells were

drilled, logged and cored. The main potential reservoir
rock is represented by nummulite facies, developed on
the flanks of the structural high. The sedimentological
B2 B3 B1
D1
descriptions realized on each well indicate that
D2
petrophysical properties of the reservoir (porosity and
permeability) are laterally heterogeneous. Stacking of
structure B (Al Jurf field) structure D
low high porous intervals occur on the top of the structure (B3
topography
well), while tight facies are intercalated on the flanks.
B2 B3 B1a

1.3 Previous works in Central Tunisia and

KETATNA reef
NE Libya
near top CHERAHIL

top EL GARIA In Central Tunisia, the first approaches regarding

the facies variability of the Ypresian/Lutetian series
were investigated by Pervinquière (1903), Solignac
(1927) and Castany (1951). Burollet (1956) proposed
the name of Metlaoui to characterize the Early Eocene
series. The different lithologies of the Metlaoui Group
Figure 2. Time structure map near top Cherahil and seismic were termed Formations by Fournié (1978), and then
facies interpretation of an E-W random line from NW offs- completed by Bishop (1985, 1988), Moody (1987),
hore Libya (Caline et al., 2003) Moody and Grant (1989), Dridi and Sejil (1991) and
LANDWARD BASIN
Zaïer et al. (1998). These include (Figure 3): the Bou
GAFSA
BASIN
Dabbous Formation (deep-water globigerinid facies),
the El Garia Formation (shallow-shelf nummulitic
LUTETIAN

JEBS CHERAHIL SOUAR HALK EL MENZEL

COMPACT MICRITE
facies), the Ain Merhotta Formation (restricted-shelf
gastropod facies) and the Faid Formation (evaporitic
BOU LOUFA

TANIT

METLAOUI
UPPER
METLAOUI GROUP

UPPER

S.S.T.
YPRESIAN

AIN
FAID
MERHOTTA
EL GARIA
BOU DABBOUS
anhydrite/dolomite facies).
OUSSELAT
MEMBER As the El Garia Formation is characterized itself by
MID

CHOUABINE

an important lateral variation of facies toward the basin

MAASTRICHTIAN DANO-MONTIAN

LOWER

EVAPORITIC SELJA
SELJA CARBONATES

(transition from coarse-grain to fine-grain carbonates),

EL HARIA

the Ousselat member has been defined by Moody and

Grant (1989) as representing the nummulithoclastic
ABIOD
accumulations of the El Garia Formation.
Figure 3. Lithostratigraphic nomenclature of the Metlaoui Comte and Lehman (1974) proposed the first
Group (after Zaïer et al., 1998) facies model that explains the lateral distribution of
the Metlaoui facies in Central Tunisia. They defined
Emerged zone two main environments of deposition: a basin, where
Bank of
continuous pelagic deposition prevailed, and a platform
Algerian
Maknassy - Mezzouna
where carbonate shelf deposition took place. This is
Promontory "Bald" zones the first model, which suggests that the nummulite
Globigerin marls
deposition can be located along a carbonate ramp.
Northern Basins
Nummulitic limestones
In 1988, Bishop proposed a palaeogeographic
G.S.
G.S. Gulf of Sbiba reconstruction of the Late Ypresian deposits, from
Kasserine Island
Oyster-rich limestones
central to offshore Tunisia (Figure 4). Based on 70
points of outcrop data, obtained principally from
Evaporites and dolomites Castany (1951), Comte and Dufaure (1973), Comte and
Gafsa Basin
Bioclastic dolomite
Lehmann (1974), Bismuth and Bonnefous (1981), and
various data from 115 wells, Bishop evidenced an area
Jeffera Island
Dolomite (type Es Souda)
with two main islands (Kasserine, Jeffara), the Algerian
Dolomites and
bioclastic limestones
promontory, a carbonate platform and a deep basin.
The nummulite-rich facies deposits are illustrated by
Figure 4. Palaeogeographic reconstruction of the Metlaoui a continuous broad nummulite-facies belt oriented
facies (after Bishop, 1988) NW/SE. Restricted facies are deposited between the

2

21°
N Susah
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
Tukra
Al Marj
32°30' Toknis
Marawah
Benghazi Al Abyar
Beninah
Cretaceous Eocene Oligocene
Figure 5. Geological map of northern Cyrenaica (modified from Contant and Gourdazi, 1964; Klen, 1974; Zert, 1974; El
Hawat and Shelmani, 1993)
emerged zones and the nummulite platform, sometimes
accumulated behind the islands. Also, Bishop
evidences a complex morphology of the coastline, that
forms narrow restricted bays and sabkha, where thick
evaporitic basins (Faid and Meheri) were developed
(Burollet, 1967).
This palaeogeography was decisive for local
geological studies, at outcrop or for subsurface
reservoirs. Many outcrop analogue studies were
concentrated around the Djebel Ousselat area. These
field investigations were applied to different subsurface
hydrocarbon reservoirs such as Sit El Itayem (Guingand,
1982 and Hasler, 2004) or Ashtart (Loucks et al., 1998).
The area of the Kesra Plateau was investigated by
geologists from AGIP (Reali and Ronchi, 1998), and
selected as a good outcrop analogue regarding the giant
Bouri field in NW offshore Libya.
In Northern Cyrenaica, Gregory (1911) was
the first to lay the foundations for the stratigraphic
nomenclature of most of the stratigraphic units. He
differentiated, for the Eocene period, the Apollonia
Formation (basinal planktonic muds) and the Dernah
Formation (nummulitic facies). Some stratigraphic
subdivisions were revised later for the Late Cretaceous-
Tertiary Formations (Megerisi and Mangain, 1980).
A complete chronology of the geological
exploration of in Northern Cyrenaica is detailed in
El Hawat and Shelmani (1993), which main steps are
summarized here. During the occupation by Italians,
many scientific expeditions were conducted on Al
Jabal al Akdhar, in order to study the geomorphology,
stratigraphy, palaeontology and hydrogeology. These
Introduction
22°
Cyrene
Abraq Dernah
Masah Al Bayda
studied area
Faidiyah
Slonja
0 20 40 60km
Early Miocene Middle Miocene Quaternary
workers include Desio (1935, 1939), Floridia (1935),
Marchetti (1934a, 1934b, 1938), Marinelli (1920),
Silvestri (1928, 1929) and Stephanini (1923a, 1923b,
1935). After the Second World War, in 1956, a Libyan-
American Oil Company drilled the first well in the core
of Al Jabal Akhdar. In 1957, oil discovery in the Sirte
Basin marks the beginning of oil production in Libya,
which triggers the geological activities throughout
Libya (Contant and Goudarzi, 1964, 1967; Barr, 1968;
Pieterz, 1968; Kleinsmied and Van den Berg, 1968; Barr
and Weeger, 1972). In northern Cyrenaica, resulting
geological maps allowed to evidence the distribution
of the main Cretaceous highs, which structuration is
probably the main control on the facies distribution
at the Eocene (Figure 5). Tectonic instabilities were
documented at outcrop, characterized by sub-marine
slope carbonates mass-movements (El Hawat, 1985).
The sedimentology of the Eocene Formations
was essentially documented by El Hawat and Arnauti
(1978), El Hawat (1985, 1986a, 1986b), and El Hawat
and Shelmani (1993). These studies give important
keys to understand the relationships between the
different sedimentary processes, taking place on the
platform, the slope and the basin. The description of
three main type sections in NE Cyrenaica was decisive
for the characterization of the facies heterogeneities
of the Dernah Formation. Three principal depositional
environments have been recognized by the authors:
• lagoonal and inner bank facies, dominated
by large Orbitolites, Alveolina, miliolids and
red algae, outcropping along the roadcut of
3
Chapter 1
Cyrene,
• nummulite bank and outer bank facies,
dominated by nummulites and carbonate mud
(roadcut of Ain ad-Dabusseyah),
• and coralgal and dolomite facies, dominated
by corals, nummulites, discocyclinidae and
red algae (West Dernah roadcut).
4
Recent studies were performed on the Dernah
Formation (Abdulsamad, 1999; Abdulsamad and
Barbieri, 1999), in order to correlate outcrop sections
and subsurface wells. The authors used the determination
of Nummulites species to establish guidelines for
correlation.
Chapter 2 :
Nummulite Bioaccumulations: Biocoenose or Taphocenose ?
2.1 Generalities about the Eocene
nummulite deposits
T he nummulitic Tertiary deposits are mostly
concentrated at the ancient margins of the
Tethys (Figure 6), from Pyrenees to West Pacific on the
northern part, and from North Africa to Oman along the
southern regions. Diachronous prolific development of
nummulites occurred during 20 Ma in platform settings.
The Early to Middle Eocene corresponds to a period
of intense activity of the nummulite carbonate factory,
reaching its maximum at the Late Ypresian in Central
Tunisia. In offshore Libya, nummulite limestones have
been deposited from the Late Ypresian to the Middle
Lutetian (Total, unpublished data), while they are dated
from the Early Lutetian to the Bartonian in northern
Cyrenaica.
The accumulation thickness can be very variable
according also to the palaeogeography. In Central
Tunisia, the Late Ypresian series outcropping at Kesra
represents a maximum thickness of 45 metres, whereas
the series reach up to 200 metres at the Djebel Ousselat,
which is 20 km far from Kesra. Other important
accumulations are visible at the Juggurta Plateau (NW
Tunisia), where the nummulite facies are stacked on 100
metres. For the Libyan offshore areas, the nummulitic
limestones were drilled through more than 150 metres.
In Cyrenaica, the thickness of the nummulite facies from
the Dernah Formation varies from 60 to 400 metres.
Numerous studies report that nummulite series
are preferentially concentrated around structural highs
(Racey et al., 2001; Jorry et al., 2003; Moody, 1987;
Loucks et al., 1998), and the initiation of the carbonate
production can start above various substratums: in
Corsica (unité de Sovéria), the nummulitic limestones
Figure 6. Geographic distribution of the Eocene nummulite
carbonate deposits (modified from Racey, 2001)
occur above Permian conglomeratic sandstones. In
Tunisia, nummulitic-limestone are abruptly deposited
on condensed phosphatic carbonate series, and in the
Maldives Islands, prior to the coral-reef edification
during the Oligocene, an Eocene nummulite platform
is developed onto a volcanic basement (Nicora and
Premoli-Silva, 1990; Purdy and Bertram, 1993; Aubert
and Droxler, 1996). In Japan, a coarsening-upward
sequence of nummulite facies rests unconformably on
andesitic lava (Kundo, 1995).
In term of facies, the nummulite carbonates are
relatively diversified, although nummulite packstones or
grainstones often constitute the main fabric. Algae, other
large foraminifers and terrigeneous input are sometimes
detected, and can be used as good environmental
indicators. In most cases, the interpretations put toward
ecological or physical factors controlling nummulite
deposits. For example, Aigner (1982; 1985) shows that
high-energy currents such as storms can significantly
modify the original fabrics, inducing winnowing and
granulometric sorting. Kundo (1995) proposes to use
the imbrication of nummulite tests as indicator of
palaeo-currents. In some cases, the absence of high-
energy sedimentary structures is interpreted as the result
of an intense bioturbation activity (Moody, 1987, 1989;
Loucks et al., 1998; Vennin et al., 2003).
In term of depositional environment, several
facies models have been proposed to characterize
the nummulite-rich deposits. Different palaeodepths
are proposed, from 10 to 60-m-depth, and different
morphologies of sedimentary bodies are described
(Figure 7):
• nummulite banks that form convex-up
structures. The so-called «bank» structure
was described first by Nemkov (1962) and
termed secondly by Arni (1965). This body,
characterized by a mono-specific association
of nummulites, separates a restricted area
(back-bank environment) from an open marine
zone (fore-bank settings). This model has
been applied for the Tatra Eocene of Poland
(Kulka, 1985), for the Middle Eocene build-
ups in Egypt (Aigner, 1983), for the El Garia
Formation in Central Tunisia (Moody et al.,
1987) and for the Jdeir Formation in offshore
Libya (Anketell et al., 2000).
• low-relief banks or sheets, which are developed
along a broad, gentle dipping homoclinal ramp
(Loucks et al., 1998; Hasler, 2004; Moody et
al., 2001). The petrographic composition of
5
Chapter 2
the sedimentary body is controlled by physical
processes such as winnowing of matrix
material and of smaller A-form (Racey, 2001;
Aigner, 1982, 1985). Resulting sedimentary
features, including size sorting, packing and
imbrication of nummulite tests indicate para-
autochthonous to allochthonous deposits.
• shoals formed in proximal up-ramp and re-
deposited nummulitic material in deep-water
environment (Racey et al., 2001). Nummulites
were reworked from the proximal up-ramp
and were transported by turbidity or storm
currents in deep-waters.
• nummulite «bars» developed in very shallow
environment, in front of coralgal reef bordering
a carbonate ramp system (Eichenseer and
Luterbacher, 1992). This model has been
proposed for the Ager Formation in the south
Pyrenees foreland basin (Spain). High-energy
hydrodynamic structures forming nummulite
bars can be observed in Central Tunisia;
hydraulic dunes are observable at the outcrop
of the Juggurta Plateau (SW of the city of El
Kef) and large-scale cross stratifications have
been described on the Kesra Plateau (Jorry et
al., 2003).
Depending on the model, nummulite-rich
sediments are considered as autochthonous deposits
(biocoenoses) or para-autochthonous to allochthonous
deposits (taphocenoses) resulting from landward or
seaward transportation.
Undisturbed biocoenoses are characterized
by packstone to wackestone textures, in which
macropheric forms (A form) are much more frequent
than microspheric ones (B form). Tests are rarely
abraded and are encrusted on only one side (Racey,
2001). The faunal association should be diversified,
composed of red algae, echinoderms, gastropods,
bryozoans, bivalves and small benthic foraminifers.
The life position, which is often used as reliable
criteria for autochthony, is not well documented for the
nummulites. Two contradictory possibilities have been
suggested. The nummulites were lying on the sea floor,
which could explain the preferential encrustation on
one side of the test (Racey, 2001). In comparison with
present-day environments, Blondeau (1972) suggests
that nummulites were attached on leaves of sea grasses.
For Deeke (1914) and Rozloznik (1927) however, the
symmetric and regular form of most of the tests indicate
a vertical life position.
By contrast taphocenoses resulting from
transportation or in-situ winnowing are characterized
by more or less monospecific assemblages and grain-
supported patterns. Sedimentary structures, which
should be omnipresent in high-energy deposits, have
been rarely documented in field or core studies. Aigner
(1982) pointed out the presence of “reminiscent cross-
6
bedding stratification”, small-scale scours and fill
structures and nummulite imbrications in the Gizehensis
bed of Egypt. Jorry et al. (2003) mentioned the presence
of large-scale cross bedding spots in the Eocene El
Garia Formation in Central Tunisia (cf 3.4.3) but most
of the time grain-supported facies show a rather chaotic
pattern and no obvious sedimentary structures. This
explains why the nummulites accumulations have been
often considered as biocoenoses though the absence
of matrix clearly indicates high-energy depositional
processes.
2.2 Ecological considerations on living
and fossil Nummulites
The palaeoenvironmental interpretation of
carbonate rocks is mainly based on the presence or
co-occurrence of benthic fauna or microfauna, the life
environment of which is well documented in present-
day seas. Unfortunately there is no recent counterpart
for the prolific accumulations of nummulites, which
appeared in the late Paleocene, invaded the Tethyan
margins during the Eocene and disappeared during
Middle Oligocene.
The only recent form, Nummulites venosus,
restricted to the Indo-Pacific realm, is living in shallow
marine environment with sandy bottoms in water depths
between 20 and 85 m. The maximum distribution is
between 35 and 40 m deep (Langer and Hottinger,
2000). Seven families of similar free-living, large
foraminifers occur in modern day carbonate systems:
the porcellaneous forms (Archaiadae, Peneroplidae,
Sorotidae and Alveolinidae) and the hyaline forms
(Amphisteginidae, Calcarinidae and Nummulitidae).
Species of these seven families are associated with
endosymbionts that require light. The porcellaneous
forms host rhodophytes, chlorophytes, dinoflagellates
and diatoms, whereas the hyaline forms host only
diatoms, as identified by Leutenegger (1984) on the
living Nummulites venosus. These photoautotrophic
symbionts are their only food source (Krüger, 1994;
Leutenegger, 1984) and provide the potential for
calcification of large skeletons (Hallock et al., 1991).
However the gigantism which characterises
Eocene nummulites has no counterparts in present-day
protist groups: the maximum diameter observed for
Nummulites venosus is 2.1 mm while fossil nummulites
often reach several centimetres in diameter. The largest
size observed is reported by Nemkov (1962) who found
in Mesopotamia specimens of Nummulites millecaput
reaching 160 mm in diameter. Such gigantism is
considered by Cowen (1983) as prove of an active
algal symbiosis. The probable role of symbionts in
fossil nummulites is also supported the presence of
microstructures similar to those observed in present-
 Nummulite bioaccumulations : biocoenose or taphocoenose ?

Localities Synthetic Facies Models Comments

sub-littoral sands
large nummulite limestones
with convex nummulites Large and robust nummulites are pref-
small nummulite shales small nummulite shales erentially accumulated on the anti-
clines, contributing to the edification of
Russia FWB a convex-up topography. Small num-
SWB mulite deposition is still active along
the sub-littoral zone as well as in
deeper environment.
after Nemkov, 1962
dolomite globigerinid
nummulite bank The nummulite bank is developed on
evaporites marls
offshore Libya the outer platform margin, forming a
FWB convex-up topography. This body sep-
(Sirte Basin) SWB arates a restricted environment where
muddy lagoonal facies Operculina marls back-bank facies are deposited, and
Dernah Fm (back-bank nummulite-rich facies) and nummulithoclasts more open-marine settings (forebank
Operculina-rich facies).
after Arni, 1963
dolomitic limestone Discocyclina limestone The facies distribution is based on the
nummulite bank
southern (back-bank facies) (fore-bank facies) model of Arni. The nummulite bank
Poland FWB facies shows a monospecific assem-
(Carpathians) SWB blage of large and robust nummulite
(N. perforatus). As Nemkov, the fora-
minifers with large and flattened test
Tatra Eocene are characteristic of the fore-bank
after Kulka, 1985 facies.
Restricted Lagoon Open Shelf / Lagoon Open Marine
tidal flats tidal flats The nummulite bank facies are devel-
Offshore Tunisia oped on tectonic highs, adjacent to
intra-shelf basin or embayments. Posi-
(Pelagian shelf) algal mats FWB
SWB tive structural features associated with
nummulite bank halokinetic movements may also be
back-bank facies sufficient to act as nucleation points
El Garia Fm
for nummulite bank development.
after Bailey et al., 1989
coralgal reef
Nummulite deposition takes place on a
Spain FWB complex shallow ramp where marginal
(Tremp Basin) tidal flat marine conditions are prevailing. Num-
(channels and tidal ridges) grain flat mulite bars are preferentially devel-
nummulite bar oped in front of coralgal reef facies,
Ager Fm with increased off-bank transport.
after Eichenseer et al., 1992
stromatolites Nummulite facies are deposited on a
Discocyclina and red algae shoal
anhydrite gentle ramp, between the fair-weather
and the storm wave base. The forma-
Central Tunisia beach and FWB tion of a low-relief nummulite bank is
gastropod-bar deposits SWB i n d u c e d b y s t o r m w a v e s a c t i o n .
low-relief nummulite bank Nummulithoclast deposits are exported
El Garia Fm toward the basin. Discocyclina facies
after Loucks et al., 1998 are placed behind the nummulites.
Restricted Shelf Outer Shelf Deep Shelf - Basin Nummulites were deposited on a rela-
western evaporite back-bank nummulite bank fore-bank tively unstable platform affected by
syn-sedimentary tectonism. Three
offshore Libya
SWB major lithofacies are recognized in
(Gabes-Tripoli Basin) bank, back-bank and fore-bank envi-
ronments. The authors noted a sub-
Jdeir Fm aerial exposure at the top of the last
after Anketell et al., 2000 nummulite bank sequence.
nummulite bank fore-bank The nummulite bank facies consists of
coarse-grained sediments, poor in
Central Tunisia muddy matrix, located near the SWB.
(Kef el Guitoune) SWB The fore-bank deposits are character-
ized by the abundance of nummulite
small and robust test large and robust test large and flat test debris. The successive storm events
El Garia Fm create the stacking of nummulite bank
after Hasler, 2004 deposits.
offshore shoal and bar-barrier complex Two distinct depositional environments
evaporites (nummulite grainstones) are proposed in this model. Nummulite
Offshore Tunisia deposition takes place in shallow
(Hasdrubal field) wa t e r - d e p t h , f o r m i n g n u m m u l i t e
beach and FWB
shoals. The reworking of these shal-
gastropod-bar deposits SWB low sediments leads to nummulite-rich
low-relief nummulite bank sediment transportation downdip the
El Garia Fm platform, forming low-relief nummulite-
after Racey et al., 2001 bank.
evaporites nummulite bar nummulite bar Nummulite deposits are concentrated
on palaeohighs, and nummulithoclast-
Central Tunisia FWB rich facies are accumulated within
(Kesra Plateau) gastropod gastropod bar intra-shelf depression and/or within the
SWB
beach-facies basin. Nummulite deposits are gener-
intra-shelf depression
(nummulithoclast accumulation) ally found in sub-littoral large-scale
El Garia Fm dunes, which have sometimes locally
after Jorry et al., 2003 emerged.

Figure 7. Comparison between different facies models characterizing the nummulite palaeoenvironment

7
Chapter 2
Microsphere
Megalosphere
Gametes
Reproduction
Zygote
B-Form
1 cm
A-Form
microspheric generation megalospheric generation
Figure 8. The reproduction cycle of Nummulites (modified
from Schaub, 1981)
day forms, which provide shelters for symbionts and
allow respiration (Bartholdy, 2002).
Another well-established correspondence between
living and fossil forms concerns the reproduction cycle.
It is assumed that the reproduction cycle of fossil
nummulites was similar to the sexual dimorphism
of living forms. This particularity, known since the
end of nineteen century (Harpe, de la, 1881; Lister,
1884), indicates that each species is composed of two
morphotypes with different size (Figure 8). The sexual
generation corresponds to a large organism with a small
proloculus (called microsphere or B-Form), and the
asexual generation is identified as a small organism
with a large proloculus (called macropshere or A-
Form). For Schaub (1981), the presence of a mobile
stage (the gametes produced by the A-Form) in the
reproduction cycle of foraminifera explains the rapidity
of the migrations of nummulites and of other larger
foraminifers. In the Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea), Hottinger
(1977) shows that lateral changes of foraminifer
population can be due to changes of substrate (fine or
coarse sands) and vegetation (Halophila or Diplanthera
meadows).
In the fossil record, several authors consider the
nummulite shape as a depth indicator (Kulka, 1985;
Eichenseer and Luterbacher, 1992; Loucks et al., 1998;
Hasler, 2004; Racey, 2001; Jorry et al., 2003 and Vennin
et al., 2003) . This assumption is based on observations
on large foraminifers from present-day environments.
Larsen (1976) and Larsen et al. (1977) found that
Amphistegina showed a strong inverse relationship
between test thickness and habitat depth. Similar data
reported by Hallock (1979) for two Pacific sites confirm
the tendency for thicker-tested forms in shallow, more
turbulent environments and thinner-tested forms in low-
energy and/or deeper environments. This relationship
has also been demonstrated for other foraminifers such
as Operculina ammonoides (Hottinger, 1973; Pecheux,
1995), Heterostegina depressa (Hottinger, 1973), and
Parasorites orbitolitoides (Hohenegger et al., 2000).
Experimental work (Hallock, 1979; Hallock, 1981;
Hallock et al., 1986) shows that both light and water
8
motion directly influence test thickness in Amphistegina
by controlling the thickness of individual lamellae as
they form.
2.3 Experimental measurements on
Nummulites
This paragraph, based on a work realized with Eric
Davaud, is largely taken from a common paper recently
submitted (Jorry et al.). Foundations of this work were
presented during the «Core and Outcrop Workshop»
organized by TotalFinaElf in 2001.
2.3.1 Introduction
The interpretation of a carbonate rock is facilitated
by the existence of present-day analogues, which are
decisive to evaluate the palaeoenvironment and to
quantify the palaeobathymetry. Regarding nummulites,
no comparable sedimentary accumulation is known in
the present-day seas, although several larger foraminifera
are living in some modern carbonate settings.
This lack of analogues constitutes the major
problem for interpretations. The rarity of high-
energy sedimentary structures is also problematic,
although as most of the authors place the nummulite
bioaccumulations between fair-weather and storm
wave base, and the diversity of the depositional models
implies to consider a large range of biological and
sedimentological processes. The last point concerns the
preservation and the fragmentation of nummulites; the
nummulite reservoir facies are often associated with
muddy and silt-sized facies composed of nummulite
debris (nummulithoclasts), which are exported seaward.
These facies clearly result from the reworking and
the pulverization of nummulites, but fragmentation
processes remain enigmatic.
From a sedimentological point of view,
nummulite-rich facies may result from three distinct
processes: they may represent the in-situ record of a
prolific biocoenosis, the local accumulation of tests
transported by wave- or tide-induced currents, or the
residual concentration of tests after repeated winnowing
events (Aigner, 1982). The distinction between these
three depositional modes is essential for determining
the geometry and petrophysical properties of potential
reservoir rocks.
On the other hand, the hydrodynamic behaviour of
nummulites remains poorly documented. Aigner (1982)
cites density measurements made on nummulites going
down to 1.28 g/cm3 and flume experiments conducted
by Fütterer (unpublished data), who found threshold
velocities ranging from 18 to 77 cm/s. More recently,
Racey (2001) mentions an internal report of British Gas
in which critical shear velocities have been computed
for large B-form nummulites with a residual porosity
 Nummulite bioaccumulations : biocoenose or taphocoenose ?
reaching 40%. The low values obtained (7 cm/s) led
this author to conclude that «nummulite bank material
could be easily moved in the outer shelf...».
The study of the internal structure and the
hydrodynamic behaviour of nummulites have
been investigated regarding the main problems for
interpreting the palaeoenvironment of the nummulite
bioaccumulations. The main objectives of this work
are:
• to present new measurements of density, intra-
skeletal porosity, and settling velocities of
nummulites, and to compare these results with
previous ones (Aigner, 1982; Racey, 2001).
A mathematical approach is used to estimate
the critical shear velocities of nummulites, of
different size and density, and to compare these
values with wave shear velocities observed
in modern shoreface or computed with the
theoretical model developed by Madsen
(1994),
• to propose hypothesis regarding the
preservation of complete nummulites and the
associated fragmentation processes, which lead
to consequent nummulithoclast production,
• and to discuss the rare development or
preservation of high-energy sedimentary
structures in these grain-supported sediment
2.3.2 Methodology
This work is based on the observations made on
samples from outcrops and subsurface which include
1200 thin sections, SEM observations and 40 porosity
measurements (mercury, microtomography and image
analysis). Different locations have been investigated
in Central Tunisia (Kesra Plateau, Kef El Garia,
Djebel Cherahil, Djebel Trozza and Djebel Ousselat,),
in onshore concession (Sit El Itayem), in NE Libya
(NE Cyrenaica, Ras el Hilal and Dernah area) and in
offshore Libya (C137 license, operated by Total). All
these different locations join observations at the scale
of outcrops, cores and thin sections.
The SEM analysis was used for the characterization
of the microporosity of the nummulite shells. Partially
silicified nummulites were dissolved, and resulting
non-dissolved silicified fragments were selected for the
analysis. The quantification of the macroporosity was
obtained by coupling X-ray microtomography (120
equatorial sections of a 1.5 cm thick nummulite test)
and point counting on thin sections.
Bulk densities were deduced from volume
mass measurements, using mercury. The method was
calibrated using a pure calcite crystal, which bulk
density is known (2.71 g/cm3).
Settling velocity measurements were performed
on fossil nummulites that have been collected in
Cyrenaica (NE Libya). 33 nummulites were selected
according to variable size, ranging from 4 mm to 32
mm of diameter. The thicknesses of the nummulites
are also variables, the ratio between width and
thickness being lower for the larger B-forms. The
settling velocities have been calculated on a distance
of 1.50 m, in a transparent, plastic tube of 40 cm of
diameter, and the water salinity has been adjusted
at 32 g/l. Taking account that the water temperature
exerts profound influence on the settling velocity, by
changing its density and dynamic viscosity (Bolton
and Havenhand, 1997), it was successively adjusted at
26,5°C, 20°C and 10°C. The weight of each nummulite
was controlled after the bulk density measurement,
in order to skip contaminations. The measures were
repeated alternatively on «full-water» (water injection)
and on «full-air» (air drying) nummulites. Equations
of Le Roux (1997) have been slightly modified after
calibration with our experimental values and used to to
estimate threshold shear velocities.
2.3.3 Porosity and bulk density
measurements
The amount of porosity of a nummulite facies
mainly depends on the abundance of nummulites, which
chambers provide large cavities, and on the degree of
cementation of these chambers, which directly controls
the density of nummulites.
In order to quantify the total porosity of a
nummulite, it is important to consider a superimposed
microporous network. This microporosity was detected
by Carpenter (1850), who described perforations in
the walls of nummulites (Figure 9a). This description
for fossil forms, which is with Schaub (1981) the
only reference in literature, has been useful for our
observations. This microporous network has been
successfully isolated on silicified nummulites from the
Eocene Figols Formation (Spain), allowing attempting
a quantification of the porosity amount of such network.
These micropores have 1-2 µm diameters, and consist of
tubular holes perpendicular to the wall surface (Figure
9b, 9c, 9d). The pore network seems to be connected
between the different whorls.
The role of these microstructure is not explained
for the fossil nummulites but in comparison with modern
environments, it is clear that many foraminifera have
developed perforations for gas exchange, in particular of
O2 and CO2, through the wall (Leutenegger and Hansen,
1979). Gas exchange is of particular significance when
foraminifera enter into endosymbiosis with algal cells,
which have their own metabolism in order to grow and
to multiply within their host cell (Hottinger, 2000). In
fact, the symbiont themselves have to develop light-
9
Chapter 2

regulation devices in order to avoid photo-inhibition
(Hottinger, 2000).
Our measures indicate that the total porosity of
a nummulite varies from 46 to 63%. The microporous
shell represents itself 21% of porosity. The porosity of
chambers, estimated by image analysis on successive
microtomographic sections (Figure 10) and by point
counting on thin sections, ranges from 30 to 42%.
These results are very similar than those realized
on living-foraminifera; Porosity measurements on the
extant larger foraminifera Amphisorus are as high as
72% (Aigner, 1982). Also, we consider that our values
are under-estimated, because of the partially cemented
internal structures.
Bulk density values of nummulites are highly
variable, ranging from 1.48 to 2.61 g/cm3. A relation
between the intraskeletal porosity (φ) and the apparent
density (ρnum) of nummulites can be established,
following this equation:
ρnum = (1–φ) . ρcalcite + φ . ρfluid
Taking account that, after the cell death, chambers
may filled in by seawater or by gas (produced by the
decay of organic matter), two functions can be adjusted
(Figure 11). The infilling of chambers by water implies
an important decreasing of the apparent density, which
falls down from 1.7 to 1.9 g/cm3. Gases infilling induced
a drastic fall of the apparent densities (1.1 to 1.4 g/cm3).
These low values suggest that nummulite tests can be
transported as suspended load.
Generally, the high amount of microporosity is not
considered as part of the total porosity of a nummulite
grainstone deposit. However, we have observed that
nummulithoclastic facies can also constitute highly
microporous facies, contributing to significantly increase
the permeability in oil reservoirs. The total porosity
may also increase by action of late burial diagenetic
processes contributing to dissolution or dolomitization
of the matrix.

a b

c d

100µm

Figure 9. Characterization of the internal structure of fossil nummulite tests.

Photograph a : microporous test of Nummulites laevigatus (after Carpenter, 1850)
Photographs b, c and d : internal structure of silicified nummulite test from the Figols Formation (Spain)

10
 Nummulite bioaccumulations : biocoenose or taphocoenose ?

2.3.4 The hydrodynamic behaviour of appears that the shape of large foraminifera is another
nummulites important factor controlling their distribution. Fossil
nummulites are known as being developed a large
range of shapes, induced by reproductive strategies
As mentioned by Hohenegger and Yordanova
(small sexual A-forms and large asexual B-forms)
(2001a, 2001b), the intensity of sediment transport
and by environmental factors (light intensity and
depends on the morphology of the depositional profile
hydrodynamic conditions) which significantly control
and on the intensity of currents (tides, fair-weather and
storm waves). Based on the experimental approach, it size and thickness of the nummulite tests (Hallock,
1979, 1981, Hallock et al., 1986; Hohenegger et al.,
2000).
porosity of chambers (%) If we consider that nummulite facies may result
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 from transportation by wave-induced currents, the
0 hydrodynamic behaviour of nummulites should be a
fundamental parameter controlling the distribution of
such sedimentary particles.
3.64
The estimation of critical shear velocities of
nummulites was done using the equations and the Excel
7.28
program developed by Le Roux (1997). This program
microtomographic sections (mm)

computes the critical shear velocity from particles

10.93 shape parameters or from measured settling velocities.
33 nummulites of different size and density have been
selected and their settling velocities were measured
14.57 in a 2 m-high settling tube filled with seawater. These
data were used as input to compute the critical shear
velocities (Table 1). The values from obtained from
18.22
shape parameters shows a good correlation with those
obtained from measured settling velocities, but they
21.86 are systematically higher. As the settling velocity is a
hydrodynamic behavioural measure incorporating the
effects of particle size, shape and density (Le Roux,
25.51 1997) it seems reasonable to consider the values
derived from the settling velocities as more realistic.
29.15
Unfortunately it is not possible to find nummulites in
which the primary intraskeletal porosity has been totally
preserved. The only way for estimating the critical
32.8 shear velocities of nummulites is to compute them from
geometrical parameters and apparent densities obtained
from porosity measurements.
Figure 10. Quantification of the macroporosity of nummu-
lite by X-ray microtomography and image analysis
According to the data presented in Table 1, the
2.8 equations proposed by Le Roux have been slightly
2.6 porou
2.4
por
ous s netw
ork fi
modified to take into account the specific hydrodynamic
n e tw lled w
2.2 ork
fille ith H behaviour of nummulites. The critical shear velocity
density (g/cm3)

dw 2O
2 ith g
1.8
as U*c becomes:
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
where β, the dimensional critical shear stress is
intra-skeletal porosity (%)
derived from Wd, the dimensionless sphere settling
Figure 11. Relation between the intraskeletal porosity and velocity and Dd, the dimensionless size of equivalent
the bulk density of nummulites sphere using the following equations:

11
Chapter 2

measured U*c computed U*c computed

shape and size parameters num. density
settling velocity from Dl, Di,Ds from Wm
Samples
Dl Di (mm) DS (mm) ρs (g/cm3) Wm (cm/s) and ρs (cm/s) (cm/s)

SJ10 25.2 4.8 2.33 28.2 7.8 3.9

SJ11 28.3 7.4 2.28 40.3 8.5 5.1
SJ12 29.1 6.5 2.51 32.4 9.2 4.4
SJ14 30.7 6.6 2.58 35.6 9.6 4.7
SJ15 32.2 6.9 2.58 33.7 9.8 4.5
SJ18 25.8 4.5 2.31 25.1 7.7 3.6
SJ19 26.8 5.6 2.47 32.3 8.6 4.4
SJ21 31.5 6.6 2.40 31.2 9.1 4.2
SJ22 26.3 3.6 2.45 23.4 7.9 3.4
SJ23 27.7 5.6 2.42 28.2 8.5 3.9
SJ24 22 4.4 2.58 27.6 8.0 3.9
SJ25 21.1 5.3 2.42 27.0 7.7 3.8
SJ26 11.6 4.8 2.31 31.9 6.0 4.3
SJ27 21.5 4 2.39 28.8 7.4 4.0
SJ28 10.5 3.1 2.19 23.1 5.1 3.3
SJ29 12.2 4.4 2.38 22.8 6.2 3.3
SJ30 8.1 4 1.95 26.2 4.4 3.6
SJ31 7 3.6 2.32 23.9 4.8 3.5
SJ32 6.6 2.9 1.99 25.5 3.9 3.6
SJ33 6.8 2.7 1.48 19.9 2.7 2.8
SJ34 7 2.4 1.48 19.6 2.7 2.7
N3b 20.3 3.3 2.28 20.2 6.7 3.0
SJ710 24.7 4.7 2.19 24.1 7.3 3.4
SJ724-2 30.4 5.5 2.37 27.0 8.7 3.8
N2a 20.6 4.2 2.01 19.7 6.2 2.9
N2b 16.5 2.9 2.05 19.4 5.5 2.9
SJ668 20.8 6.6 2.24 30.5 7.5 4.1
SJ724-1 21.7 5.5 2.61 27.1 8.4 3.9
SJ10 12.6 3.7 2.57 26.2 6.5 3.8
SJ7 5.1 2.52 2.57 21.7 4.5 3.2
SJ3 5.2 1.9 2.03 15.3 3.5 2.3
SJ5 5 2 1.80 15.8 3.0 2.4
SJ6 5 2.4 2.54 20.2 4.4 3.0

Table 1. Shape parameters, density, settling velocity measured on nummulites. Theoretical settling velocity
and critical shear velocity have been computed by using the equations of Le Roux (1997).
(Dl, Di, Ds : large, intermediate, small diameter)

12

threshold shear velocity (cm/s)
4.5
4
3.5
3 m
2.5
2
1.5
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2
nummulite density (g/cm3)
Figure 12. Relation between computed threshold shear velocity and the density of nummulites of different sizes, and prediction
of the water depth under which nummulites can be transported, taking account different height and period of waves
for Wd>2.5
for Dd<134.9
for Dd>134.9
Dd is directly linked to the shape and size of
nummulites (Dl Di Ds longest, intermediate, shortest
orthogonal axis of the particle [cm]), to the density of
nummulites and sea water (ρs and ρf [g/cm3]), to the
dynamic viscosity of seawater (µ [g/cm/sec]) and to the
gravity constant g [cm/sec2]:
In term of settling velocity (W), large forms are
characterized by the highest velocities, which values
vary from 18.13 to 42.08 cm/s (Table 1). Small A-forms
show the lowest settling velocities, ranging from 15.16
to 35 cm/s. The highest velocities obtained for large
B-forms are related to their highest weight. However,
variable values are obtained for different nummulites
which have the same diameter, which could suggests
differences in the apparent densities. These variations
could be related to variable degree of cementation of
the intra-skeletal porosity.
The threshold shear velocities confirm that
pluricentimetric nummulites can be easily moved by
Nummulite bioaccumulations : biocoenose or taphocoenose ?
wave height and period from National Data Buoy Center
12
wave shear velocity (cm/s)
(station 42020, Corpus Christi, Texas)
10
wa
8
ve
he
igh
6 t :5
wav
4 e perio
30 mm d: 11
3m sec
2 9sec
1m 6s
ec
0
2.4 2.6 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
water depth (m)
porosity filled with water
porosity filled with gas
wave-driven currents (Figure 12). Large nummulites
for Wd<2.5 (2 cm in diameter) with an apparent density of 1.7 g/
cm3 are transported when the shear velocity reaches
3.3 cm/s. These values are relatively similar to those
proposed by Racey (2001), who used a flume tank for
measurements.
Such shear velocities may occur at variable
depth, depending on the length, the period and the
height of waves. Using present-day wave parameters
observed on a carbonate ramp along the coastline of
Texas (station 42020, National Data Buoy Centre),
we computed the wave-shear velocities for increasing
depth with the program proposed by Sherwood (2004),
based on the equations established by Madsen (1994).
The obtained values indicate a potential reworking of
large nummulites under water depth ranging from 10
to 50 m deep, which suggests a large range of possible
depositional environments (Figure 12). Considering
that a nummulite may have live in the lower photic
zone, the test can be transported far away from the
original biotope after the cell death. The distance
of transportation depends also on the density of the
nummulites, which is controlled by the nature of the
fluid within chambers (water or gas).
2.3.5 Implications in depositional processes
2.3.5.1 Preservation and fragmentation of
nummulites shells
The nummulite carbonate production in shallow
water environment is always associated with the
production of significant amount of nummulithoclasts.
These silt-sized particles are either exported down
slope or may partially constitute the matrix of the
shallow nummulite deposits. In this case, we rarely
observed intermediate granulometry between complete
13
Chapter 2

a b

100µm 100µm

c d

2mm

Figure 13. Comparison between fringes of marine cement of present-day foraminifera and fossil nummulites
Photograph a : Quinqueloculina ? sp., washover deposit of the laguna of Zarzis, eastern Tunisia
Photograph b : Ammonia sp., subtidal deposit of the laguna of Zarzis (2 m depth), eastern Tunisia
Photograph c : Nummulites gizehensis, Middle Eocene of NE Cyrenaica, NE Libya
Photograph d : Nummulites sp., Early Eocene of the Kesra Plateau, Central Tunisia

nummulites and silt-sized nummulithoclastic particles.
In present-day dead benthic foraminifera and
algae, fringes of early marine cements are frequently
observed (Figure 13a, 13b). The SEM and thin section
analysis of nummulites from Cyrenaica evidence that
chambers are also lined by thin fringes of equigranular
calcite (Figure 13c, 13d). This early precipitation of
calcite within internal structures of foraminifera could
significantly rigidify the shell structure, and favours the
preservation of complete test in the fossil record. When
these fringes are absent, the nummulite tests remain
brittle due to the microporous architecture of the wall,
and can be easily reduced tu dust during high-energy
events.
The resulting fragments are either integrated
within the shallow nummulite-rich facies or
winnowed and exported toward the distal part of the
platform or the ramp. In Central Tunisia, 15 m-thick
nummulitic grainstones pass laterally to 40 m-thick
nummulithoclastic packstones in 2 km of distance. In
term of petroleum exploration, it is important to precise
that, in a nummulitic carbonate environment, the best
potential reservoirs are not systematically the thicker
intervals.
2.3.5.2 The rare preservation of sedimentary
structures
In nummulite facies, the sedimentary structures are
rarely developed or preserved, although all depositional
models place the nummulite accumulations between the
fair-weather and the storm wave base. This paradoxal
character is classically explained as following:
• the nummulite accumulation results from

14
 Nummulite bioaccumulations : biocoenose or taphocoenose ?
threshold shear velocity (cm/s)
4.5 30mm
large nummulites partly
filled up with gas
4
3.5
2.5 small nummulites
partly cemented
1.5
1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.4
nummulite density (g/cm3)
Figure 14. Nummulites of different size may have the same hydrodynamic behaviour. They will be gathered by current action
and will form an heterogranulometric assemblage
a high prolific biocoenose as suggested by
Nemkov (1962), Arni (1965), Kulka (1985)
and Anketell et al. (2000), and is not affected
by bottom currents;
• the nummulite facies are controlled by
reworking processes, but high-energy
sedimentary structures are destroyed by
bioturbation (Moody et al., 1987, 2001; Loucks
et al., 1998; Racey et al., 2001; Racey, 2001);
• nummulite deposits are formed in low-energy
environment, i.e. either below the storm wave
base or in a protected area, which could be
created by the presence of a physical barrier
or by the presence of sea-grass meadows
(Blondeau, 1972).
Our experimental approach indicates that
nummulites of different sizes may have the same
hydrodynamic behaviour depending on the nature of
the fluids filling up internal porosity, and depending on
the degree of early intraskeletal cementation (Figure
14). As consequence, particles of different size will be
transported and deposited simultaneously. The detection
of sedimentary structures, which relies on the presence
of granulometric contrasts, will be difficult or even
impossible, especially in pure carbonate environments,
characterized by the absence of argillaceous
particles, which generally drape and emphasive the
stratifications.
This could explain why sedimentary structures
are so rare in nummulite-rich facies. In Central Tunisia
example of an assemblage at outcrop
(Kesra Plateau), where large-scale dunes composed
of large-flat nummulites have been detected, the
sedimentary structures are highlighted by solution seams,
accentuating the original bedding. This preferential
dissolution could affect some mud levels, which are
deposited at the end of the successive hydrodynamic
events.
2.4 Conclusions
The high primary skeletal porosity of nummulites,
which reduces their apparent density, makes them
easily transportable by weak currents. Depending on
the direction and the intensity of these currents, bank
structures are reworked, forming in-situ winnowing
bioaccumulations or newly deposited facies by offshore
or onshore spreading. In both cases, resulting sediments
are characterized by more or less monospecific
assemblages and grain-supported patterns, where
dominant large B-form nummulites are frequently
imbricated.
The coexistence of nummulites of different sizes and
densities but having the same hydrodynamic behaviour
explains the scarcity of sedimentary structures, but their
absence doesn’t imply that nummulite-rich facies are
undisturbed sediment. Others criteria as the presence
of associated unbroken macrofaunal shells (bivalve,
echinoid, gastropod) and of muddy matrix indicate an
original biocoenosis. In comparison with observations
on the present-day assemblages, the good preservation
15
Chapter 2
eolian dunes
shoals and sand bars
onshore spreading
nummulite bank
original biocoenosis
or winnowed residual deposits
Figure 15. Synthetic facies model showing the diversification of nummulites palaeoenvironments, according to the transpor-
tation of nummulites by currents
of the tests also suggests a low displacement after the
cell death, and macrospheric A-forms are much more
frequent than microspheric ones.
The peculiar hydrodynamic behaviour of
nummulite explains the diversity of the depositional
models. Nummulites can be transported by weak
wave-driven currents far from their original biotope,
as subtidal dunes or shoreline deposits (Figure 15).
Based on our observations from Central Tunisia and
NE Libya (Chapter 3 and 4), reworked facies evidence
local emersions, and nummulites can also occur as the
main bioclastic component of supratidal deposits. Both
observations indicate that tests can be transported on
the shoreline, then reworked by winds. The presence
of such sediments at the Eocene is compatible with the
high productivity of nummulite carbonates in submarine
settings, which has induced an important redistribution
16
fair-weather wave base
offshore spreading
storm wave base
of sediments by influence of sea currents. Sediment
transportation is also controlled by the morphology
of the platform, and carbonate ramps should represent
idealize conditions for the development of sand shoals
and coastal dunes.
These different types of bioaccumulation
are characterized by specific morphologies and
petrophysical properties, implying variable reservoir
qualities. The preservation of the reservoir facies is
furthered by the presence of early diagenetic processes
in nummulite chambers (occurring before final
deposition), which contribute to preserve tests from
reworking and fragmentation.
A classification of the different nummulite
sedimentary bodies, based on diagenetic criteria, is
presented and discussed in Chapter 5.
Chapter 3 :
Study of the Eocene Nummulite Carbonates from Central Tunisia
(Kesra Plateau, West Kairouan)

3.1 Introduction
8° 10°

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

N TUNIS
Zaghouan
Le Kef

T he study area is located in Central Tunisia, 36°

Siliana
P4
Rebaa
W E Kairouan
Sousse

close to the city of Kairouan (Figure 16). A P4 Kasserine

S
C73

preliminary fieldtrip, organised in 1999, was focused on P12

Gafsa
Sfax
Kerkenna
Gulf islands

the recognisance of the exposure of the Eocene outcrops C71 Maktar Ousseltia
34° Tozeur
Gabès
of Gabès
Djerba

KESRA
on the Kesra Plateau. The good quality of exposure P4

Nlle Kesra
PLATEAU
Kef
C46

C99
TUNISIA
Médennine

and the excellent lateral continuity of the outcrops El Garia P12

KAIROUAN
Tataouine

N
were decisive to define the area as a potential outcrop C85
Rohia
C77
Haffouz
P12
P3
32°

analogue. Extended observations were secondly done C71 El Ala ALGERIA

W E

around this area in order to establish a more regional, 50 KM

P3
0 50 100 km S
LIBYA
palaeoenvironmental model. 30°

Figure 16. Geographic location of the Kesra Plateau, Cen-

The Kesra Plateau is a 30 km square area, mainly
bordered by vertical Eocene cliffs (Plate 1). The top
of these cliffs is affected by an important weathering,
due to the circulation of the meteoric water. A lapiaz
landscape is developed from fractures (faults and
joints). The general geomorphology of the Plateau
shows a depression toward its centre, accentuated by
convergent tectonic dips.
Most of the observations of this study were
performed on the border of the plateau, which
exhibits widely extended cliffs. A quarry is present
at the northeast of the Plateau, at the locality «Dir el
Jerouia». The exploitation of the quarry, interrupted in
the 90’s, has led to exhibit some polished surfaces that
allow a good observation of facies and of sedimentary
structures, as bioturbated features for example. A more
recent quarry was created in 2003, at the centre of
the Plateau, close to the «Behiret Kessera». This new
outcrop shows a very nice succession of facies in the
upper part of the Eocene series. In the same interval, the
polished surfaces also show deep dissolution cavities
(karsts), filled in with present-day argillaceous material.
Abundant rock-falls are visible around the Plateau;
their erosion is facilitated by the presence of numerous
fractures (joints), and their sliding is made possible by
the presence of a marly level at the base of the Eocene
(Plate 1). This level seems to be laterally variable in
thickness, presenting a thickening from east (2 m) to
west (6 m).
The Eocene rocks belong to the El Garia Formation,
the stratotype of which is exposed close to the studied
area, at the village of El Garia (Figure 16). As many
stratotype in Central Tunisia, it was defined by Fournié
(1978). The basement of the Plateau is composed of
Late Cretaceous facies (the Abiod Formation), overlaid
by Late Ypresian facies (nodular Chouabine), then by
the El Garia nummulitic carbonate deposits (Plate 1).
tral Tunisia, West Kairouan
3.2 Tectonic settings
3.2.1 Structural settings of Central Tunisia
and the Gulf of Gabes
The evolution of the structuration and of the
geology of northern Tunisia was strongly influenced
by the relative displacement of the African tectonic
plate toward the Eurasian plate. This displacement was
evidenced by studies on the evolution of the Atlantic
Ocean and by the palaeomagnetic data regarding the
sea floor spreading (Smith, 1971; Dewey et al., 1973,
1989; Livermore and Smith, 1985).
In Triassic and Early Jurassic time, the main
influence on the tectonic evolution of the Mediterranean
regions was the development of the Tethyan Ocean to
the east. During Middle Jurassic and Early Cretaceous,
opening of the Central Atlantic caused eastward motion
of Africa (Morgan et al., 1998). A fundamental change
occurred in the drift of Africa relative to Europe in mid-
Cretaceous time (c. 92 My), when the start of sea-floor
spreading in both South and North Atlantic resulted
in northward drift of Africa and ended accretion of
oceanic lithosphere (Dewey et al., 1989). Compressive
structures and alpine thrust belts were initiated during
this northward drift (Figure 17). After Morgan et al.
(1998), the occurrence of palaeohighs with condensed
sequences or non-deposition adjacent to small basins
with thick, rapidly deposited sequences demonstrates
that fault displacements and uplift of horst blocks have
strongly influence deposition in Tunisia during the Late
Cretaceous.
The complexity of the geology of central and
western Mediterranean regions are due to the fact that

17
Chapter 3

the limit between the African and the European plates
led to the formation of different microplates. Their
movement is lateral to the direction of convergence
between both African and European plates. Channel
et al. (1979) include in these microplates Italia, Sicilia
and the Adriatic zone within a promontory (Apulia),
attached to the African plate. More recently, Malinverno
and Ryan (1986) and Hill and Hayward (1988) proposed
that a microplate, which regroups Corsica, Sardinia and
Calabria, could be responsible in the formation of the
Apennine thrust belt.
Northern Tunisia can be subdivided into five
principal structural domains (Figure 18):
• the Tellien Atlas Zone is characterized by the
north atlasic large thrusts,
• the Mejerda Zone («Zone des Diapirs» after
Perthuisot, 1981) is dominated by extensive
NE/SW elongate outcrops of Triassic rocks,
• the Intermediate Atlas Zone is composed
of a succession of anticline and synclinorium
structures,
• the North-South Axis is an important structural
line at the external side of the Intermediate
Atlas Zone,
• and the Pelagian Platform, which is
interpreted as a foreland of the Atlassic
orogeny in Tunisia (Ouali, 1985).
At a regional scale, a major fault system, which
main direction is NW/SE, is observable from the
Intermediate Atlas zone until the offshore Libya.
The anticlinorium and synclinorium structures are
perpendicular to the direction of the faults (NE/SO).
This tectonic pattern (faults and deformations) derives
from successive tectonic events. The NW/SE faults
are inherited from a rifting period, occurring at the
Middle Jurassic (Mercier et al., 2000), and the creased
structures are derived from Middle to Late Cretaceous
compressional phase. Nevertheless, this compressive
period should have contributed to the simultaneous
formation of both graben and anticline structures, by
tranpression. In the offshore areas, tectonic inversions
are superimposed to the global compressional system,
leading to initiate ancient palaeolows in palaeohighs
and inversely (Total, unpublished data).
The Kesra Plateau is located close to a major
post-Eocene thrust fault. Around this area, many
synclinorium and anticline structures are interrupted
by NW/SE faults. At Kesra, we will see that this

W E

S
PANNONIAN
BASIN
DI
N
A

AR
D

BLACK SEA
R

ID
ES
IA
T
AP

CORSICA
IC
PE

S
NI

BALKANS
E
NE

BALEARIC
A
1

1 SEA
AF
TYR
BELTICS RHE
SEA NIAN
SARDINIA
AE

3
AA
GE
AN

ALBORAN SEA KA
SE

1 MA CA
RIF
A

TELL
SICILY
1
IONIAN
IF SEA

1 5
2 6 1

3
3 7
1

4 0 Km 200

Figure 17. Structural map of the Mediterranean zone (simplified from Channell et al., 1979 and Horvàth et al., 1981)
1: African foreland; 2: Deformed African continental margin complex; 3: Austroalpine nappes; 4: European foreland; 5:
Deformed European continental margin complex; 6: Oceanic remnants (ophiolites, oceanic sediments, etc); 7: Internal
massifs; AA: Aeolian volcanic arc; AF: APulia foreland; CA: Calabria; IF: Iblean foreland; KA: Kabylie nappes; MA:
Maghrebides; TELL: Tellian Atlas Zone

18
 Nummulite carbonates from Central Tunisia

N TELLIAN ATLAS ZONE

MEJERDA ZONE
TRIASIC OUTCROPS
GULF
W E OF TUNIS INTERMEDIATE ATLAS ZONE
PELAGIAN PLATFORM

Ro
TUNIS SAHARIAN SHIELD

m
S

bal
ia g
NORTH-SOUTH AXIS

rab
Za
gh

e
o

n
ua GRABEN
ng
rab
en
DIRECTION OF EXTENSION
Le Kef
DIRECTION OF COMPRESSION
Siliana GULF
OF HAMMAMET FAULT

Sousse THRUST
Maktar
Ro

Kesra Kairouan ANTICLINORIUM AXIS

h
ia
gra

So
SYNCLINORIUM AXIS

ua
enb

ss
ig
fo 0 40 80 Km

ra
us

b
sa

en
na
gr
ab
en
ALGERIA

SIT Sfax

Sebkret en Noual

CHOTT EL KHARSA
GULF OF GABES
Bouri
As
h ta

CHOTT
EL FE
Gabès
rt r

DJADJ
C137N D137N
ift

Djerba
CHOTT DJERID
A137N

Tri
po
li r
TUNISIA ift
TRIPOLI

LIBYA

Figure 18. Synthesis of the main structural trends in northern tunisian regions and in the Gabes Gulf (compiled from geologi-
cal maps of Tunisia - Maktar, Siliana, Haffouz -, from the structural map of northern Tunisia established by Zaïer et al., 1998,
and from Total unpublished data)

structuration strongly controls the facies distribution Dabbous Formation, the sediments of which correspond
during the Late Ypresian. to the basinal equivalent during the Late Ypresian. The
transition between both Formations coincides with a
major fault system (Figure 19).
3.2.2 Structural trends at the Kesra Plateau
The Kesra area is composed of two major
(West Kairouan)
anticlinorium, the Oued Bahloul and the Djebel Serj
anticlines. Both structures are separated by a fault zone
In term of palaeoenvironment, the El Garia that crosses the Kesra Plateau according to a N330
deposits correspond to a platform depositional setting. direction, and tend to form a graben structure. This
Laterally, the El Garia Formation pass into the Bou structural scheme is typically the same that observed at

19
Chapter 3

8° 10°

OUTCROPS :

36° ( studied area)

DO Djebel Ousselat
DBD Djebel Bou Dabbous
34°

DJ Djebel Jebil
DbA Djebel ben Abbes
TUNISIA
32°
Siliana
B KEG
DM
Kef El Garia
Djebel Mannsoura
Rebaa
N
C OB Oued Bahloul
KP Kesra Plateau
0 50 100 km

30°
DS Djebel Serj
DB Djebel Bellouta
KM Kef Mergueb
OK DB DS
DBD DeA Dir el Attaf
KeL
KM KeL Kef el Lia
Ousseltia
DeA OK Oued Kranga
Maktar DM
KP
KEG
Nlle Kesra
A DJ
SYMBOLS :
OB
D Fault
DO KAIROUAN
Synclinorium
Anticline
Rohia
Haffouz
DbA
El Ala
N EOCENE FACIES :

EL GARIA FACIES

BOU DABBOUS FACIES

50 KM

TECTONIC PATTERNS AND UPPER YPRESIAN FACIES DISTRIBUTION IN CENTRAL TUNISIA (after Jorry et al., 2001)

A B
S CROSS-SECTION A-B (after Jauzein, 1967) N
278.256 BELLOUTA 297.454
KESRA Plateau Oued Ousafa
1000m

2km

C D
NW CROSS-SECTION C-D (after Jauzein, 1967) SE
430.299 458.282
KESRA
ELLES synclinorium MAKTAR Plateau OUSAFA
1000m

3km

AGE FORMATIONS
Dir el Jerouia

OLIGOCENE FORTUNA
une
tS ado
uira
Do

MIDDLE EOCENE (LUTETIAN) SOUAR m

Sale
ben
Ali j Ali
el Had
Dir
EARLY EOCENE (UPPER YPRESIAN) EL GARIA

Mrassi allouf
A. el H
a

ane el
ab

PALEOCENE EL HARIA Dir Fedd

rD
Di

t Kesra
CAMPANIAN-MAASTRICHTIAN ABIOD Behire

nodular Chouabine Fm
(Upper Ypresian)
A.
ès
So
uk
TURONIAN-CAMPANIAN ALEG

Deroudj el Hamra
Sl Mohamed ben Abdallah

1 km
CENOMANIAN-TURONIAN BAHLOUL
GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE KESRA PLATEAU

Figure 19. Tectonic and geological patterns of the Cretaceous-Eocene series in Central Tunisia

20

the scale of Central and offshore Tunisia. At the locality
of the Oued Balhoul, the El Garia Formation pinches on
the Cretaceous Abiod Formation. The Lutetian Souar
Formation directly overlies the Maastrichtian Abiod
limestones. Jauzein (1967) interpreted the top of the
Abiod facies as a karstified surface. These arguments
strongly suggest that the anticline structure of the Oued
Balhoul was an emerged palaeohigh structure during
the deposition of the El Garia Formation.
At Kesra, the Late Cretaceous deposits, forming
the “basement” of the Plateau, are affected by
synsedimentary faults and gravity deposits, mostly
abundant at the eastern part of the Plateau. This structural
instability within the Late Cretaceous chalky facies has
been documented by several workers (Jauzein, 1967;
Perthuisot, 1978; Burollet et al., 1982; Marie et al.,
1984; Burollet et al., 1986; Negra, 1994). Diapirism
is also suspected in the region. In Central Tunisia, the
first halokinetic movements are described from the
Aptian (Perthuisot, 1978) until the Late Cretaceous and
the beginning of the Tertiary (Perthuisot and Rouvier,
1992).
On the aerial photograph of the Kesra Plateau,
some major fault axes are easily observable (Figure 20).
The study of the fault orientation confirms the presence
of three principal fault generations, that is to say N330,
which can be interpreted as the oldest generation,
N30 and N85, the youngest ones. The NO/SE system
strongly suggests an analogy with the NO/SE fault
pattern, which is observed at the scale of the Pelagian
platform.
The structural instability until the Paleocene
can be also documented by an important sedimentary
hiatus between the Late Cretaceous Abiod Formation
and the Late Ypresian Chouabine Formation, and the
condensation of the Chouabine series confirm this
18
13
4
4
15
14
24
5 measured values are compared to
2-3
12
2-5
10
4
N 330
4
4 N 30
Nummulite carbonates from Central Tunisia
tectonic activity. During this period, the carbonate
sedimentation is associated with phosphatic elements
(pebbles or bioclasts) and glauconite.
3.3 Materials and methods
28 sections were examined at Kesra, and 13
additional sections were studied around the area.
Biostratigraphic data were established on planktonic
foraminifera and nummulite identification. Microscopic
analysis on thin sections has been established in order to
interpret the petrographic textures, the faunistic content,
and the diagenetic features (porosity, cementation,
dissolution, compaction). The study of diagenetic events
such as emersion for example was completed with
cathodo-luminescence and fluid inclusions analysis.
Also, SEM microscopy was used to characterize the
different cements (calcite, micrite and dolomite).
Correlation between sections was performed by
the identification of major stratigraphic boundaries and
by the establishment of a 2D stratigraphic architecture
from outcrop examination. The 3D visualisation of
all correlated profiles was based on the integration of
data from logged stratigraphic sections, 2D outcrops
subsequent and 3D modelling.
Analyses were performed on the organic matter
that has been discovered at the Kesra Plateau. RockEval
pyrolyse (realized by Total Exploration-Production)
was used to determine the percentage of the total
organic carbon and to estimate the maturity of the rock.
Palynofacies have been studied under transmitted and
blue-light microscopy, on thin sections and polished
surfaces as well. The blue-light fluorescence depends
upon the autofluorescence response of particles under
blue-light excitation (450-490 nm). Total Exploration-
Production also performed isotopic studies.
Measurements were established
N
on extracts of the organic carbon.
Completely oxidizing the substance
to be analysed to CO2, and then
measuring the relative amount
of 13CO2 and 12CO2 with a mass
spectrometer determine ratios. The
12
the ratio for a standard substance
(carbonate belemnites fossil from
the PeeDee Formation of South
Carolina, abbreviated PDB).
Figure 20. Interpretation of the main
N 85 structural patterns on the Kesra Pla-
teau
21
Chapter 3

(Serra-Kiel et al., 1998)

Lithology Formation Petrography Age Planktic Shallow Benthic
Zones Zones

SOUAR yellowish marls MIDDLE EOCENE Lower Lutetian

nummulite and bivalve limestone - 49 Ma P9 / P10 SBZ12 / SBZ13*
nummulite limestone
Operculina limestone

EARLY EOCENE

Upper Ypresian
argillaceous limestone
EL GARIA
nummulite limestone
Discocyclina and nummulite limestone
nummulithoclast limestone
bioturbated horizon
bioclastic limestone with nautiloids
nodular CHOUABINE bioturbated glauconitic marls
hardground
- 51 Ma P8* SBZ11
(- 70 Ma ?)
lithographic limestone with planktic * : Field data determination
ABIOD
foraminifera

Campanian - Maastrichtian
LATE CRETACEOUS
(not to scale)

dominant green shales, locally

ALEG interbedded with limestones

Figure 21. General stratigraphy of outcropping rocks in the Kesra Plateau (in Jorry et al., 2003)

NE SW 3.4 Field observations

3.4.1 Biostratigraphy,
sedimentology
and petrography
of the studied
Formations
(outcrop of 1.5 km long)
A synthetic log section
is proposed for the Kesra
Plateau (Figure 21). The
different Formations have
been defined according to the
revised classification proposed
by Zaïer et al. (1998). The
attributions of biozones have
been realized by reference
to the biostratigraphic chart
established by Serra-Kiel et
al. (1998).

The Aleg Formation

(Late Cretaceous, Santonian)
is characterised by greenish
shales with interbedded thin
1cm 1cm limestones beds (Plate 2). The
thickness of the Formation
nummulithoclast packstone nummulite grainstone is about 50 m, but it tends to
be thicker to the eastern part
Figure 22. Illustration of the facies heterogeneity of the El Garia Formation (late Ypre- of the Plateau. The upper part
sian, Kesra Plateau) of the Formation is strongly

22

deformed by normal faults and slumps.
The Abiod Formation (Late Cretaceous,
Maastrichtian) is characterized by lime mudstone facies
in the Kesra area, enriched in planktonic foraminifera.
These deposits, which tend to be thicker to the East, are
affected by synsedimentary deformations (Plate 2). The
top of these deposits is marked by a well-developed
semi-lithified hard-ground surface, containing borings
and burrows, locally filled in with glauconite and
phosphate pebbles. This surface represents a major
unconformity, directly overlain by the Late Ypresian
deposits. Toward the south, thin sandstone intervals are
intercalated between the lime mudstone beds. These
sandstones, showing a basal conglomeratic facies,
should correspond to turbiditic deposits. Large erosive
channels are visible at the locality of the Oued Bahloul
(Plate 2).
The “nodular” Chouabine Formation (Late
Ypresian) forms the base of the cliffs delimiting the
Kesra Plateau, and an angular unconformity is visible
between the Abiod and the Chouabine facies. This
Formation can be subdivided into two sedimentary
units:
• At the base, glauconite marls form a ledge
in the erosion profile. They are strongly
bioturbated and contain abundant iron oxide
concretions. This unit has been dated by R.
Wernli (Geneva University) on the basis of
planktonic foraminifera. The following species
were identified: Morozovella subbotinae,
Morozovella aragonensis, Morozovella
formosa formosa, Morozovella aff. caucasica,
Morozovella lensiformis, Morozovella quetra,
Acarinina primitiva, Acarinina pentacamerata,
Acarinina broedermami, Turborotalia aff.
frontosa, Globigerina linaperta, Globigerina
inaequispira. Other small benthic foraminifera
include: Frondicularia, Marginulina,
Lenticulina, Nodosaria, Textulariidae,
Cyclammina.
This faunal association gives a Late Ypresian
age, which corresponds to the P8 biozone of
Serra-Kiel et al. (1998). Other planktonic
foraminifera (as Morozovella angulata) provide
of the reworking of the P3-P4 planktonic
biozones within the P8 biozone. This species
has been described also in the Paleocene strata
of Algeria, close to the Tebessa mountains
(Faid, 1995).
• The marly unit is overlain by bioclastic
limestones showing characteristic undulating
bedding surfaces (Plate 3). Concentrations of
phosphatic granules (centimetric size) occur
at the base of the limestone. These phosphatic
Nummulite carbonates from Central Tunisia
elements are also associated with gastropods,
bivalves and shark teeth. Above are massive
beds (20 to 30 cm thick) of bioclastic
wackestones containing phosphatic nodules and
glauconite, small gastropods, small bivalves,
and rare small nummulites. Ostracods, echinoid,
solitary corals, bryozoan fragments, small
benthic foraminifera (Bolivinidae, Cibbicidae,
Textulariidae, Miliolidae) and planktonic
foraminifers (Globigerinidae) dominate the
microfauna. Well-preserved nautiloids also
overlie this interval. The abundance and size of
the nautiloids increases toward the eastern part
of the Plateau, where their diameter may reach
more than 30 cm. Shells are often unbroken,
and their concentration can reach six per square
metre, indicating a prolific feeding area for
nautiloids. The top of this unit is marked by
a bioturbated horizon. Burrows are similar to
Thalassinoides type. Bioturbated structures are
filled in with nummulites.
The fourth unit corresponds to the El Garia
Formation, and its transition from the underlying
bioturbated nautiloid-rich limestones is abrupt.
The nummulitic unit shows important lateral facies
variation (Figure 22); in general, from west to east,
nummulite grainstones/packstones pass gradually
into nummulithoclast dominated deposits (Ousselat
member).
In order to improve the biostratigraphy of the
entire El Garia succession, the top of it was dated with
Nummulites, at different localities (Kef Mergueb, Kef El
Garia, Kesra Plateau, Djebel Ousselat). 180 Nummulites
have been collected, and then identified by A. Blondeau
and P. Masse (Total). Attributions were done in reference
to Elf collection for Libya Jdeir Formation (Nummulites
identified by J. Tosquella and A. Blondeau), and to the
collection of A. Blondeau (Blondeau, 1972) exposed
at the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle of Geneva.
Identifications were also established in reference to
Schaub (1981). Six species of Nummulites have been
recognised, at the top of the El Garia Formation (Plate
4):
• N. perplexus SCHAUB, 1981
• N. formosus DE LA HARPE, 1883 (Nummulites
« operculiniforme »)
• N. cf. pomeli FISCHEUR, 1890
• N. aff. pomeli FISCHEUR, 1890
• N. rollandi (evoluted / caillaudi D’ARCHIAC
& HAIME, 1853)
• N. tenuilamellatus FISCHEUR, 1890
This nummulite association corresponds to
the boundary between the Late Ypresian and Early
Lutetian (Blondeau, oral communication). At Kesra,
23
Chapter 3

we noted the occurrence of four species within the
same bed (N. rollandi, N. aff. rollandi, N. perplexus, N.
tenuilamellatus). N. perplexus was found at the top of
the El Garia Formation, at the localities of Kesra, Kef
el Garia and Kef Mergueb. The microspheric B-Form
is a lenticular to discoid nummulite showing a regular
whorl. The thickness of these nummulites may reach
0.8 cm. Twenty-five turns are observable for a radius
about 5mm. On the surface of the test, we distinguished
some meandering sutures. The regular narrow whorls
(from the first to the last turns) and the relatively
important thickness (0.4 to 0.85 mm, Schaub, 1981) of
N. perplexus allows to differentiate this species from N.
pomeli, N. tenuilamellatus and N. rollandi which have
thinner tests (<0.4mm) and are characterised by more
and more narrow whorls in the last turns only.
The Ain Merhotta Formation (Late Ypresian)
corresponds to the inner platform deposits, which are the
lateral equivalent to the El Garia facies. This Formation
has been defined by Moody (1987), and it is well
exposed at the Djebel Cherahil and Djebel Trozza. The
main petrographic aspect of this Formation corresponds
to the deposition of a dolomitized gastropod-rich facies.
Small nummulites are also represented but the tests
are often dissolved, leading to an important moldic
porosity.
The Souar Formation (Early Lutetian) is
characterized by yellowish marls interbedded with
massive oyster accumulations. This Formation is only
exposed in the centre of the Kesra Plateau and near the
village of El Garia. Close to the Oued Bahloul anticline,
the Souar Formation appears directly above the Late
Cretaceous Abiod lime mudstones.
3.4.2 Sedimentological description of
sections
The preliminary fieldwork took place at the
Djebel Kesra. 28 sections were realized, principally
located around the border of the plateau (Figure 23).
All sections are not detailed on the next paragraph.
Main interesting sections, showing a lateral variation
of facies, are only described and interpreted. Outcrop
observations, petrographic analysis, and interpretation
of the depositional environments are detailed in
Appendix. Symbols for illustrating the petrography of
facies at outcrop have been homogenized for Tunisian
and Libyan logged sections (Appendix 1).
3.4.2.1 Sections measured on the western
flank of the Kesra Plateau
Sections of Kesra roman steps and Murabat
(Appendix 2 and Appendix 3)
Both sections are located at the village of Kesra,
and show a similar vertical succession of facies.

N
284

DeJO DeJE

AeD
DS
283

AbS
DeHA

AeH
282 4
3 DFeM
2 1

DD2
281 DD
DD3 BK2
DD4 AeS
BK1

280 DA
MKR
Mu SMbA
Mu 1SMbA1 6 DeH
2 3 4 5
279

500 m
450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459

Figure 23. Localization of the measured sections on Kesra Plateau

24

However, the transition between the Cretaceous Abiod
limestones and the Late Ypresian facies is only exposed
at the Murabat section. The top of the Abiod Formation
shows a semi-lithified surface, affected by perforations,
which are filled in with glauconite and phosphatic
gravels.
The Late Ypresian outcropping series start with the
exposure of the base of the nodular Chouabine, which
is characterized by a marly interval rich in glauconite.
The nautiloid-rich level of the upper nodular Chouabine
overlies this horizon. The transition with the El Garia
facies is marked by a bioturbated surface, where
nummulites are integrated within burrows.
The El Garia facies start with the deposition of
nummulite-rich grainstones where Discocyclina and
serpulids debris are also represented. This facies appears
homogeneous at the beginning of the sections, then the
transition with a large-flat nummulites grainstone is
abrupt. The top of this interval is characterized by the
presence of an unconformity surface where dissolved
bivalves and serpulids fragments are exposed.
Discocyclina are less and less abundant toward the
top of the section, while large-flat nummulites become
more and more represented. The last bank shows the
association of large-flat and large robust nummulites
with bivalve shells.
At the Murabat, some undulating stratifications
can be identified within the large-flat nummulites
facies. Their interpretation will be discussed in a next
paragraph.
3.4.2.2 Sections measured on the northern
flank of the Kesra Plateau
Section of Dir Daba (Appendix 4)
The contact between the Abiod and the nodular
Chouabine is not visible. The nodular Chouabine
facies are typically characterized by the superposition
of glauconitic marls, phosphatic-rich pebbles unit
and the nautiloid-rich facies. As the other sections
of the Kesra Plateau, the transition with the El Garia
limestones is abrupt. At the base, the El Garia facies
are composed of packstones, where nummulites and
Operculina are associated. These facies are the first
Operculina packstones that are visible from the section
of Kesra roman steps. The upper part of the succession
is characterized by the deposition of nummulite
grainstones, and the association with large bivalves is
found in the last bank.
This outcrop allows mapping the Early Eocene
series along 2 km of a well-continuous cliff. To the
east (toward the section of Kesra Roman Steps), the
depositional facies show a shallowing tendency toward
proximal facies, i.e. robust nummulite grainstone
deposits. This lateral variation of facies is marked by the
Nummulite carbonates from Central Tunisia
appearance of eroded zone on the cliffs of the Dir Daba,
while the aspect of the Eocene series are mostly vertical
at the Kesra village (dominated by grainstones).
Section of Ali ben Salem (Appendix 5)
The stratigraphic unconformity between the Abiod
and the nodular Chouabine Formation is well exposed,
showing a beautiful hard ground surface.
The nodular Chouabine Formation is thicker that at
the Dir Daba, but the series show the same petrographic
characteristics that those previously described,
suggesting a homogeneous palaeoenvironment. Some
beautiful preserved nautiloid shells can be found in this
unit.
At their base, the El Garia facies starts with the
deposition of fine nummulithoclast packstones, locally
rich in organic matter. These facies contain few bioclastic
elements, except some scaphopod debris and rare bivalve
fragments. The bed surfaces show frequent silicified
structures, which can be laterally followed on more than
100 metres of distance. These silicified elements suggest
the silicification of ancient bioturbation structures.
These facies are abruptly interrupted by a yellowish
argillaceous wackestone facies (40 cm thick), which is
bioturbated and composed of planktonic foraminifera.
Above this horizon, Operculina and nummulithoclast-
rich facies occur, changing upward into packstones
characterized by large-scale cross bedding. The top of
the section is dominated by nummulitic packstones.
Sections of Dir el Jerouia (Appendix 6, Appendix
7 and Plate 5)
These sections are probably the more spectacular
exposures of the El Garia Formation at the Kesra
Plateau. The El Garia facies is outcropping along a
circular tectonic structure that is delimited by a normal
fault (oriented N/S), and the presence of a quarry on
the northern flank of the structure allows detailed
observations of the El Garia facies. This site exhibits
a complete stratigraphic succession of facies, from
the base of the Chouabine to the top of the El Garia
Formation. The contact with the Cretaceous Abiod
limestones is not visible.
The nodular Chouabine Formation doesn’t show
any facies and thickness changes; however, the contact
between the basal glauconitic marls and the phosphatic
conglomeratic facies reveals the presence of small
sheets of dark green indurate, bioturbated shales.
The phosphatic conglomerate truncates these facies,
in which abundant bioclastic elements were found
(gastropods, bivalves, echinoids, shark teeth, solitary
corals). The Nautiloid-rich facies is developed above,
forming a well-individualized unit of 2 metres thick.
25
Chapter 3
The contact between the nodular Chouabine and
the El Garia Formation is visible at outcrop. It shows a
sharp transition with fine nummulithoclastic muds, rich
in organic matter, echinoid and bivalve fragments, and
dominated by Operculina. Bioturbations are regularly
developed on 4 meters high. Burrows are filled in
with argillaceous pebbles and disseminated large-flat
nummulites. Some large debris of nautiloids are also
present. The Operculina which are found within these
nummulithoclastic facies are similar than those described
by Blondeau (1974) for the Eocene series outcropping
at El Kef (Operculina canalifera d’Archiac).
These bioturbated nummulithoclastic packstones
are sometimes dolomitized. Dolomite is represented by
scattered small rhomboedric crystals within the matrix,
which can typically interpreted as the result of burial
diagenesis.
The transition with the first nummulite facies
is progressive, characterizing by the deposition of
Operculina and small nummulites. The occurrence of
nummulite and Discocyclina grainstones is synchronous
to the disappearance of the small benthic foraminifera
and of Operculina. At the top of the quarry, nummulites
are associated with large gastropods, bivalves and
phosphatic vertebrate debris (shark teeth).
The vertical succession of the nummulite grainstone
facies outcropping at the top of the quarry shows a
tendency to a progressive filling of the accommodation
space. This tendency is characterized by the appearance
of large robust forms toward, suggesting higher
hydrodynamic conditions. Nummulites were dated at
this level. The large-robust forms are represented by
Nummulites perplexus, characterizing the transition
between the Late Ypresian and the Early Lutetian.
3.4.2.3 Sections measured on the southern
flank of the Kesra Plateau
Sections of Salam Mohamed ben Abdallah
(Appendix 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and Plate 6)
Six successive sections were measured along this
outcrop, which is laterally continuous on more than 4
kilometres toward the East. The contact between the
Cretaceous limestones of the Abiod Formation and the
nodular Chouabine facies is covered by fallen rocks.
The nodular Chouabine has been detailed at section
SMbA 1 where it clearly shows glauconitic marls at
the base, which are abruptly overlaid by nautiloid-rich
facies.
The El Garia Formation, dominated by nummulites
and Discocyclina at section SMbA 2, evolves laterally
into Operculina (SMbA 5) and nummulithoclast-
dominated facies toward the East (SMbA 6). At outcrop,
26
this gradual variation of facies can be documented by
the occurrence and the thickening of mud-rich intervals,
which constitute intercalations of eroded horizons in the
facies succession (Plate 6).
The transition between nummulite and
nummulithoclast facies is very progressive, and the
maximum extension of the nummulite facies is restricted
to section SMbA 2. The top of the section is dominated
by thin grainstone beds (30 cm thick) composed of
large nummulites “operculiniformes”. These large
foraminifera are indeterminate, but their morphology is
intermediate between a nummulite and an Operculina.
Section of Deroudj el Hamra (Appendix 13)
The contact between the Abiod and the Late
Ypresian series is not visible. The nautiloid-rich facies
of the nodular Chouabine is exposed, showing a global
thickening of about 1 m, in regards to the outcropping
series at the west, close to the village of Kesra.
On a geometric point of view, beds of the El Garia
Formation are horizontally stratified, and the tectonic
dip is oriented toward the north. These beds are thinner
than those observed at the west of the Plateau (around
40 cm thick).
Along the total El Garia succession, no nummulitic
sediment was identified. Beds are dominated by a
nummulithoclast-rich facies, locally enriched in organic
matter, in silicified surfaces, and Operculina becomes
abundant at the top of the section. A bioturbated
argillaceous wackestone was found at the middle of the
section. Its yellowish aspect and its intercalation within
nummulithoclastic intervals recall those described at
section AbS (Ali ben Salem) on the northern flank of
the Kesra Plateau.
This outcrop, located East of the cliff of Salam
Mohamed ben Abdallah, clearly evidences a tendency
to a deepening.
3.4.2.4 Section measured on the eastern flank
of the Kesra Plateau
Section of A. ès Souk (Appendix 14 and Plate
7)
This section represents the thicker accumulation of
nummulithoclast of the El Garia Formation at the Kesra
Plateau. The site is comparable to a cirque, offers a 3D
view within the nummulithoclastic accumulations.
At its base, the nodular Chouabine is well
exposed, characterized by a thickening (5 m thick).
Large nautiloid shells are very abundant, some species
reaching 45 cm of diameter. The base of the El Garia
Formation is represented by a thick accumulation of
nummulithoclastic facies, where silicified surface are
common at the top of organic matter-rich horizons.

Planktonic foraminifera and ostracods dominate the
microfacies, and nummulites are absent. An argillaceous
wackestone interval is also well exposed. A second
unit of nummulithoclast packstones overlies it, where
silicified surfaces are interbedded.
Then, Operculina-rich facies are deposited.
Nummulites appear at the top of the section. The facies
is a packstone-grainstone, composed of small and
large-flat nummulites. Toward the centre of the Plateau,
the association of large bivalves and large-robust
nummulites evidences the top of the El Garia Formation.
The presence of this level at the East of the study area
clearly demonstrates that the thick nummulithoclast
succession observed at the A. ès Souk section is
synchronous in time to the deposition of the nummulite
grainstone succession which have been described at
the Kesra village. Secondly, this level confirms that the
accommodation space was progressively filled up during
the Late Ypresian, leading to the complete recovery of
the area by an homogeneous nummulite deposit.
Section of A. el Hallouf (Appendix 15)
This section is the more eastern section that can be
observed at the Kesra Plateau. The facies succession is
similar to those observed at the section of A. ès Souk,
characterized by an important accumulation of dark
nummulithoclast limestone. Main bioclastic components
are represented by ostracods, scaphopods and echinoid
debris, and silicified surfaces are regularly interbedded
between these organic-rich layers. Operculina occur
above bioturbated argillaceous horizon, and dominate
the upper part of the section.
Nummulites occur at the top of the section. At
this place, low-angle cross stratifications have been
observed, coinciding with a higher hydrodynamism.
Phosphatic elements were observed in all samples.
These elements are generally common cryptocrystalline
agregates, or constitute epigeny processes, which have
replaced the original mineralogy of small foraminifera
tests.
This section confirms that the eastern part of
the Kesra Plateau is dominated by the deposition of a
nummulithoclastic material. The presence of organic
matter suggests that the depositional environment is
poorly oxygenated, which is not compatible with the
living environment of nummulites. The silicification
of bioturbations and the deposition of an argillaceous
limestone at the middle of the series have been
systematically observed in this zone, and can be
correlated between northern and southern flanks of the
Plateau.
Nummulite carbonates from Central Tunisia
Section of Dir el Hadj Ali (Appendix 16)
This locality is impressive by the numerous blocks
that fall from the Eocene cliff. Some blocks, which are
found at the base of the cliff, show beautiful surfaces on
which numerous nautiloids of the nodular Chouabine
can be easily observed.
As the previous section, the El Garia Formation
is mainly composed of nummulithoclast facies, rich in
ostracods, small benthic foraminifera, common echinoid
debris and rare nummulites. Operculina appear at the
middle of the section. However, silicifications and
argillaceous wackestones are absent.
This section also evidences potential high-energy
sedimentary structures. Some small-scale foresets
appear at the base of a packstone bed, and strongly
suggest a transport of bioclastic sediment toward the
east. At the top of the section, hummocky surfaces are
clearly identified (15 cm of height and about 50 cm of
amplitude). The facies is composed of small nummulites
and Operculina. These structures are strongly affected
by weathering, leading to dissociate each hummocky
structure. The question is to understand if these structures
are true original hydrodynamic structures or if it is an
effect of diagenesis, compaction and weathering. This
point will be discussed in the next paragraph.
Section of Douirat Sadoune (Appendix 17)
This section outcrops along a small cliff, which is
disconnected from the large Kesra Plateau at its eastern
extremity. The nodular Chouabine facies overlay the
lime mudstones of the Cretaceous Abiod Formation.
These facies are composed of bioclastic beds, separated
by undulating erosive surfaces.
The base of the El Garia Formation starts with
the deposition of laminated fine-grain nummulithoclast
deposits, locally enriched in organic matter. These facies
also contain an important proportion of phosphatic grains,
scaphopod and small bivalve debris. No silicifications
are detected in these organic-rich facies, which is
comparable to other sections as DeJO (Dir el Jerouia)
and DeHA (Dir el Hadj Ali). However, Discocyclina
are totally absent at this section. Nummulites occur
at the upper part of the succession, associated with
Operculina. These upper beds are characterized by
large amplitude hummocky structures.
27
Chapter 3
3.4.2.5 Section measured at Kesra, at the
centre of the Plateau
Section of Dir Feddane el Mrassi (Appendix
18)
This section was measured on a well-continuous
cliff, delimiting a graben structure at the middle of
the Plateau. Four sections were measured in order to
constrain the lateral variation of facies on 2 kilometres
of distance. A general thickening of the succession
is observed toward the East, and facies tend to be
deeper (progressive enrichment in organic-rich
nummulithoclastic facies). The description of these
lateral changes of facies and thickness is developed at
§.2.5.4.3.
The section DFeM 1 was measured at the
middle of the cliff. The contact between the nodular
Chouabine and the El Garia facies is not well visible.
The El Garia facies start with the deposition of a dark
nummulithoclastic limestone, where silicified surfaces
are intercalated at the top of the beds. These silicifications
can be laterally followed at outcrop toward the East of
the Plateau, while they disappear toward the West. An
argillaceous horizon is also well developed at outcrop.
This facies is abruptly overlaid by a thick Operculina-
dominated packstone, which constitutes a concave bed
on the cliff face. Nummulitic facies occur at the top of
the cliff, forming highly cemented and well stratified
beds.
3.4.3 Characterization of high-energy
sedimentary structures
The rarity of sedimentary structures in the
nummulitic limestones has been discussed in Chapter
1. Ideally, their formation depends on the presence of
uni or bidirectional bottom-currents able to transport
as bedload and sort sedimentary particles. Their
preservation is allowed if the bioturbation activity is low.
Several diagenetic events may also modify the original
fabric (compaction, dissolution, and weathering).
As a contribution to a better understanding of
the depositional environment, the objective of this
paragraph is to document the rare sedimentary structures
that have been observed during the fieldwork in Kesra.
Additional observations from the Juggurta Plateau
(western Tunisia) and from the Soveria unit (Corsica)
are integrated in this paragraph.
At the locality of the Behiret Kessera (cf. Figure
23), where the upper part of the El Garia Formation is
exposed, nummulitic grainstones are accumulated in
stacked oblique stratifications, on 2-m-thick (Figure 24).
Each package of stratification is delimited by an erosive
28
surface, which strongly suggests different periods of
sedimentation. The facies is composed of coarse-grain
nummulitic sediment, where nummulites are imbricated,
in respect to the angle of stratification. These structures
are interpreted as large-scale dunes, prograding
toward the SW in a high-energy environment. Other
observations of similar high energy structures along the
cliff show that the foresets are not always constant in
thickness, and large sigmoid prograding sets have been
recognized eastward (Plate 8).
At different scale, the stacking of stratifications is
delimited by sharp and angular unconformities. Locally,
variations of the direction of progradation suggest that
tidal influences cannot be excluded (Plate 9, -a- and -
c-).
Other structures are visible at outcrop, on the
western part of the plateau, laterally to the large-
scale prograding dunes of the Behiret Kessera. A bed
is composed of undulating surface, individualizing
connected hummocky structures (Plate 9, -b-). At the top
of the bank, these structures change upward into oblique
stratifications, which are tangential at their base. The
microfacies is a grainstone, composed of nummulites,
Operculina and common scaphopod debris. Despite of
the non-evidence of internal laminations, the undulating
unconformities could be interpreted as poorly preserved
HCS structures (Hummocky Cross Stratifications).
Low angle stratifications are common in the
western part of the Kesra Plateau (section DS, AeH and
AeS). Packstone facies are dominated by nummulites
and by a high content of coarse nummulithoclast
debris, but they are mostly weathered. Stratifications
are surrounded by undulating boundaries, where a
preferential dissolution took place (Plate 9, -d- and -e-).
This dissolution could be accentuated by present-day
weathering, but original boundaries could be inherited
from the depositional processes. Their identification
remains enigmatic, but they could represent relative
deep hydrodynamical accumulation, according to the
palaeogeography (eastern deepening).
At the locality of the section Murabat (Mu), another
type of structures is exposed. These structures consist
of the superposition of 15 cm thick beds, separating
by undulating surfaces (Plate 10). These structures are
laterally continuous, affecting the same bank. Ancient
roman tombs allow to observe the bedding in 3D,
evidencing the lateral continuity of stratifications. The
microfacies is characterized by a laminated grainstone-
packstone, rich in large Discocyclina , small and large-
flat nummulites. The laminations are alternatively
constituted by coarse and fine-grain facies. Our first
feeling was to interpret these structures as the result
of diagenesis and weathering. However, the absence
of compaction features (stylolites or wispy seams), the
3D observation of stratifications, and the presence of
laminations could be good arguments for interpreting
these structures as wavy-bedding.

NE direction of progradation
Figure 24. Characterization of large-scale carbonate dunes illustrating the reworking of nummulite-rich sediments in shallow
subtidal settings (Behiret Kesra, Kesra Plateau). The outcrop is 15m long.
Other observations have been established at the
Juggurta Plateau, located south of the city of Le Kef,
70 km far from Kesra, in the Mejerda Zone («Zone des
Diapirs», cf. Figure 18). The geology of the Eocene
succession is unknown in literature. A synthetic section
based on a quick-look observation of the cliff which
has been established during a geological fieldtrip in
1999, and on the observation of thin sections, sampled
by Christian Dupuis (Faculté Polytechnique de Mons,
Belgium). The plateau shows a nice succession of facies
belonging to the El Garia Formation, accumulated on
100 metres thick (Plate 11). The base of the Eocene cliff
is represented by planktonic shale interbedded with well-
cemented limestones, locally enriched in phosphates
and serpulid debris. Oblique stratifications are visible
at outcrop, at the top of the Eocene series. These
structures can be interpreting as internal stratifications
of large prograding subtidal dunes or as tidal bars
constituted by stacked sandwaves. They are composed
of reworking coarse nummulite grainstone facies, are
the largest observed in Central Tunisia (5 to 8 metres
thick, 15 metres of amplitude, at least), and suggest the
influence of strong marine currents. As the geology of
the Eocene is poorly known in this part of Tunisia, it is
difficult to replace these nummulite accumulations in a
palaeogeographical scheme. However, El Ouardi (2002)
indicates that synsedimentary tectonic has strongly
influenced the deposition during the Eocene, triggered
by halokinetic movements and tectonic inversion.
Nummulite carbonates from Central Tunisia
SW
erosive surface
The last example of sedimentary structures comes
from the Eocene series of Corsica (France). The area
was visited in 2003 during a geological training for
undergraduate students from the University of Geneva.
The parautochthonous Eocene series from Corsica
are mostly dominated by a terrigeneous-dominated
sedimentation with interbedded nummulitic carbonates
(Rossi et al., 1994a). The nummulite facies are also
reworked in turbidites (allochthonous Eocene). The
studied succession at the Fuata cliff (north of Corte)
is defined as a parautochthonous unit (Rossi et al.,
1994b). The nummulitic limestones belong the Soveria
Unit, and overlay a Permian-Carboniferous basement
composed of conglomeratic facies, interbedded with
thin rhyolite layers (Plate 12). The base of the Eocene
succession is characterized by the deposition of
erosive conglomeratic sandy limestones containing
disseminated nummulites. These conglomerates are
followed by bioturbated sandy limestones, locally
enriched in nummulites. Nummulite-rich facies occur
suddenly above sandstones, showing at their base some
cross-bedding structures. The end of the succession is
dominated by the deposition of nummulitic grainstones
that are organized in 30 cm thick beds. These beds are
characterized by the presence of sedimentary structures,
showing oblique and cross stratifications. In 3D, some
blocks exhibit the concave shape of the small prograding
structures.
29
Chapter 3
The observations of sedimentary structures at
different localities could indicate similar depositional
processes, which are dominated by reworking,
transportation and redeposition of nummulites in high-
energy settings. Petrographical textures always coincide
with such sedimentary processes, and the frequent
monospecific assemblage suggests a granulometric
sorting. At the scale of a carbonate platform, this sorting
could preferentially segregate the different species of
large foraminifera, the morphological diversity of which
induces specific hydrodynamical behaviours. At Kesra,
the dominance of nummulites in beds showing potential
sedimentary structures evidences that nummulites are
more easily transportable than others large foraminifera
as Discocyclina or Operculina which are found laterally
and deeper. The formation of hydrodynamic structures
suggests an intense reworking of such monospecific
associations that induces an «intra-species» reworking.
The newly formed well-sorted sediment could
potentially composed the stratifications of intertidal and
subtidal dunes, as well as storm deposits.
The erratic hydrodynamic behaviour of
nummulites probably contributes to inhibit the
formation of evident high-energy structures. Tunisian
spots remain exceptional outcrops as they represent the
first published evidences of hydrodynamic structures
in such carbonates. At Kesra, the consequent early
cementation of nummulite chambers could contribute
to homogenize density of the particles before their
transportation.
3.5 Interpretation
3.5.1 Establishment of standard facies
Based on outcrop observations, on the description
of 28 field sections, and the petrographic study of 420
thin sections, seven main facies within the El Garia
Formation have been distinguished.
As the precise determination of nummulites
cannot be done in the field or in thin sections, we use
morphological criteria based on nummulite size (large
or small) and shape (flat or robust). This scheme was
useful to establish facies descriptions of stratigraphic
sections, and to provide a basis for 2D outcrop mapping
(Table 2). In general, vertical transitions between
different nummulite facies were abrupt.
The seven facies are as follows:
Facies 1: Large robust nummulite packstone (Plate
13). In this facies, large B-form nummulites are
associated with large bivalves in life position; other
nummulite morphologies (small robust and large flat)
are well represented and gastropods are common. The
30
W < 1 cm W > 1 cm
Small Nummulites (A-forms) Large Nummulites (B-forms)
Robust Nummulites
W (width)
W / Th < 2
Th (thickness)
Small Robust Nummulite Large Robust Nummulite
Flat Nummulites
W / Th > 2
Small Flat Nummulite Large Flat Nummulite
Table 2. Classification of nummulite deposits based on the
variability of nummulite morphology
matrix contains a high proportion of nummulithoclasts,
echinoderm debris and rare scaphopods. The presence
of nummulithoclasts, of mixed, randomly orientated
A and B-form nummulite association and of large
bivalves in life position strongly suggests that this facies
constitutes an autochthonous or a para-autochthonous
deposit. The association nummulite-gastropod
indicates the proximity of more restricted settings
(Moody, 1987). The presence of large bivalve in life
position suggests that the substrate is stabilized.
Facies 2: Small robust nummulite grainstone /
packstone (Plate 14). Small nummulites are dominant
and are occasionally associated with serpulid
bioconstructions and debris, bivalves and gastropods,
flat nummulites, echinoderm and scaphopod fragments.
This facies provides evidence of granulometric sorting,
as small robust nummulite is common. In comparison
with modern environments, the presence of serpulid
bioherms suggests a very shallow depth deposition
(Fornós et al., 1997).
Facies 3: Large flat nummulite grainstone / packstone
(Plate 15). This facies shows a poor associated
microfauna and the presence of echinoderm fragments.
Grainstones are characterized by imbricated, large,
flat nummulites and an absence of nummulite debris
within the matrix. This is a well-sorted facies, which
is found in large-scale cross-bedding structures, which
suggests high-energy conditions during deposition.
Facies 4: Small flat nummulite packstone (Plate
16). Nummulites are associated with Discocyclina,
Operculina, echinoderm debris, scaphopod fragments
and uncommon small benthic foraminifera such as
Cibicididae, Textulariidae and Lenticulina. Occurrence
of thin Discocyclina, Operculina and small benthic
foraminifers as Lenticulina indicates proximity to open-
marine conditions. The matrix contains significant
nummulithoclast particles and mud.
Facies 5: Operculina and nummulithoclastic packstone
(Plate 17). Operculina are associated with common
small benthic foraminifera (Bolivina, Cibicididae,
Textulariidae, Lenticulina), small nummulites and

common echinoderm fragments. The matrix contains
a high proportion of nummulithoclastic debris.
This facies forms the thick eroded beds, which are
easily recognized at outcrop and form a good visual
marker for outcrop correlation. Based on previous
studies in Tunisia (Loucks et al., 1998; Racey et al.,
2001), in Libya (Arni, 1965), in Spain (Eichenseer
and Luterbacher, 1992) and in Yugoslavia (Bignot,
1972), Operculina facies characterises a deeper-water
depositional environment than nummulite facies. In
modern environments, the foraminifera Operculina
can occur with thin nummulites in deep environments
(Hohenegger et al., 2000).
Facies 6: Nummulithoclastic packstone (Plate 18).
This facies belongs to the Ousselat member (sensu
Moody et al., 1989). It contains abundant small
benthic foraminifera, abundant echinoderm fragments
and some planktonic foraminifera. The matrix is
dominantly composed of silt-sized nummulite debris,
organic matter and silicified material (silica nodules
or silicified bioturbated horizons). This facies, locally
massive and undisturbed, is generally laminated, which
together with the planktonic foraminifera suggest
deep-water deposition of material reworked from the
shallow-water nummulite platform. The presence of
organic matter suggests a very confined environment.
Facies 7: Argillaceous wackestone (Plate 19).
This mud-supported facies is characterized by the
abundance of planktonic foraminifera and by an intense
bioturbation. Few nummulites are disseminated within
burrows, and large phosphatic grains are concentrated
in the matrix. At Kesra, this facies is preserved at the
east of the plateau and disappears progressively toward
the west. The palaeogeographical extension of this
horizon is similar to those of the silicified bioturbated
horizons that are intercalated with Facies 6. This facies,
dominated by planktonic foraminifers, is interpreted as
the deeper deposit of the El Garia Formation.
3.5.2 Analysis of the organic matter content
of Facies 6
In Central and offshore Tunisia, the Bou Dabbous
limestones are often interpreted as the source rock for
the El Garia nummulitic reservoirs. However, the black
colour of the nummulithoclast-rich facies from Kesra,
belonging the El Garia Formation, suggest a high content
of organic matter. As the composition of sedimentary
organic matter depends on the relative contributions
from the various autochthonous and allochthonous
inputs and their chemical compositions, the objective
is to characterize the organic matter content of these
facies using Rock-Eval pyrolysis, palynology and
stable isotopes.
Nummulite carbonates from Central Tunisia
Two samples were taken at Kesra (SJ1332 and
SJ1346), and another one was collected in the Bou
Dabbous limestones (SJ1370, sampled at the Pont
Romain), for comparison.
3.5.2.1 Rock-Eval pyrolysis
High temperature pyrolysis has been used
industrially since the eighteenth century to yield shale
oil and to estimate the potential of a rock sample by
measuring the difference between its current total
carbon and its residual carbon after pyrolysis. Rock-
Eval pyrolysis (Espitalié et al., 1985a, 1985b and
1986) helps to characterise the type of organic matter,
to calculate the residual potential of the sample and
its total organic carbon and to evaluate the thermal
evolution it has undergone. It is a physico-chemical
method, which consists in heating up to 600°C, under
a helium atmosphere, a rock sample of ca. 100 mg.
Several parameters are derived from this method at
different stages of heating:
• S1 (mg HC/g sample): mg of hydrocarbon
(C10 to 30) initially present in the sample and
freed at 300°C. It is related with the petroleum
potential of the sample, the degree of evolution
of the organic matter and with migration
phenomena.
• S2 (mg HC/g sample): mg of hydrocarbons
(>C30), derived from the thermal alteration
between 300 and 600°C. It is an indicator
of the total quantity of oil and gas that the
kerogen can produce during a future thermal
alteration.
• TOC (wt%): sum of residual organic carbon
(S3 and S4) and organic carbon derived from
cracking (S1 and S2).
• HI (mg HC/g TOC): mg of hydrocarbons
divided by grams of Total Organic Carbon.
There is a direct correlation between HI and
the H/C ratio. Hydrogen complexes are more
important in marine plankton, freshwater
algae, spores, pollen, leaf cuticle, tree resin
and anaerobic bacteria than in phytoclasts
(Tissot et al., 1974).
• OI (mg CO2/g TOC): mg of carbon dioxide
divided by grams of Total Organic Carbon.
• Tmax (°C): pyrolysis temperature recorded at
the maximum of the S2 peak. It is an indicator
of the level of thermal maturity of organic
matter.
• PI: production index (S1/(S1+S2))
31
Chapter 3
Geo nb Nature Sample ref TOC
Kesra
134693 SJ 1332 1.98
(El Garia)
Kesra
134694 SJ 1346 2.05
(El Garia)
Pont Romain
134695 SJ 1370 1.08
(Bou Dabbous)
Table 3. Petroleum potential from Central Tunisia, based on Rock-Eval pyrolysis
Organic matter can be classified into three types on
a HI-Tmax diagram:
• Type I: considered to be of lacustrine origin.
It shows high initial H/C ratio and very low
O/C ratio (Tissot and Welte, 1984). The type
example is the Eocene lacustrine oil shale of
the Green River Formation, USA (Durant and
Monin, 1980).
• Type II: usually related to marine sediments
where autochthonous OM has been deposited
in a reducing environment (Tissot and Welte,
1984). The latter is derived from a mixture
of phytoplankton, zooplankton and micro-
organisms (bacteria). It shows a relatively
high H/C ratio and low O/C ratio. The type
example is the Toarcian Black Shales of the
Paris Basin («Schistes Cartons»).
• Type III: derived essentially from continental
plants, it contains much identifiable vegetal
debris (Tissot and Welte, 1984). It has a low
initial H/C ratio and a high O/C ratio. The
type example is the deltaic Cretaceous facies
of the Douala Basin in Cameroon. Thus, low
HI values usually indicate a greater relative
abundance of hydrogen-poor terrestrial
material (Hofmann et al., 1993).
Samples from Central Tunisia have HI values
varying from 383 to 625 mgHC/g TOC, and TOC values
ranging from 1.08 and 2.05 wt% (Table 3). Regarding
samples from Kesra (SJ1332-SJ1346), obtained values
indicate an immature organic matter of Type II.
The Bou Dabbous limestones are known as
containing an important proportion of organic matter,
which TOC values ranging from 0.94 to 3.28 wt%
(after Van der Pijl and Point, 1993). Our sample, which
palaeogeographical location corresponds to the front of
the Kesra platform, shows a low TOC content.
A more consequent sampling is required to
characterize the specific petroleum potential of
both Formations. However, these high TOC values
demonstrate that potential good source rocks can be
formed closely to the nummulite facies deposition,
pointing a drastic change in the depositional
32
S1 S2 PI Tmax HI OI
0.25 8.92 0.03 427 451 53
0.47 12.84 0.04 426 625 27
0.03 4.15 0.01 434 383 72
environment. The apparent poor-oxygenated settings
coincide with the rarity of nummulites and other photic
organisms, which were probably not adapted to such
environmental settings.
3.5.2.2 Palynofacies
The fluorescence, which originates from the
chemical composition of particles containing fluorophors
and chromophors, helps to understand the preservation
state of palynomorphs and amorphous organic matter
(Tyson, 1995). Fluorescence generally increases with
better preservation (Pellaton, 2003).
The observation of palynofacies from Central
Tunisia indicates that:
• Organic-rich rocks from Kesra are constituted by
a sapropelic matrix (green-yellow fluorescence),
which contain abundant large-rounded and
poorly fluorescent organic debris (Plate 20). A
lot of these components, mostly characterized
by fluorescent outlines, can be interpreted as
debris of continental vegetals. Pollen, wood
debris, filamentous alginites, Tasmanacae
marine algae and some dinocyst have been also
recognized, the last ones indicating a marine
influence. The high proportion of pyrite (FeS)
characterized a disoxic environment (reduced-
oxygen), which could explain the important
bacterial degradation (low fluorescence) of the
organic matter.
• Sample from the Bou Dabbous shows different
palynofacies (Plate 20): particles are globally
smaller and mostly dominated by amorphous
organic matter, dinocyst and foraminiferal
lining. They are also characterized by a relative
good fluorescence. The low amount of pyrite
indicates that the environment was more
oxygenated than in Kesra, probably related
to more open marine palaeogeographical
settings.
3.5.2.3 Carbon isotopes
Carbon isotopes can in some cases be useful for
determining the nature of organic source material.
 Nummulite carbonates from Central Tunisia

a Transition matrix c Facies relationship diagram

0.01168
overlying facies
0.00011 0.00000
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 0 0 0 0
underlying facies

1 0.00000 0.00979 0.02186

2 0 0 7 3 0 0 0.00034 0.02022

3 5 12 0 3 3 1
Heavy lines show significant relationships at 0.1 level
4 2 4 9 0 5 1
5 0 1 6 10 0 11
d Theoretic shallowing-up sequence
6 0 0 1 1 21 0
1 large robust nummulite and bivalve grainstones
b Preferential transitions statistically proved 2 small robust nummulite grainstones

facies P N M Probability 3 large flat nummulite grainstones

EL GARIA
transition
4
2 3 0.17 10 7 0.00034 small nummulite and Discocyclina packstones
3 1 0.06 24 5 0.01168
5 Operculina and nummulithoclast packstones
3 2 0.16 24 12 0.00011
4 3 0.19 21 9 0.00979 6 bioturbated nummulithoclast packstones
5 4 0.18 28 10 0.02186
5 6 0.21 28 11 0.02022 nautiloid packstones-wackestones CHOUABINE
6 5 0.26 24 21 0.00000
bioturbated glauconitic marls
P transition probability for random sequence
N total no. of transitions from lower facies
M observed no. of transition from lower to upper e Theoretic depositional model of the lateral distribution of nummulite
facies facies of the El Garia Formation
Probability : binomial probability of M or more
successes in N trials under null hypothesis
(random sequence)
A probability lower than the threshold value (0.02) 1 2 3
indicates that the transition from facies a to b 4 5
occurs more frequently than predicted by random 6
chance

Figure 25. Construction of a theoretic model based on the method of the most frequent stratigraphic facies transitions

Land plants have been shown (Smith, 1975; Yeh and
Epstein, 1981) to have δ13C values which fall into
one of two groups. Most land plants metabolise CO2
by the C3 (Calvin cycle) biochemical pathway; these
organisms have δ13C values that fall in the range –24 to
-34‰ (versus PDB). Marine plankton has δ13C values
which fall in the range for the relatively uncommon
C4 terrestrial plants. Values in the range –18 to -21‰
relative to the PDB may indicate a hyper saline, highly
reducing depositional environment (Galimov, 1973).
accumulation however indicating platform dominated-
area. The organic matter, which is generated northward
in the Bou Dabbous facies, exhibits a typical deep
marine influence. The better preservation of the organic
matter could be related of more oxygenated settings,
which agree with open marine conditions.
At Kesra, the appearance of organic rich layers is
often in relation with fault systems. This point will be
discussed in a next paragraph (cf §.2.5.7).

Concerning the organic-rich facies from the El
Garia Formation (SJ1332 and SJ1346), isotopic studies
indicates clearly a continental input, with values ranging
from –29.4 and -30‰ (PDB). As contrary, sample from
the Bou Dabbous is characterized by a positive value of
0.7‰ (PDB).
These values confirm the different origin of both
organic matter, and important palaeogeographical
considerations have to be expected. In Kesra, the
deposition of nummulithoclastic facies is associated
with a high production of organic material, for more
continental. The depositional environment suggests
low-oxic settings, the proximity of nummulite-rich
3.5.3 Depositional model for the El Garia
Formation
A general proximal-to-distal trend based on
palaeogeographical data (Bishop, 1988; Zaïer et al.,
1998) has been established for the El Garia Formation,
ranging from the nummulite-dominated deposits to the
nummulithoclast accumulations. Three different facies
models have been proposed for the El Garia Formation.
Nummulite deposits are considered as bank structure
(Moody, 1987; Moody et al., 1989), as low-angle ramp
accumulations (Conte et al., 1974; Loucks et al., 1998)
or as shoals deposited in proximal up-ramp (Racey et

33
Chapter 3

upper ramp lower ramp Figure 26. Distribution of bioclasts and

of mineralogical components along the
theoretic facies model of the El Garia
Formation
1 2 3 al., 2001). All these models indicate
4
5 that the nummulite environments
nummulites
6 were probably highly variables in
large-robust nummulites terms of carbonate production and
small-robust nummulites sedimentary processes. It implies that
large-flat nummulites
small nummulites
a general model cannot be applied for
nummulithoclasts interpreting the nummulite deposition
Operculina
of the entire El Garia facies belt.
Discocyclina
planktonic foraminifers
Bolivina, cibicidae, Lenticulina, textulariidae In order to establish a facies
ostracods
echinoid
model for the El Garia Formation
echinoid debris outcropping in Kesra, we used a
large bivalves small bivalves method proposed by Walker (1984),
small gastropods
serpulids
derived from Walther’s law (Walther,
nautiloids 1894; Middleton, 1973). This method
scaphopods based on the selection of most frequent
phosphate
glauconite
stratigraphic facies transitions, and is
dolomite useful in studies of ancient biofacies
siliceous nodules
patterns (Harper, 1984), especially

top Abiod Fm (SB0) top nodular Chouabine Fm (SB1)

intra El Garia Fm (SB2) top El Garia Fm (SB3)

Figure 27. Characterization at outcrop of the main sequence boundaries (from late Cretaceous to early Eocene, Kesra Pla-
teau)

34

when no recent counterparts or models are available.
Applied to the standard facies recognised in
the Kesra Plateau (Figure 25), this method allows us
to define a theoretic shallowing-up sequence, from
Facies 6 (nummulithoclastic packstone) up to Facies 1
(large robust nummulite packstone) or 2 (small robust
nummulite grainstones).
As suggested by most previous authors as Arni
(1965), Conte et al. (1974), Moody et al. (1989),
Loucks et al. (1998) and Racey et al. (2001), this model
indicates that nummulithoclast bearing facies are
deeper than nummulite facies (Figure 25). Small robust
nummulite facies appears shallower than large flat and
small flat nummulite facies, which could suggest that
test flattening is correlated with depth increasing.
The thickness of nummulites is also in relation
with the evolutive trend of these organisms. Nummulites
perplexus, which dominates the upper part of the series,
has developed more robust forms than species from the
base of the El Garia Formation, which are dominantly
thinner and smaller. In addition, large flat nummulites,
in which intra-skeletal porosity may reach up to 40 %,
can easily be transported (cf Chapter 1).
As consequence, the shallowing-up depositional
sequence could reflect the influence of diverse
environmental parameters, related to ecology, biological
evolution and hydrodynamic processes. Figure 26
illustrates the repartition of large foraminifers and
bioclasts on the theoretic depositional profile. This
profile can be subdivided in two main environments:
the upper ramp, characterized by the deposition of
nummulitic facies, and the lower ramp, dominated by the
deposition of nummulithoclastic facies. This repartition
shows that the production of carbonate debris (from
nummulites, echinoid and bivalves) is mostly deposited
in distal settings, excepted for residual debris, which
are preserved in the matrix of the shallow nummulitic
facies.
3.5.4 Sequence stratigraphy
3.5.4.1 Major stratigraphic boundaries
Four major stratigraphic surfaces have been
recognised within the studied sedimentary interval at
Kesra (Figure 27). These surfaces have been used as
guidelines for correlation and 2D outcrop mapping:
The first surface (surface SB0) occurs at the
top of the Abiod Formation and is characterized by
deep and intense branched borings indicating a semi-
lithified marine surface. It is overlain by Late Ypresian
marly deposits, which indicate reworking during the
Paleocene time (P3-P4 biozones). This surface, which
corresponds to a sedimentary hiatus lasting 14 Ma,
Nummulite carbonates from Central Tunisia
clearly evidences a break in sedimentation accompanied
by significant erosion before the deposition of the
nummulitic limestones. A consequent uplift of the area
during Paleocene times could explain this hiatus.
The second surface (surface SB1) corresponds
to the bioturbated horizon at the top of the nodular
Chouabine Formation, prior to the occurrence of
nummulite-rich facies (Figure 27). The presence of
few small nummulites within the nautiloid-rich facies
suggests that the nummulite carbonate production is
already active in Central Tunisia. In Kesra, the abrupt
arrival of nummulitic limestones indicates a significant
increase of the sedimentation rate, which is probably
correlated with a major relative sea level fall.
The third surface (surface SB2) is defined as an
intra El Garia stratigraphic boundary (Figure 27 and
28). This has been recognised in four sections in the
southern Kesra Plateau, and occurs within massive
beds in which serpulids are abundant, forming locally
bioconstructions. Close to this boundary, abundant
dissolved cavities (1-7 mm) are visible at outcrop. In
thin sections, dissolved shell fragments (bivalves and
serpulids), vadose silt infillings and pendant cements
beneath nummulites have been observed (Figure 28).
These are compatible with sub-aerial exposure at this
surface. To provide further evidence, analysis of fluid
inclusions were performed on bubbles in calcitic pendant
cement, and in early syntaxial cements surrounding
echinoderm fragments. The Th (homogenisation
temperatures) indicate temperatures of diagenesis
around 45°C. The presence of freshwater was indicating
by the melting temperature of the inclusions, which
was 0°C. These observations confirm the presence of
local sub-aerial exposure, which appears to have been
restricted to the southern part of the Kesra Plateau. This
boundary evolves to an erosive marine surface toward
the east.
This first published evidence of emersion in the El
Garia Formation (in Jorry et al., 2003) confirms several
depositional models describing very shallow nummulite
bodies (Arni, 1965; Moody et al., 1989; Racey et al.,
2001). For the area of Kesra, this observation coincides
with the study of Moody (1987) who drew attention to
emergent islets in nummulitic facies around Nasr Allah
– Djebel Cherahil.
The final surface (surface SB3) occurs at boundary
between the top of the El Garia Fm and the overlying
Souar Fm (Late Ypresian / Early Lutetian boundary).
This surface represents the maximum geographic
extension of nummulites in Kesra area and the maximum
progradation of nummulite-rich sediments toward the
Bou Dabbous basin.
35
Chapter 3

"corroded"
a b nummulite

serpulid
tube

residual moldic porosity

infilled by drusy calcite
dissolved bivalve shell
infilled by nummulithoclasts

nummulite

scaphopod

1 cm 1 cm

c d

1.5 mm

2 mm 1 mm

Figure 28. Characterization of the intra-El Garia boundary (in Jorry et al., 2003)
a,b: Microfacies showing evidences of dissolution of large bivalve infilled by vadose silts and
nummulithoclasts
c: Thin section view of pendant cement underlying a nummulite test
d: Calcitic pendant cement under cathodo-luminescence
e: Detail of early syntaxial cement developed around an echinoderm fragment; this early diagenetic phase,
studied with the fluid inclusion method, is characterised by a calcitic precipitation in sub-aerial exposure
conditions

36

3.5.4.2 Establishment of the depositional
sequences
Three major depositional sequences have been
defined between these four stratigraphic boundaries
(Figure 29):
The lowermost sequence (S1-Chouabine)
is characterized by deposition of the transgressive
glauconitic marls of the nodular Chouabine Formation.
An indurate glauconitic level, described at the base of
the quarry of Dir el Jerouia, is interpreted as a maximum
flooding surface (MFS1). After Jauzein (1967), the
thickness of this sequence increases toward the East.
At Kesra, its thickness ranges from 2 to 6 meters. This
cycle is followed by a shallowing upward parasequence,
which is represented by the nautiloid-rich layers.
Relatively homogeneous in facies and thickness, it is
bounded at its top by a bioturbated horizon (surface
SB1).
The beginning of the second sequence (S2-El
Garia) is marked by the occurrence of nummulites and
nummulithoclastic deposits of the El Garia Formation.
Nummulite deposits are abundant at the western part
of the Plateau (about 10 m thick) and pass rapidly to
nummulithoclast facies toward the east (about 15 m
thick). The relative reduced thickness of the nummulitic
facies could suggest that nummulite deposits must be
continuously uplifted and eroded. Evidence of local
sub-aerial exposure at the top of this sequence indicates
a major sequence boundary (surface SB2).
The base of the third sequence (S3-El Garia) is
characterized by the deposition of a thin argillaceous
limestone horizon, which is only preserved in distal
settings (0.50 m thick). This interval pinches out toward
the proximal part of the platform (toward the west), which
collides with the surface SB2 at outcrop. Its geometry
(discontinuous) and facies characteristics (planktonic
foraminiferal wackestone) indicate a deepening-up
event. In proximal areas, infillings of moldic cavities
(created by sub-aerial exposure conditions; cf. Figure
28) by nummulithoclasts could be a possible lateral
equivalent of these transgressive facies. A bioturbated
horizon, located at the top of the transgressive
facies, suggests a decrease of the sedimentation rate;
this surface is interpreting as a maximum flooding
event (surface MFS2). This boundary is overlaid by
Operculina facies, widely extended on the studied
area (0 to 4 metres thick in the eastern area). In term
of sequence stratigraphy (Vail et al., 1977; Vail, 1987;
Van Wagoner et al., 1988), Operculina facies could be
interpreted as highstand deposits. This facies is overlaid
by nummulite deposits, which prograde progressively
toward the East. The occurrence of the first large robust
nummulite morphologies associated with large bivalves
and gastropods marks the final stage of this shallowing-
Nummulite carbonates from Central Tunisia
up sequence over the entire Kesra Plateau area. The
top of this sequence (surface SB3) corresponds to the
maximum progradation of the Late Ypresian nummulite
platform in the studied area, and is dated at the limit
between the Late Ypresian and the Early Lutetian.
3.5.4.3 Correlation of depositional
sequences
Establishment of cross sections
Sequence stratigraphy has been used to establish
the evolution of the depositional environment on
each section. Correlation between sections has been
performed in respect with the established guidelines,
i.e. sequence boundaries SB0, SB1, SB2 and SB3.
Two cross sections are detailed in this paragraph.
The first one (Figure 30 a) shows the correlation from
the section of Kesra Roman steps (MKR) to the section
of A. ès Souk (AeS). The entire sequence S2 - EL Garia
can be laterally followed and observed on successive
extended cliffs. The sequence S2 is composed of
several shallowing-up cycles. The lower one tends to
be thicker at the West, where the nummulite carbonate
production is the more active. The nummulitic facies
show a progressive transition toward fine bioclastic
accumulations, evolving in Discocyclina-rich facies
(section SMBA2), Operculina facies (section SmbA5),
then in organic-rich nummulithoclastic packstones
(section DeH). Inversely, other cycles are thickening
toward the East, but laterally, they show the similar
facies evolution.
The second cross section (Figure 30b) correlates
a section from Dir Daba (DD2) and the section
of the Douirat Sadoune (DS). In spite of laterally
discontinuous outcrops, very nice exposure conditions
allow to observe the complete succession of the Late
Ypresian sequences. All boundaries (from MFS1 to
SB3) are visible at the different sections. The lowermost
sequence S1 – Chouabine is represented by a deepening-
up and a shallowing-up cycle. During the deposition
of the sequence S2 - El Garia, nummulithoclastic
deposits dominate the carbonate production. A high
content of organic carbon is observed at section AbS,
where silicified surfaces are associated. The same zone
recorded the deepening event of the sequence S3 – El
Garia. Widely extended Operculina facies underlays
boundaries SB2 and MFS2, corresponding to the
highstand system tract of the sequence S3 – El Garia.
These facies vertically evolve into nummulite-rich
facies that are particularly developed at section DD2,
DeJO and DeJE. The top of the sequence is marked by
the deposition of a bioclastic facies, composed of large
robust nummulites, large bivalves and gastropods. This
layer is over extended through the area of correlation.
37
Chapter 3

MURABAT A. ès SOUK

SB3 SB3

SB2

S3-EL GARIA
5M 5M

SB1
P P
P
P
P

G G G

SB0
MFS2
SB2

FORMATION FACIES
S2-EL GARIA
1-2 small and large-robust nummulite grainstones

3 large-flat nummulite grainstones

SB1
4 small nummulite and Discocyclina packstones
EL GARIA
5 nummulithoclastic and Operculina packstones
G P

MFS1
G
P G P

6 nummulithoclastic packstones
S1-CHOUABINE
7 argillaceous limestones

CHOUABINE glauconitic shale and phosphatic wackestones

ABIOD planktonic foraminifera muds

SB0

Figure 29. Correlation of depositional sequences of the El Garia Formation between eastern and western zones of the Kesra
Plateau
W E
MKR Mu SMbA2 SMbA3 SMbA5 DeH
SB2

SB1

a- Characterization of the lateral variation of facies in sequence S2 - El Garia, on the southern flank of the Kesra Plateau

SW NE SE
DeJO 5m
DD2 DeJE
AbS scale :
1000 m

DS
SB3

S3-EL GARIA
MFS2
SB2

silicified surface
S2-EL GARIA

SB1
MFS1
S1-CHOUABINE
b- Correlation of sections on the northern flank of the Kesra Plateau SB0

Figure 30. Cross-section diagrams of the El Garia Formation, Kesra Plateau (see Fig.29 for facies description)

38
 Nummulite carbonates from Central Tunisia

LEGEND Panorama of the Dir Daba outcrops and position of sections

NE SW
large-flat nummulite grainstones
DD2
small num. and Disco. packstones DD1 DD3
DD4
nummulitho. and Oper. packstones

nummulithoclastic packstones

phosphatic wackestones

deepening-up cycle Delineation of unconformities DD3

DD1
shallowing-up cycle SB2

section DD2 SB1

SB3

5m
S3 - EL GARIA section DD4
section DD1
250m section DD3

SB2

S2 - EL GARIA

SB1
S1 - CHOUABINE Interpretation of the lateral variation of facies

Figure 31. 2D outcrop mapping of the cliff of Dir Daba, located on the northern flank of the Kesra Plateau

Dir Feddane el Mrassi outcrop

W E

View of lateral extent of unconformities

Interpretation

S3-EL GARIA
10m SB2 MFS2

silicified horizons S2-EL GARIA

0 10m
2 small robust nummulite grainstones 5 Operculina and nummulithoclast packstones
deepening-up cycle
3 large flat nummulite grainstones 6 bioturbated nummulithoclast packstones
4 small nummulite and Discocyclina packstones 7 argillaceous wackestones shallowing-up cycle

Figure 32. 2D outcrop mapping of a cliff face located near the centre of the Kesra Plateau (in Jorry et al., 2003)

39
Chapter 3
2D outcrop mapping
In order to better characterizing the lateral
variations of facies, which are suggested by cross
sections, we realized mapping at outcrop. For it, the
sequence boundaries were individualized first, then
facies evolutions were laterally followed. Two major
spots were selected on laterally, well-continuous
outcrops, at the localities of Dir Daba and Dir Feddane
el Mrassi.
At Dir Daba, the mapping was realized on the
sequence S2 – El Garia, integrating four sections (Figure
31). This sequence evidences the progressive transition
of facies, from the nummulite-rich facies toward the
nummulithoclastic deposits. It appears clearly that the
facies change is not characterized by abrupt transitions
of sedimentary bodies. As contrary, it is demonstrated
that changes are intra-bank, evolving progressively
in one kilometre of distance. Operculina facies are
laterally intercalated between the nummulitic and the
nummulithoclastic deposits. The base of sequence S3
– El Garia is characterized by the deposition of fine-
grain Operculina facies. This Operculina highstand
system tract is particularly well exposed, and it can
be laterally followed along the area. Toward the SW,
this bed drastically decreases in thickness, and the
facies changes, close to the village of Kesra, into small
nummulite-rich packstones.
The outcrop of Dir Feddane el Mrassi is a
spectacular cliff, where the Late Ypresian facies can be
laterally followed on more than 1,5 kilometres of distance
(Figure 32). Vertical cliffs characterize the western
part of the outcrop, while the eastern outcrop show the
intercalation of eroded beds. The transition between
the sequence S2 and S3 – El Garia is particularly well
exposed, and allows characterizing the lateral extension
of the deepening-up cycle at the begging of sequence
S3. This cycle is represented by the deposition of a
thin bed (50 cm thick) of argillaceous limestone, which
contains a high proportion of planktonic foraminifera,
ostracods, scaphopods, and phosphatic grains. At
outcrop, this facies is marked by a thin eroded bed,
which disappears toward the west. Its lateral extension
precisely coincides with those of the silicified surfaces
of sequence S2. The pinch out of this facies implies the
amalgamation of the SB2 and MFS2 boundaries. The
beginning of the sequence S3 shows the wide extension
of the Operculina facies; as documented at the Dir
Daba, the thickness of these deposits decreases toward
the west. They are overlaid by nummulitic grainstone,
which progressively prograde in the east direction.
3.5.4.4 3D visualisation of the correlated
profiles
The 3D reconstruction of sedimentary bodies was
based on the integration of data from logged stratigraphic
40
sections, 2D outcrops subsequent and 3D modelling.
Eight correlation profiles have been selected for
the modelling (Plate 21). All profiles are characterized
by a complete succession of sequences, from SB0 to
SB3 boundary. These profiles have been integrated in a
3D modelling software (GOCAD, developed by École
des Mines de Nancy).
The modelling indicates that sequence S1 -
Chouabine does not vary significantly in term of facies
composition or thickness (Figure 33). Sequence S2 – El
Garia is characterized by restricted nummulite facies
at the western part of the studied area. The limited
lateral extent of nummulite deposits at the beginning
of the sequence suggests that the nummulite facies
corresponds to an aggradational geometry. These
facies pass rapidly eastward to nummulithoclast facies.
During the deepening-up cycle at the beginning of
sequence S3 – El Garia, argillaceous limestones were
deposited in the more distal parts of the platform,
where nummulithoclast accumulations were previously
dominant. During this period, nummulite deposits
were absent or were transported towards the SW. This
cycle is following by a shallowing-up sequence, which
starts with the deposition of Operculina-rich facies.
To the East, nummulite facies begin to prograde at the
beginning of depositional sequence S3b and reach their
maximum extent at the end of this sequence.
In terms of reservoir potential, two nummulite
bodies are particularly well identified (Figure 33).
These two reservoir bodies are stacked at the south-
western part of the studied area, which indicates that
this area corresponds to a suitable environment for
nummulite-rich facies deposition, where high-energy
conditions prevail. In this case, the succession of high-
hydrodynamic events could contribute to the deposition
of the thicker nummulite shell accumulation. At
Kesra, numerous joints (some of them are inherited
from ancient normal faults) affect these nummulitic
reservoirs. Laterally, these stacked nummulite bodies
evolve in two main disconnected bodies towards the
eastern part of the Plateau, where they are interfingered
with microporous nummulithoclastic limestones of the
Ousselat member.
In order to predict the facies distribution at the scale
of the Kesra Plateau, extrapolation by kriging has been
done on the 3D model. The result of this extrapolation
is represented by the final stratigraphic grid (Plate 22).
As this grid doesn’t represent the real thickness at
outcrop, it has been eroded by the topography, in order
to obtain the present-day geology of Kesra. This new
grid is composed of three axes, along which virtual
cross-sections can be generated (Plate 23). Successive
cross sections realized on the axis 3 allow observing
the facies distribution through time. Also, isopach maps
can be established between surface boundaries.
 Nummulite carbonates from Central Tunisia

30m

km
1

1 km
N
S3
W E
S2
S
S1

S3

S2
S1
1 large robust nummulite and bivalve grainstones 6 nummulithoclast packstones
2 small robust nummulite grainstones 7 argillaceous wackestones
3 large flat nummulite grainstones nautiloid packstones-wackestones
4 small nummulite and Discocyclina packstones bioturbated glauconitic marls
5 Operculina and nummulithoclast packstones
reservoir rocks
non-reservoir rocks
30m

km
1

1 km
N

W E

Figure 33. 3D fence diagram of the stratigraphic architecture of late Ypresian carbonates (El Garia Formation, Kesra Pla-
teau; in Jorry et al., 2003)

41
Chapter 3

proximal settings distal settings

large-rocbust nummulites and bivalves
platform

NRl, gast
NRs
NF NS
Oper
CN

S3 NRs S3
Operculina facies belt

CN CN, Si
dissolution cavities
filled in with
nummulithoclasts

erosion or non-deposition ?

bioturbated argillaceous wackestone

sub-aerial exposure
NF-NRs, serpulid
NS
Oper
Top Sequence S2 CN CN, Si
S2 S2

NRs, serpulid
NF NS
Oper
CN
CN, Si

Figure 34. Evolution of the depositional profile of the late Ypresian nummulitic carbonates of Kesra, according to the se-
quence stratigraphy framework
CN: Nummulithoclasts; Si: Silica; Oper: Operculina; NS: Small nummulites; NF: Large-flat nummulites; NRs: Small-robust
nummulites; NRl: Large-robust nummulites; gast: Gastropods

3.5.5 Stratigraphic evolution of the depositional
model according to the observed
sedimentary sequences
Based on the observations of sections, cross
sections and mapping at outcrop, different evolution of
facies have been detailed:
• Vertically, it is demonstrated that the large-
robust nummulites are absent during the
sequence S2 – El Garia, while they dominate
the top of the last S3 – El Garia sequence.
During this time, nummulithoclastic facies
aren’t deposited at Kesra. Then, the presence
of serpulid bioherms is exclusively represented
in sequence S2 – El Garia.
• Laterally, the extension of facies belt seems
to be strongly controlled by the variation of
accommodation space. During the deepening-
up cycle of sequence S3 – El Garia, deposited
facies aren’t diversified but are widely extended
on the platform. During this period, the
nummulitic carbonate production is inactive.
A classical configuration of the platform re-
appears after the transgression.
These observations led us to propose a distinct
facies model for each sedimentary sequences (Figure 34).
The established model for the sequence S1 – El Garia is
relatively comparable to the theoretic model (cf. Figure
26), but the more proximal facies are characterized by
the small-robust nummulite grainstones, associated
with serpulid bioherms at the top of the sequence. The
local emersion of proximal facies is characterized by
the development of dissolution cavities. The distal
part of the platform is dominated by the deposition of
nummulithoclastic facies rich in organic matter. This
platform configuration is defined as a typical setting
during lowstand period, where the carbonate production
is higher than the accommodation increasing.
At the beginning of the sequence S3 – El Garia,
argillaceous limestones are the only deposited facies
that are exclusively preserved in the distal part of the
platform. In proximal areas, infillings of dissolution
cavities by nummulithoclasts could be interpreted as a
lateral equivalent of the deepening-up cycle.
Three facies models are proposed to interpret the
shallowing-up cycle of this sequence S3. An Operculina
platform is developed just after the transgression,
forming a dominant facies belt at the scale of Kesra.

42
 Nummulite carbonates from Central Tunisia

Nummulithoclastic deposition is still active in the

more distal environments. Then, nummulitic carbonate
production becomes more and more developed in
proximal settings, where gastropods and large-robust
nummulites are dominant. The last facies model
corresponds to the maximum of progradation of the
nummulite platform at the Late Ypresian, showing a
wide and uniform facies belt composed of large-robust
nummulites and bivalves.

3.5.6 Palaeogeographical reconstruction

of the nummulite carbonate platform
during the Late Ypresian

Outcrops observations were extended to a

regional scale in order to study the lateral variations
of the facies belts. Several outcrops were investigated
between Kef el Garia and Maktar, as Dir Attaf, Oued
Kranga, Kef Mergueb, and Kef el Garia (Figure 35).
At these localities, the depositional sequences are very
similar to those observed at Kesra, in term of facies. The
thickness of the El Garia Formation is low at the south
of Kesra, and pinches out onto the Abiod Cretaceous
rocks. The series tend to increase in thickness toward
the west of Maktar. The observations at Kef Mergueb
show that the fine nummulithoclastic facies, rich in
organic matter and silicified surfaces, are laterally
preserved within a narrow area. These facies are not
developed at Matkar, but they are visible on the border
of the Elles synclinorium (section of Oued Kranga). At
the south of Kesra, facies completely change, showing
dominant dolomitized units, which belong to the Ain
Merhotta Formation. This Formation, which is mostly
represented by restricted lagoonal facies, is defined as
a lateral equivalent of the El Garia Formation (Moody,
1987). At the locality of Djebel ben Abbes (section
DbA), the thicknesses of these deposits reaches only
2 metres thick, and are characterized by dominant
gastropod-rich facies.
These field observations, combined with
previous works (Jauzein, 1967; Rigane, 1991), allow
reconstructing the palaeogeography of Late Ypresian
deposits, according to the different depositional
sequences.
Sequence S2 – EL GARIA (Figure 36, maps 1 & 2):
The beginning of the sequence shows the
development of a nummulite facies belt, which
extends to the topographic high of Oued Bahloul in
the SW. On this high, the Lutetian limestones of the
Souar Formation directly overlie the Abiod Formation
limestones. Jauzein (1967) interpreted the top of the
Abiod Formation to be a karstified high. The thickness
of the nummulite belt increases toward the NE from 5 m
near the palaeohigh, to 15 m close to the Kesra village.
Figure 35. General view of extended observations in Cen-
tral Tunisia
DA: Dir Attaf; DbA: Djebel ben Abbès; DT: Djebel Trozza;
EG: El Garia; KeL: Kef el Lia: KFH: Kguet Ferj Hari; KM:
Kef Mergueb; KP: Kesra Plateau; KZ: Kguet Zelafine; OK:
Oued Kranga; PR: Pont Romain
The thickening of the nummulite facies toward the NE
could be explained by a continuous uplift and erosion
of the south-western area, which is adjacent to the
Oued Bahloul anticlinorium structure. The deposition
of bioclastic limestones behind this high is interpreted
as a restricted zone, where gastropod shells dominate
the faunic assemblage.
To the NE, distal nummulithoclast facies of the
Ousselat member are intercalated within the Operculina
facies belt, forming a narrow intra-shelf basin. The
palaeogeographical extension of this basin was mapped
toward the NW, closing itself at the section of Kef
Mergueb. These deposits re-appear on the border of
the Elles synclinorium (section of the Oued Kranga),
showing the same sedimentological and petrographic
characteristics (nummulithoclasts, silicified surfaces,
organic matter). Finally, nummulithoclast facies pass
into planktonic basinal muds assigned to the Bou
Dabbous Formation. This transition is characterised
by intercalations of nummulithoclast facies within the
planktonic muds of the Bou Dabbous.
The top of the sequence doesn’t show significant
changes in the lateral extension of the different facies
belts, but it is characterized by local emersions at
the Kesra Plateau. This sub-aerial exposure could
correspond to local uplifts on the border of the Kesra
Plateau, or to a displacement of the «coastline» of the
Oued Bahloul.

43
Chapter 3

3 MFS2 6 SB3

OK OK

DB DS DB DS

DeA DeA
KeL KeL

S3 - EL GARIA
KM KM

Maktar DM Maktar DM
DK DK

Nlle Kesra Nlle Kesra

KEG KEG

OB OB

N N

Rohia Rohia

DbA DbA

10 KM 10 KM

SB2
2 5
OK OK

DB DS DB DS

DeA DeA
KeL KeL

S3 - EL GARIA
KM KM

Maktar DM Maktar DM
DK DK

Nlle Kesra Nlle Kesra

KEG KEG

OB OB

N N

Rohia Rohia
S2 - EL GARIA

DbA DbA

10 KM 10 KM

1 4
OK OK

DB DS DB DS

DeA DeA
KeL KeL

KM KM

Maktar DM Maktar DM
DK DK

Nlle Kesra Nlle Kesra

KEG KEG

OB OB

N N

Rohia Rohia

DbA DbA

10 KM 10 KM
SB1 MFS2
gastropod limestones nummulithoclastic limestones possible extent of the
emerged zone Bou Dabbous limestones emerged area
nummulitic limestones argillaceous limestones outcrop observations
Operculina limestones erosion or non-deposition bibliographic references

Figure 36. Palaeogeographical maps showing the distribution of late Ypresian facies in the Kesra-Maktar area

44

Sequence S3 – EL GARIA (Figure 36, maps 3, 4, 5
& 6):
This sequence starts with the deposition of
transgressive argillaceous facies. On the platform, the
maximum extension of these facies corresponds to the
maximum extension of the nummulite facies belt during
sequence S2. At outcrop, the absence of this deepening
period in proximal platform settings suggests that the
lateral equivalents of facies have been eroded or not
deposited. Considering that facies have been eroded, no
valuable outcrop data allowed predicting the nature of
the sediment that has been winnowed (nummulitic sand?
transgressive mud?). In the case of a non-deposition,
it implies that important environmental modifications,
due to the accommodation increasing, could have
significantly modified the nummulite environment. This
observation has already been mentioned in Pyrenees by
Eichenseer and Luterbacher (1992). The authors show
that the nummulite facies distribution is drastically
reduced during periods of accommodation increasing.
This deepening-up cycle is followed by the
development of a widely extended Operculina facies
belt, which are progressively accumulated within the
narrow intra-shelf basin. The nummulitic facies are all
over again deposited, forming a crescent facies belt
around the intra-shelf depression. At the end of sequence
S3, the available accommodation space was entirely
filled up by sediments, and the nummulitic limestones
prograde towards the platform / basin margin.
3.5.7 Structurally controlled distribution of
nummulite deposits in Central Tunisia
In central Tunisia, as mentioned at the beginning
of the Chapter (§.2.2.), a major NW / SE oriented fault
system results from rifting during Middle Jurassic and
Early Cretaceous (Mercier et al., 2000). At Kesra, these
faults were reactivated during the Late Cretaceous, as
documented by synsedimentary faults and slumped
units affecting the Cretaceous rocks. The NW/SE trend
is more representative of a compressive Cretaceous
tectonic event (generalised in central Tunisia).
The palaeogeographical maps of the Kesra Plateau
(Figure 37) shows that the facies belts are more or less
parallel to the NW/SE faults. Fine nummulithoclastic
facies are localized in a well-delimited graben, and
nummulitic facies are strictly concentrated on the border
of the Plateau. The main progradation of the nummulite
facies occurs when the accommodation space is filled
up within grabens. The preservation of the deepening-
up cycle of sequence S3 – El Garia also coincides with
a fault pattern.
Now, the question is to know if facies changes are
conditioned by a pre or synsedimentary structuration.
At Kesra, the following observations suggest that
Nummulite carbonates from Central Tunisia
this palaeotopography predates the deposition of the
nummulitic carbonates:
• synsedimentary faults and slumped deposits at
the top of the Late Cretaceous succession,
• the important sedimentary hiatus between
the Abiod and the Chouabine - El Garia
Formations,
• the presence of reworked Paleocene fauna
within the condensed series of the nodular
Chouabine,
• and the presence of post-depositional normal
faults affecting the El Garia deposits.
Locally, we have seen that the lateral termination
of the nummulithoclastic series can be followed at
outcrop. But in general, observations on Kesra suggest
that abrupt facies transition appear just near a fault
system. An example is given on the northern border
of the plateau, where an impressive palaeoescarpment
is exposed (Figure 38). Both fault compartments are
characterised by different El Garia facies successions
(appearance of the organic-rich facies and silicified
surfaces on the eastern compartment), while the series
of the nodular Chouabine Formation, which base is
vertically displaced of 15 metres, are homogeneous
in facies. This observation could indicate that the
topographic difference had no influence on the rather
deep-water Chouabine facies. On the other hand, it could
suggest that the structuration occurs after the deposition
of the Chouabine facies, and before the initiation of the
nummulite carbonate production. This structuration
could be easily guided by the presence of ancient faults
that were active during the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene.
3.5.8 3D facies model of the El Garia
Formation
The synthetic facies model, presented in Figure
39, illustrates the facies distribution of the Late
Ypresian El Garia Formation, taking into account fault
distributions observed in the area of the Kesra Plateau.
In our interpretation, normal faults isolate different
depositional environments on the platform. Evidence of
local sub-aerial exposures and of high-energy structures
indicates that nummulite facies are deposited under few
metres water depth. The main nummulite carbonate
production rests on the Cretaceous palaeohigh, with
the deposition of small robust nummulite facies at its
top. Nummulite bars with high concentrations of large,
flat, imbricated nummulites in cross-bedding structures,
formed under the action of currents in shallow water
depth. Behind these bars, large robust nummulites and
45
Chapter 3

1 Oued Bahloul anticline Sequence S2 - El Garia Sequence S3 - El Garia

3 boundary SB2 boundary MFS2
section section
2 anticline of the Kesra quarry
fault fault
1 km 1 km
3 Djebel Serj anticline

2 N N
direction of compression
W E W E
Kesra Plateau
direction of extension S S

Sequence S3 - El Garia Facies

normal fault 2 small robust nummulite grainstones
section
3 large flat nummulite grainstones
fault
4 small nummulite and Discocyclina packstones
N positive topography
1 km
5 Operculina and nummulithoclast packstones
El Garia W E 6 bioturbated nummulithoclast packstones
N
7 argillaceous wackestones
S W E
1 sub-aerial exposure
5 KM
negative topography S non-deposition or erosion

Figure 37. Structural control on facies distribution in the Kesra area (in Jorry et al., 2003)

E W

S1 - CHOU
ABINE

S3 - EL GARIA

S2 - EL GA
RIA

S1 - C
HOUA
B INE

Figure 38. Illustration of the tectonic pattern which conditioned a major lateral variation of facies (northern flank of the
Kesra Plateau). The deformed series belong to the Late Cretaceous Abiod limestones. S1 Chouabine sequence is uplifted in
the western compartment.

large bivalve packstones were deposited in protected
zones. In front of the nummulite bars, small nummulite
and Discocyclina packstones are present and characterize
a more open-marine environment.
The Operculina facies marks the transition
between the nummulite platform and the outer-
platform environment. Nummulithoclast facies of the
Ousselat member dominated outer-platform zones and
also an intra-shelf depression formed as a result of
tectonic subsidence due to local normal fault activity.
Accumulation of fine laminated sediments rich in
organic matter within this graben suggests a confined
environment with reduce oxygen levels.
The pinch-out of the nummulite facies belt
towards the SW and the absence of nummulites behind
the main palaeohigh (i.e. the Oued Bahloul) shows that
this structural high has formed a major environmental
barrier between an open-marine and a more protected
settings. The protected zone is interpreted as a closed
embayment. The gastropod limestones of the Ain
Merhotta Formation corresponds to a lateral equivalent
of the nummulite platform deposits toward the NE.
These deposits, corresponding to a few metres thick

46
 Nummulite carbonates from Central Tunisia

Fm
Fm R Fm
TA BE US
OT EM BO
E HR AF
m
ATM DA
B
NM RI EL U
AI GA SS BO
EL OU

SW KASSERINE ISLAND SUPRATIDAL FLAT RESTRICTED BAY NUMMULITE PLATFORM BASIN NE

gastropod bar large flat nummulite facies

gastropod beach nummulite bar small nummulite and Discocyclina facies

protected zone Operculina facies
evaporites
dolomite small robust nummulithoclast facies
nummulite
facies planktonic foram. mud

0m
minor terrigeneous input
SWB

200m

S
RL
MA
E NE
CRETACEOUS SUBSTRATUM OC
LE
PA

5 kilometres
TOP OF PALEOHIGH INTRA-SHELF BASIN
(karstified zone) (nummulithoclast and organic matter)

Siliana N KESRA PLATEAU

Rebaa

W E

KESRA Ousseltia
S
Maktar PLATEAU

Kef
El Garia
KAIROUAN

Rohia
Haffouz 5 kilometres
50 KM El Ala

Figure 39. 3D facies model showing the distribution of the late Ypresian carbonate deposits in Kesra area (in Jorry et al.,
2003)

accumulation behind the Oued Bahloul anticline, are of this source rock can be localized nearly from the
very similar to those that composed the Early Eocene depositional environment of the reservoir rocks, i.e. the
series toward the SE of Kesra. At the Djebel Cherahil, nummulite grainstone facies. The significant amount of
these facies are found at the top of the stratigraphic continental organic matter attests to the proximity of the
succession, overlying thick accumulations of coastline, which gives consistency for the interpretation
dolomitized facies (cf Chapter 4). of high-energy settings in proximal zones.
This model differs from the regional homoclinal As many studies dedicated to nummulite facies,
ramp model proposed by Loucks et al. (1998), in
it is very difficult to predict the living environment
which nummulitic packstones/grainstones bank facies,
of nummulites. Evidence of high-energy settings in
deposited in mid-ramp settings with no sharp breaks
proximal platform tends to indicate a reworking, but the
in slope, under 30 to 60 m water depth, are generated
by storm events. The resulting winnowed facies is original biocenosis cannot be documented at Kesra. We
interpreted as a low-relief bank. At Kesra, high-energy can admit that nummulites were probably not adapted
nummulite bar deposits are stacked in proximal settings, to reduced-oxygen environments, not more in hyper
and important accumulation of nummulithoclast- saline conditions. However, it is important to note that
dominated facies are deposited within a narrow intra- the transport of nummulites toward restricted settings
shelf basin. Curiously, this depression could constitute could contribute to form interesting potential reservoir
a good trap for organic-rich deposits that can potentially rocks, depending also on the effects of post-depositional
evolve into a very good source rock. The formation early diagenesis (dolomitization and dissolution).

47
Chapter 3

3.6 Conclusions A 3D facies model is proposed to illustrate the

relation between facies and fault distributions observed
in the Kesra area. The facies distribution of the carbonate
New dating of this sedimentary interval reveals platform is strongly controlled by the irregularities
an important sedimentary hiatus between the Late of topography, and good potential reservoirs are only
Cretaceous and the Late Ypresian depositional located at the top of the palaeohighs. Closes to these
sequences. This erosional event could be explained areas, evidences of local sub-aerial exposures confirm
by the uplift of the Kesra Plateau until the Paleocene. that the nummulite reservoir facies are deposited under
Dating from the base of the Chouabine Formation (-51 few metres water depth. Organic-rich sediments are
deposited in intra-shelf basins, constituting good source
Ma) and from the top of the El Garia Formation (-49 rocks. The continental input which has been detected
Ma) suggest that the studied interval represents about 2 by the analysis of the organic matter is in contradiction
Ma of deposition. with the absence of terrigeneous particles in the shallow
nummulitic deposits.
Detailed petrographic and stratigraphic descriptions
of the Early Eocene series from the Kesra Plateau
show that the El Garia Formation is characterized by
frequent facies and thickness variations, from the SW
nummulitic facies to the NE thick nummulithoclastic
accumulations. The description of the nummulite facies
allows to distinguish seven subfacies in relation with
different depositional environments. The position of the
different standard facies along a theoretic depositional
profile is controlled by the nummulite morphology, by
the presence of Discocyclina and Operculina, and by
the importance of the nummulithoclastic content within
the matrix.

The vertical facies evolution of the El Garia

Formation shows two shallowing-up sequences
separated by one deepening-up sequence, which is only
recorded in the deeper part of the platform. The break
of nummulite carbonate production detected during this
transgressive period suggests a major eustatic change.
The Ypresian/Lutetian boundary coincides with the end
of the nummulite carbonate production for the area of
Kesra. The absence of younger deposits and the intense
karstification of the Eocene series suggest that this
boundary corresponds to a major relative sea level fall,
leading to a generalized emersion of the region during
the Early Lutetian.

A 3D modelling of the correlated profiles allows to

detail the internal architecture of a nummulite reservoir
body. It is demonstrated that sequences of reservoir
nummulite rocks deposition are stacked in proximal
areas, while they constitute two disconnected bodies
towards the distal part of the platform.

Extended observations at a regional scale indicate

that the configuration of the Late Ypresian platform
was strongly influenced by the presence of the Oued
Bahloul anticline structure, which formed a major
environmental barrier between an open-marine and
a more protected settings. At Kesra, facies transitions
are controlled by residual topography resulting from
reactivation of NW-SE faults during the Late Cretaceous
and the Paleocene. The maximum progradation of
the nummulite belt towards the NE occurs when the
available accommodation space was filled up within
palaeolows (at the top of the Late Ypresian).

48
Chapter 4 :
Study of the Eocene Nummulite Carbonates from Northern Libya
(Ras el Hilal, NE Cyrenaica)
4.1 Introduction
T he study area is located in Libya, on the northern
flank of the Al Jabal al Akhdar anticline
structure (Figure 40). A huge calcareous plateau,
widely extended over more than 100 km from west to
east, characterizes this part of Northern Cyrenaica. The
study of the Eocene series has been integrated in 1999
in the PhD subject. Different outcrops were preliminary
visited during a fieldtrip, which was organized by Elf
Exploration-Production. The overview of well-exposed
outcrops in nummulite accumulations was decisive in
order to select the Libyan region in our problematic.
The fieldwork took place during April-May 2000.
The zone of interest was initially delimited by
three type sections: the roadcut of Cyrene at the west,
the roadcut of Dernah at the east and the roadcut of
Ain ad-Dabusseyah, located at the centre of the studied
area. The preliminary outcrop observations on these
type sections allowed to identify the microfacies
variability of the area. At the reservoir scale, detailed
sedimentological observations were restricted to the
area of Ain ad-Dabusseyah. Outcrop studies were
preferentially located on the flanks of large wadis,
which have eroded the Plateau (Plate 24). The series
are sometimes exposed from the Late Cretaceous to the
Oligocene.
The Eocene rocks belong to the Dernah Formation
(Gregory, 1911), the stratotype of which is exposed on
a roadcut, west of the city of Dernah. The basement of
the Cyrenaican Plateau is composed of Late Cretaceous
facies (the Athrun Formation), overlaid by basinal
facies of Middle Eocene Apollonia Formation that
grade upward and laterally into the nummulitic series
of the Dernah Formation (Figure 40). The Oligocene
Bayda Formation covers its top.
4.2 Tectonic settings of Al Jabal al
Akhdar
The nummulite bioaccumulations are preferentially
deposited on palaeohighs, which are inherited from
a long term global tectonic, superimposed to short
term regional tectonic movements. As demonstrated
in Central Tunisia, subsiding zones can be reversed at
the Late Cretaceous, forming a series of palaeo-reliefs.
Al Jabal al Akhdar anticlinorium is another very good
example of tectonic inversion.
Cyrenaica was a subsident continental margin of
the North African plate during a period of rifting at the
Middle Jurassic. Rifting began on the Atlantic margin
in the Triassic, spread to the Atlas area in the Liassic
and into the eastern Mediterranean around the Middle
Jurassic (Robertson and Dixon, 1984). In Cyrenaica,
the maximum of subsidence occurs during the Early
Cretaceous times. By the end of the Cretaceous,
and due to the continued NNW drift of Africa, the
downward movement of the Cyrenaican through was
terminated and reversed, in response to the accelerated
compressional influence of the Alpine orogeny (El
Hawat and Shelmani, 1993). This compressional phase
corresponds to the post-Coniacian / pre-Campanian
compressive episode described by Röhlich (1980),
allowing to the structuration of the main anticlines
(Figure 41). At outcrop, this compressional event is
documented by submarine mass movements affecting
the deep neritic facies of the Athrun Formation (Plate
24c). This Late Cretaceous compressive period
contributed to the edification of Al Jabal al Akhdar
anticlinorium, which separated the Tethys Ocean to the
north from a newly formed restricted marine Tertiary
basin (El Hawat, 2001). Sedimentation in the southern
basin was constituted by dolomite and evaporites, while
open and deep marine sedimentation prevailed to the
north. For Röhlich (1980), this major uplift, documented
until the Early Eocene, led to subsequent erosion of the
Palaeocene sedimentary cycles, and has contributed to
the exposure of Cretaceous inliers for El Hawat and
Shelmani (1993). At outcrop, it is documented by a
major unconformity between the Late Cretaceous and
the Early Eocene.
During Late Ypresian and Lutetian times, the sea
progressively covered the northern periphery of the
Early Eocene uplifted structure, but tectonic activity is
still active in northern Cyrenaica. Extensive submarine
slumping (Plate 24d, 24e) and mass movements of
shallow marine nummulitic sediments into deeper water
took place at the Middle Eocene (El Hawat, 1985, 1986,
2000). The Early Oligocene seems to be interpreted as a
subsident period were a new inundation of the platform
came from the North. However, some zones were
uplifted during this time, as for example the area of Al
Marj (Röhlich, 1980).
These different periods of tectonic inversion
strongly conditioned the facies distribution and their
preservation. As in Central Tunisia, the edification
of Al Jabal al Akhdar anticlinorium began during the
convergence between the African and the European
49
Chapter 4

Present Time
N S
SL

Early Oligocene
SL

Landernian / Ypresian

Campanian
SL

Santonian
SL

0 10 20 30 km
Oligo-Miocene (Al Fasdiyah Fm)

Lower Oligocene (Bayda Fm) Upper Senonian

Eocene (Dernah Fm) Cenomanian to Coniacian

Paleocene Lower Cretaceous

Figure 40. Geographical location and geomorphology of Figure 41. Structural evolution of Al Jabal al Akhdar anti-
the studied area in Libya (NE Cyrenaica) clinorium (modified after Röhlich, 1980)
Ras el Hilal roadcut LIBYAN SEA -40
-20
-10

100
AL ATRUN
I
ùs

lah
Murq

m
f Ra
afsha r
0

sh Sh
200

a H T sa Sidi al Machmud
30

Arqùb
W adi

Ra
E D S M
N O
U
K Wadi bin Jubarah

Dubbuseia water rocks R

A B reservoir

L
G P
Hajaj as Sum’ah 500
N DAB Q 400

600
W E

Measured sections (DAB : Main type section) 0 1 2 3 4 5km

Road

Figure 42. Localization of sections in the area of Ain ad-Dabusseyah, NE Cyrenaica

50

plates at the Late Cretaceous. In both cases, the
nummulitic platforms of Central Tunisia and northern
Libya occurred during period of plate convergence,
leading to the initiation of palaeoreliefs.
Synsedimentary tectonic is strongly suspected
in Northern Cyrenaica, but we will see that the lateral
variations of facies are not so abrupt that in Tunisia. The
structuration of the platform in a large carbonate ramp
has strongly conditioned the nature and the repartition
of the depositional facies, which are radically different
from their Tunisian analogues.
4.3 Materials and methods
Three main type sections, described by El Hawat
and Shelmani (1993), were measured from Cyrene to
Dernah. From West to East, these sections are: Cyrene-
Apollonia (444m), Ain Ad-Dabusseyah (251m), which
is located close to the centre of the studied area, and
Dernah (68m). As the area of Ain Ad-Dabusseyah
constitute the main concentration of nummulite facies,
22 additive sections were integrated in this region.
Seven of these (K,M,N,O,P,Q,R) are located east of the
type section and thirteen (A,B,D,E,F,G,H,I,J,L,S,T,U)
at the west. (Figure 42).
A total of 450 samples were collected for detailed
petrographic analysis. During outcrop sampling,
composition, sedimentary structures and macrofossil
identifications were taken into account. The study
of diagenetic events was completed with cathodo-
luminescence, fluid inclusions analysis and SEM
microscopy.
All thin-sections have been indurate by injection
of a blue resin (blue coloured Epoxy). The evolution of
the porosity on the facies succession of West Dernah
roadcut section has been performed by image analysis, in
order to characterize and to quantify the pore network.
365 Nummulites species were collected on the field
on the different nummulite-rich intervals of the Dernah
Formation. Nummulites were extracted from poorly
cemented facies, and then splitted along the equatorial
section. Alphonse Blondeau has identified type species,
by reference to his collection from Egypt (Gizeh
pyramid and El Misguegah cliff). Complementary
identifications are based on these type species.
4.4 Field observations
4.4.1 Lithostratigraphy
Gregory (1911) was the first to lay the
foundations for the stratigraphic nomenclature of
Nummulite carbonates from Northern Libya
most of the stratigraphic units in northern Cyrenaica.
Biostratigraphical and micropalaeontological studies
of the Late Cretaceous and the Tertiary of northern
Cyrenaica are few and include those of Barr (1968,
1972), Barr and Hammuda (1971), El Khoudary (1976,
1977, 1980), Barr and Berggren (1980) Eliagoubi and
Powell (1980), Abdulsamad and Barbieri (1999) and
Abdulsamad (1999).
Stratigraphic units of the Eocene nummulite facies
from NE Cyrenaica, based on larger foraminifera, have
been recognized by Abdulasmad (1999), who studied
sections of Cyrene, Ain ad-Dabusseyah and Dernah.
The author indicates that the nummulite carbonates
extend from Middle to Late Eocene. Unfortunately, as
no sedimentological markers have been defined by the
author, the different biostratigraphic intervals cannot be
easily placed at outcrop.
The more detailed stratigraphic chart for Northern
Cyrenaica is proposed by El Hawat and Shelmani
(1993). In order to compare the stratigraphy of the
region with our observations in Tunisia, we integrated
this chart in a more precise biostratigraphic framework,
which subdivisions based on the chart of Serra-Kiel
et al. (1998). Dating from nannoplankton obtained
by El Hawat and Shelmani can be directly compared
with Shallow Benthic Zones, constrained by the recent
identification of Nummulites species (Figure 43).
From the Late Cretaceous to the Early Oligocene,
four Formations can be identified:
The ATHRUN Formation is characterised by
white lime-mudstones, which are dipping slightly to
the South. These facies, deposited in deep, bathyal
to neritic environment, have been dated to the Late
Maastrichtian(G. tricarinata biozone). These facies are
locally affected by submarine slumps (Plate 24c);
The APOLLONIA Formation has is type locality
at Susah (ancient Greek settlement of Apollonia). This
Formation is Ypresian to Early Lutetian in age. It is
constituted by planktonic foraminifera facies, deposited
in outer ramp settings (Plate 25). At its base, a breccia
zone with Palaeocene lithoclasts marks the Late
Cretaceous-Early Tertiary boundary. The overlying
Eocene sequence has produced planktonic foraminifera
and nannofossils of Ypresian age. It is followed by
two major unconformities, the last corresponding to
the Ypresian-Lutetian boundary, at the base of a Early
Lutetian slumped unit (Plate 24d). According to El Hawat
(oral communication), both boundaries characterize
sedimentary hiatus. The first hiatus includes NP14b and
NP15a (about 0.3 My are missing) and the second one
separates NP13 from NP14a, forming a hiatus of about 3
My. The sequence is followed by normal, well-bedded,
deep neritic Apollonia facies, where chert nodules are
fairly common.
51
52
modified from El Hawat and Shelmani (1993) from Serra-Kiel et al., 1998 NUMMULITES ASSOCIATION OF THE DERNAH FORMATION
(determination by Blondeau)
PLANKTON ZONES Larger
TIME Foraminifera
Epoch Age Lithology Facies
Chapter 4

(Ma) Foraminifera Calc. Nanno. Shallow Benthic

Berggren et al Zones (SBZ)
(1995) Martini (1971)

Environment
Sequence
Stratigraphy
Coralgal limestones P18 NP21 SBZ 21 N. beaumonti (B-form)
33

EARLY
Lagoon

RUPELIAN

OLIGOCENE
AL BAYDA Formations
SB4 0.5 cm
N. lyelli (A-form)
P15 SBZ 18
0.25 cm
NP17
N. lyelli (B-form)
P14 Bartonian 0.5 cm
40 SBZ 17 sp.

BARTONIAN
P13
Nummulites,

Discocyclinid

DERNAH
SBZ 16
P12 NP16

Carbonate Ramp

MIDDLE
and Operculina
SB3 SBZ 15 Late Lutetian sp.
Limestones N. discorbinus (A-form)
SB2
c 0.25 cm

LUTETIAN
P11 SBZ 14

EOCENE
45 lime-Mudstones
b

NP15
Nummulitic Floatsones P10 SBZ 13
SB1

Ea
NP14 a SBZ 12
glauconitic horizon
N. gizehensis (B-form)
P9

rly t
50 SBZ 11
NP13 0.5 cm
P8

oM
Planktonic i dd N. discorbinus (B-form)

Slope
P7
l

CUISIAN
NP12 SBZ 10
0.5 cm

APOLLONIA
Foraminiferal

EARLY
e Lu

YPRESIAN
Facies SBZ 9
b
tetia

NP11
P6 SBZ 8
n

ILERDIAN
NP10
sp.

a SBZ 7
SB0
N. perplexus (A-form)
Bathyal - Neritic 0.5 cm
G. Tricarinata biozone N. gizehensis (B-form)

LATE
Facies

ATHRUN
N. gizehensis (A-form) 0.5 cm

Deep Basin

CRETACEOUS
MAASTRICHTIAN
0.25 cm

Figure 43. Stratigraphical subdivisions of the Eocene Apollonia and Dernah Formations, NE Cyrenaica.

The DERNAH Formation corresponds to the
major nummulitic event in Al Jabal al Akhdar. The
base of the Formation is characterized by deep outer
ramp facies, then rapidly grades up into coarse-grain
carbonate deposits. This huge carbonate production
is distributed along a wide range of depositional
environments, from inner to outer platform settings
(Plate 26). Large foraminifera, which mostly dominate
the bioclastic assemblages, are more diversified than in
Central Tunisia. Algae and carbonate mud deposition
dominate the carbonate environment.
According to our determinations from Nummulites
species, three timelines subdivide the Middle Eocene
Dernah Formation:
• the Early and the Middle Lutetian are
represented by the presence of N. gizehensis
and N. perplexus (Plate 27 and Plate 28),
• the Late Lutetian is marked by the occurrence
of N. discorbinus and by the presence of N.
gizehensis (Plate 29 and Plate 30),
• the Bartonian beds are characterised by the
dominance of N. lyelli and N. beaumonti (Plate
31 and Plate 32).
This Middle Eocene Nummulites association is
very similar to the Nummulites association described by
Blondeau in Egypt, from the Miniah Nil valley to the
Pyramids. N. gizehensis species, collected in the Early to
Middle Lutetian beds, are identical to the species which
are present at the base of the pyramid of Gizeh. N. lyelli
and N. beaumonti (Bartonian in age) are very similar
to those collected at the top of the El Misguegah cliff,
in wadi Ryan (60 km south of Fayum). The evolution
of these species from Early Lutetian to Bartonian is
characterized by an evolutive trend (species tend to be
larger during the Late Lutetian and Bartonian times)
and by environmental changes (algal environment
at the south, as opposed to the northern calcareous
environment, as in Central Tunisia for example).
The BAYDA Formation (Röhlich, 1974) has his
type locality near the town of Al Bayda, and consists
of coralgal and Discocyclina facies deposition. This
Formation is generally composed of two lithological
units, the Shahat marls and the Algal limestones
(Kleinsmeide and Van der Berg, 1968). On the
investigated area, the Shahat marls are missing. Along
the Dernah roadcut section, these Oligocene facies
directly overlay the Middle Eocene Dernah facies. The
association of algae and large-flat Discocyclina suggest
a deposition in restricted settings.
At the light of new data obtained by the outcrop
investigation from areas of Ain ad-Dabusseyah and
Dernah, a more precise biostratigraphic framework
Nummulite carbonates from Northern Libya
is proposed for the Eocene series from Northern
Cyrenaica, which can be useful for correlations between
basin (Plankton Zones) and platform settings (Shallow
Benthic Zones).
The determination of Nummulites, which belong
to the rare fossils which can be dated in this interval,
allows to define new stratigraphic subdivisions of the
Dernah Formation and to correlate our sections. The
absence of the late Eocene series is in contradiction
with previous studies in the same area (Abdulsamad,
1999), which described the presence of the Priabonian
Nummulites fabianii. At Kesra in Central Tunisia, the
absence of the Late Eocene could be related to the
general emersion of the region at the beginning of
the Early Eocene. In Cyrenaica, a single palaeosoil
horizon has been documented at Dernah (El Hawat
and Shelmani, 1993), representing the only evidence of
emersion at the end of the Middle Eocene.
4.4.2 Sedimentological description of
sections
4.4.2.1 The type section of Ain ad-Dabusseyah
roadcut (Appendix 19)
The section was measured along a roadcut,
which cuts the Eocene series. The area exhibits
typical nummulite-rich bioaccumulations, which are
interpreted as bank deposits (El Hawat and Shelmani,
1993). The transition between the Apollonia and the
Dernah facies is very progressive. Considering this
gradual facies change, we postulated that the base of the
Dernah Formation is represented by the occurrence of
Discocyclinid and Operculina.
The section starts with the deposition of deep
Apollonia facies, in which large chert nodules are
locally intercalated. These nodules contain dissolved
or silicified tests of nummulite and diverse bioclasts.
Operculina and Discocyclinid progressively occurred,
floating in a very fine-grain matrix. A nummulite-rich
deposit abruptly occurs at 77 m, representing a ten metres
thick bioclastic accumulation. The matrix is composed
of poorly cemented fine-grain carbonate sand, in which
nummulite tests are randomly orientated and B-forms
are dominant. The only sedimentary structures that
are observable are characterized by the concentration
of large-flat nummulite tests in pocket structures. The
granulometric sorting of the nummulites test could
suggest that these structures are formed by bioturbation.
Other specific concentrations of nummulites, observed
during the field trip in 1999, are characterized by scour
structures filled up by nummulite tests. By comparison
with present-day sea-grass environments, these
structures could be formed by currents vortex occurring
during storms and destroying the meadows (Davaud,
oral communication).
53
Chapter 4
Nummulites were sampled at the base and at the
top of this nummulite-rich interval. The identification
of Nummulites Gizehensis attests to a Middle Lutetian
age.
These facies are overlaid by a newly deposited
Operculina facies and chert nodules series, which
grades up rapidly into fine-laminated chalky facies,
regularly interbedded with marls. These facies are
strongly affected by bioturbation (Teichichnus type and
vertical burrows) and contain planktonic foraminifera
and faecal pellets. Nummulite tests are disseminated,
sometimes silicified, and B-form dominates the
macrofossil assemblage. These facies clearly result
from an episodic sedimentation of carbonate mud in
distal settings.
The top of the succession is characterized by
a sharp contact with a nummulite grainstone facies,
attributed to the transition between the Middle and the
Late Lutetian. Despite the dominance of A-forms, the
internal organization of the deposit is similar to those
previously described. It particularly shows the same
pocket-filling structures.
Gastropod and bivalve-rich facies overlay the 22-
m-thick nummulite accumulation. Belonging to the Late
Lutetian, these facies are hardly cemented and present a
good moldic porosity, probably related to the dissolution
of primary aragonite. They progressively change up
into Operculina-rich facies, interbedded with thin marly
beds. At outcrop, this new succession represents a 27-m-
thick fine-grain packstones/wackestones accumulation.
The deposition of floatstone facies, which
contains the large Nummulites lyelli and a high
proportion of red algae fragments, characterize the
last depositional sequence. The contact between the
last Eocene carbonates and the Oligocene has been
identified as a gradual change in the sedimentation type.
The nummulite carbonate facies progressively change
in Discocyclinid, red algae and echinoids grainstones,
which can be interpreted as lagoonal deposits.
Dating from nummulites and sedimentological
observations along this section evidence three distinctive
nummulite-rich deposits from the Middle Lutetian to the
Bartonian. The base and the top of the two first deposits
are represented by sharp boundaries, and the transition
with the Oligocene facies appears progressive. These
bioclastic accumulations, characterising prolific periods
of sedimentation during which nummulites were
dominant, are delimited by the deposition of deeper
facies at the Middle and the Late Lutetian. These two
deepening-up events (bioturbated chalky facies and
Operculina rich deposits) are good candidate to be use
as flooding events for correlations.
In term of depositional environment, the
nummulite bioaccumulations represent the shallower
facies that have been identified along this section. The
54
low reworking and the bioturbation of the sediment
indicate normal marine conditions, in middle platform
settings.
4.4.2.2 The type section of west Dernah
roadcut (Appendix 20)
This second type section was measured along a
roadcut, located west of the town of Dernah. At this
place, the Eocene succession shows different facies
in comparison with the outcrop of Ain ad-Dabusseyah
roadcut, and is defined as a nummulite-reefal association
(Hammuda, 1973; El Hawat and Shelmani, 1993).
Operculina are very rare, red algae are present from
the base, discocyclinid are well represented, massive
dolomitized beds are intercalated and coral reef
limestones are highly developed at the upper part of the
section.
The section starts with the deposition of deep
Apollonia facies, which change up into Wackestone-
Packstone of the Dernah Formation, containing
nummulites, discocyclinid, Operculina, Spirorbis tubes
and planktonic foraminifers. These facies are overlaid by
a first important concentration of nummulites associated
with gastropod shells. Above this six meters thick
bed, Discocyclinid and branching red algae abruptly
occur in association with nummulites. Discocyclinid
(Discocyclina, Lepidocyclina, Asterocyclina) are
represented by large organisms (mostly centimetric
size). Small rhodolites appear with large Discocyclinid
into channels that erode nummulite beds. Common
coral debris, as well-preserved small branching corals,
indicates that the development of a reef already began.
The top of this depositional sequence exhibits an intensive
dolomitization and dissolution of facies. Most of the
time, matrix is dolomitized, and the primary porosity of
grains was filled in with a dolomicritic sediment. The
final diagenetic event consists of the dissolution of the
calcitic elements, essentially constituted by the tests of
foraminifera. The final porous network is represented by
centimetric moldic cavities which porosity ranges from
30 to 40%. According to previous workers (Hammuda,
1973; El Hawat and Shelmani, 1993), this dolomitic
interval indicates intertidal and evaporitic depositional
settings.
These dolomitic horizons are stratigraphically
followed by transgressive coralgal facies, comprising
small reef build-ups made of solitary corals. This
sequence evolves into the edification of a large coral
bioherm, composed of massive and branching coral.
Some nummulites are integrated within the internal
sediment of the reef, but the bioclasts are mostly
composed of encrusting algae, small bivalves and
echinoderms. The reefal facies are topped by a very
coarse-grain sediment dominated by large nummulites
(Nummulites lyelli, Nummulites discorbinus),

bivalves, gastropods and unbroken echinoid shells
(Echinolampas). These facies are overlaid by
nummulite-algal grainstones which porosities range
from 20 to 35%. The cohesion of the matrix is allowed
by the development of thin calcitic bridges between
particles and by the growth of syntaxic cement around
echinoderm fragments. Vadose dissolution is evidenced
by the presence of concavo-convex contacts between
particles. The discovery of meteoric water in the fluid
inclusions of syntaxic cements indicates clearly that
these poor-cemented facies were temporary exposed to
sub-aerial conditions.
At the top of the section, discocyclinid and red
algae become more and more abundant, announcing the
Oligocene times. Nevertheless, a major unconformity
can be observed at the top of the Eocene, interpreted as
a palaeosoil and terra rossa development (El Hawat and
Shelmani, 1993; El Hawat, 2001).
In comparison with the facies succession
outcropping at Ain ad-Dabusseyah, this second type
section clearly exhibits more restricted facies, as
demonstrated by reef, coralgal limestones and poor-
cemented bioclastic sands. The dolomitized horizons
indicate a major sequence boundary, and the edification
of coral reefs are in relation with a transgressive event,
essential for the growth of the biohermal structure. This
period of reef aggradation could be a possible equivalent
to the deposition of deep muddy, bioturbated carbonates
in Ain-ad Dabusseyah area.
4.4.2.3 The type section of Cyrene (Appendix
23 and Appendix 21)
This section shows the thicker Eocene series of
the studied area (about 600-m-high). The beginning of
the section starts 10 metres above the road, which joins
the town of Susah and the village of Ras el Hilal.
At the base, the Dernah Formation is characterized
by a 160-m-thick shallowing-upward depositional
cycle. Locally dolomitized nummulite bank facies
are well developed on 35-m-thick. Close to the castle
ancient ruins, large discocyclinid and rhodolites
deposits overlay them. This shallowing-up cycle ends
up with Orbitolites packstones. The presence of large-
scale cross bedding structures indicates a deposition
under high-energy conditions (El Hawat, 2001). The
top of this unit, abruptly overlaid by Operculina facies,
corresponds to the SB2 boundary, and it could be
assimilated to a major flooding surface.
Another similar shallowing-up cycle was newly
deposited after the transgressive Operculina facies,
which is also suddenly interrupted by a transgressive
event (Figure 44). During the flooding, mud-rich
deposited facies are composed of abundant planktonic
Nummulite carbonates from Northern Libya
foraminifers and extraclasts. These extraclasts come
from the reworking of the previously deposited
Orbitolites facies. These clasts are locally encrusted by
serpulids.
Nummulite deposition prevailed during the upper
sequence (Dernah 3). Orbitolites facies are intercalated,
showing abundant moldic cavities, which are related
to dissolution processes. The nummulite facies can be
subdivided into successive banks, which are generally
separated by thin horizons of large-flat imbricated
nummulites (high energy depositional events). The top
of the Eocene is marked by sharp boundary, encrusted
by oysters.
In comparison with the other type sections, the
important thickness of the Eocene series outcropping
along this section could be related to a more subsident
zone. However, the absence of transgressive chalky
facies and the occurrence of Orbitolites deposits at the
top of each shallowing-up depositional cycle indicate
that the area permanently belongs to inner platform
settings.
4.4.2.4 Sections at the west of Ain ad-
Dabusseyah type section
Sections A, B and S, region of Sidi al Machmud
(Appendix 22, 23, 24)
These sections are characterized by the same
succession of facies than the type section of Ain ad-
Dabusseyah. The rare nummulites, which are found
at the base of the sections, are floating in a muddy
matrix, locally enriched in very small bioclasts. Also,
the presence of chert nodules gives a good stratigraphic
correspondence with the base of the type section. The
first nummulitic deposit, the top of which has been
dated from the Early Lutetian, tends to decrease in
thickness toward section S. On section B, the 10-m-
thick nummulite accumulations are locally affected by
silicifications (disseminated chert nodules).
A transgressive period is marked by the deposition
of Operculina facies and chert nodules series, which
grades up rapidly into fine-laminated chalky facies.
Except along the roadcut of Ain ad-Dabusseyah, these
facies were often badly exposed, due to the preferential
erosion and the recovering by vegetation. However, the
resulting light slope is a useful visual marker to better
define the stratigraphy of the series in the landscape,
and allowed to map the shape of the depositional
sequence on the aerial photographs. The thickness of
these deposits is relatively homogeneous (about 35 m).
The second nummulite-rich horizon starts with a
packstone rich in gastropods and bivalves, and facies
progressively change into nummulitic packstones-
grainstones.
55
Chapter 4

c d

300µm 3mm

flooding surface (SB3)

a b

m s

o o s

o 500µm 2mm

Figure 44. Characterization of a major flooding event at the section of Cyrene, NE Cyrenaica
a. deposition of Orbitolites (o) shoal facies with miliolids (m);
b. encrustation of lithoclast by serpulid tubes (s) showing geotropic features;
c. deposition of deep planktonic facies;
d. carbonate exoclasts (reworked inner platform particles, surrounded by the white line) integrated into the matrix of deep
outer shelf facies. o: Orbitolites; m: miliolids

Sections E, H, T ,I and L, Wadi Murqùs (Appendix
25, 26, 27, 28)
Vertical cliffs border the plateau of Arqùb ash
Shafshaf, and a large outcrop constitutes the south-
eastern flank of the plateau. Along this outcrop, three log
sections (sections E, H and T) have been measured, in
order to follow lateral changes of facies and thickness.
These sections can be reached by entering into the
mouse of Wadi Murqùs, then following northward the
main track on 2 km. Section I has been studied in quick-
look on the northern flank of the plateau, representing an
outcrop of about 50-m-thick. Section L was measured on
a small ridge, which is located south of Wadi Murqùs.
Section E was first investigated. The outcrop is
characterized by two main superimposed escarpments,
which are separated by a light scree-covered slope.
The base of the first escarpment is composed of
deep planktonic facies, which contain chert nodules,
and of Operculina limestones. A first nummulite
deposit abruptly overlies these facies, and the top
of the escarpment is characterized by Operculina
facies. The light slope corresponds to the deposition
of well-stratified and bioturbated facies, where thin
nummulite beds are locally intercalated. The base of
the second escarpment is represented by bioclastic
facies, composed of gastropod shells and nummulites.
This facies changes up into an 8-m-thick bioclastic
accumulation, which is characterized by the abundance
of nummulites, bivalves and echinoid shells. A newly
deposited Operculina facies, overlying the nummulitic
facies, is characterized by the presence of planktonic
foraminifera and disseminated nummulites. The top
of the second escarpment shows the last nummulitic
bioaccumulation of the succession, where Discocyclinid
and red algae fragments are also associated.
To the NE, nice exposures lead to precise the
geometry and the internal heterogeneities of nummulite

56

bodies. On section H, we discovered that a thin bed
composed of large Orbitolites and miliolids overlays the
nummulitic facies near the top of the first escarpment. It
suggests an evolution towards more restricted settings
at the end of the nummulite deposition. Regarding the
second nummulite bioaccumulation at the base of the
second escarpment, a thickening is observed on sections
H and T, reaching about 40-m-thick. The internal
organization of the nummulite bioaccumulations doesn’t
evidence some high-energy sedimentary structures.
By contrast, nummulite tests, randomly oriented, are
floating in a muddy, bioclastic matrix. The preservation
of mud could explain the preferential erosion of the
nummulite bioaccumulations leading to a “cave”
morphology. Pocket-filling structures are common and
associated fauna is mainly represented by echinoids. The
40-m-thick sequence decreases in thickness toward the
north (section I), which indicates that the shape of the
sedimentary body is lenticular. This interval has been
dated to the Late Lutetian at both sections H and T. This
body is also composed of high energy “corn-flakes”
Discocyclinid facies that are laterally discontinuous.
Other facies are intercalated such as gastropod-rich
accumulations. These facies are characterized by a
good lateral continuity and are classically found at the
base of the nummulite deposits, forming highly porous
intervals. Operculina facies are well developed at the
top of each section, confirming that a major deepening
event occur at the top of the Late Lutetian.
To the south, section L indicates that restricted
settings were developed behind the nummulite
depositional environment during the Late Lutetian –
Bartonian times, leading to the deposition of packstone
facies rich in Orbitolites, Alveolina, red algae and
miliolids on 35-m-thick. Their occurrence at the top
of a nummulite-rich sequence to the north (section H)
and their relative abundance in nummulite tests indicate
interfingering with the main depositional environment
of the nummulite sands.
Section J, Ras el Hilal roadcut (Appendix 29)
This section has been measured on a roadcut, which
is located above the village Ras el Hilal. The top of the
Early Lutetian is characterized by restricted Alveolina
and Orbitolites facies, locally enriched in red algae and
nummulites. These facies change up into Operculina
and nummulites deposits, which progressively grade
up to deep planktonic carbonate muds. In these facies,
we found similar Teichichnus fossil traces than those
described on the roadcut of Ain ad-Dabusseyah.
The top of the Middle Lutetian has been dated with
Nummulites, which have been collected in bioclastic
sands containing nummulites and echinoid shells in
life position. The relative abundance between A-forms
and B-forms nummulites is variable. At the base of
the beds, A-forms generally dominate the assemblage,
Nummulite carbonates from Northern Libya
while a ratio of 10/1 is observed at the upper part of
the bioaccumulation. The top of this nummulite-rich
depositional sequence is marked by the occurrence
of Operculina packstones-grainstones. These facies
are overlaid by newly deposited restricted facies with
dominant Alveolina, miliolids and red algae.
In comparison with the facies succession of Arqùb
ash Shafshaf area, the series are reduced in thickness,
nummulites are globally dominant along the section, and
the Alveolina-Orbitolites environment is geographically
more prograding toward the north during the Early and
the Late Lutetian-Bartonian. These lateral variations
of facies, which occur in about 2 km of distance from
section I, indicate that facies are interfingering along
an axis, parallel to the shoreline. Toward the W/NW
(section of Cyrene), the Eocene series evolve into
typically more restricted settings, where Orbitolites
shoals are deposited. The general thickening of the
Eocene is related to an important subsidence of the
area.
Section G, Ra’s ar Ramlah (Appendix 30)
This section, intermediate to Arqùb ash Shafshaf
and Ain ad-Dabusseyah zones, exhibits a nicely exposed
Eocene succession. Its base, which is not illustrated on
the section, is characterized by a thick sequence of deep
Apollonia slope facies. They progressively change into
nummulite rich sands, which form extensive carbonate
bars in the landscape. These facies are abruptly overlaid
by distal outer platform deposits, which are interpreting
as Middle Lutetian carbonate muds. The base of the Late
Lutetian is dominated by a nummulite, Operculina and
discocyclinid faunistic assemblage, then grades upward
to nummulite, Discocyclina and red algae grainstone
facies toward the south. The boundary between Middle
Eocene and the Oligocene facies was reached at 520-
m-high.
4.4.2.5 Sections at the east of Ain ad-
Dabusseyah type section
Sections K and M, Arqùb ash Shawà’ir (Appendix
31 and Appendix 32)
In comparison with the type section of Ain ad-
Dabusseyah roadcut, the Middle Eocene series don’t
show major changes of facies. The Early Lutetian is
characterized by the deposition of deep planktonic
carbonate muds, locally bioturbated and containing some
echinoid fragments. The Middle Lutetian is dominated
by chalky facies (distal outer platform deposits),
showing at its top a thick nummulite bank interval,
which corresponds to the transition between the Middle
and the Late Lutetian. Transgressive Operculina facies
are deposited at the base of the Late Lutetian, which
57
Chapter 4
progressively grade upward into nummulite bank facies
during the Bartonian times. These Bartonian facies are
only outcropping at the top of section K, the top of
section M being topographically lower.
Despite the good correspondence with Ain
ad-Dabusseyah section, the entire Middle Eocene
succession is drastically reduced in thickness (120-m-
thick).
Sections N, O and P, Wadi bin Jubàrah (Appendix
33, 34, 35)
The reduced thickness is also observed for these
sections, however local restricted conditions prevailed.
On section P, the top of the Early Lutetian
corresponds to the deposition of Operculina packstones/
grainstones facies. At the base of the Middle Lutetian,
nummulite-rich facies start to be deposited, and they are
progressively changing into Orbitolites and red algae
facies. A new sequence starts with the deposition of
transgressive outer platform deposits. The shallowing-
upward cycle of this sequence is represented by the
deposition of nummulite-rich deposits, which grade
up into restricted dolomitized Orbitolites facies at the
base of the Late Lutetian. The top of the section is
characterized by an increasing proportion of red algae
fragments and by well developed nummulite facies.
Toward the north (section N and O), the Middle
Lutetian restricted facies are missing. They laterally
change into distal outer platform facies rich in planktonic
foraminifera and Operculina. Moreover, they are
present at the base of the Late Lutetian, representing
a thicker depositional interval than those observed
on section P. It indicates that restricted environment
is more prograding toward the north during the Late
Lutetian, which coincides with the observations made
on the outcrops of Arqùb Ash Shafshaf and along the
roadcut of Ras el Hilal.
Sections Q and R, Wadi bin Jubàrah (Appendix 36
and Appendix 37)
The entire facies succession of these sections is
dominated by outer platform deposits, which are mainly
represented by Operculina and discocyclinid facies.
The base of the sections is represented by the deposition
of large prograding foresets of deep Apollonia facies,
locally enriched in Operculina. These facies, which
average dip is about 3°, are prograding toward the N/
NE. Nummulite facies have been found in the Middle
Lutetian interval, but they are mostly characterized
by wakestone/packstone facies with disseminated
nummulites. Thick nummulite-rich facies has been only
observed at the top of section Q, corresponding to the
classical Late Lutetian/Bartonian deposits (association
of nummulites, Discocyclinid and red algae).
58
4.5 Interpretation
4.5.1 Establishment of standard facies
The observations of the different sections
demonstrate that the Middle Eocene series are
characterized by important facies variability
(diversification of the petrographic textures, faunistic
associations, and overprinted diagenetic processes).
13 standard facies were defined, and their
establishment is principally based on the description
of macrofacies and microfacies, diagenetic processes,
sedimentary structures and geometry of the sedimentary
bodies. A theoretic profile of a carbonate platform is
used to attribute a specific depositional environment
for each facies. Each facies is interpreted in term of
depositional environment, synthesized in Table 4.
The Apollonia facies are represented at the base
of all sections. These muddy deposits evidence the
dominant basinal settings at the Ypresian in Northern
Cyrenaica, and frequent slumps and mass movements
suggest that the tectonic of region was strongly active
during deposition. The occurrence of platform deposits
during Early Lutetian attest to a drastic change in the
depositional environment, relating to an important
tectonic inversion. These facies locally contain some
chert nodules which contain disseminated, silicified
nummulites.
Two types of facies represent the outer platform
settings. The Chalky facies are widely deposited in the
studied area. Their poor-nummulite content suggests that
they are deposited far from the nummulite depositional
environment, in distal outer platform settings. The high
amount of carbonate mud indicates a high turbidity of
the environment, where living fauna is only represented
by endobenthic organisms, at the origin of the formation
of fossil traces. The repetitive intercalation of marly
levels between laminated chalky beds suggests an
alternation between periods of decantation and periods
of deposition under laminar currents. The Operculina
facies are also interpreted as distal outer platform
deposits. The rarity of nummulites indicates their
incompatibility with this depositional environment, and
the important transgression of the Operculina facies belt
towards internal zones suggests also that the nummulite
carbonate production is drastically reduced on the
topographical highs.
The proximal outer platform and the topographic
highs are characterized by an important variability of
facies.
Major coral reef edification is specific to the area
of Dernah. Metric hard-cemented small patch reefs
are composed of solitary corals, and are devoid of
nummulites. The presence of miliolids and bryozoans
 Nummulite carbonates from Northern Libya

Depositional Petrographic
Standard facies Dominant fauna Description at outcrop Plates
environment texture

White chalky limestones, frequently affected by

Apollonia facies plankton, fecal sub marine slumps and mass movements. These
slope and basin M/W Pl. 25
(AP) pellets, ostracods facies are sometimes interfingering with outer
ramp facies.
plankton, Fine-grain laminated chalky facies, associated
Chalky facies
W/P ostracods, with large chert nodules. Fossil traces are Pl. 33
(CH)
Lenticulina common (Teichichnus).
plankton, High-cemented limestone characterized by a mud-
Operculina facies Operculina, supported matrix. These deposits form thick
distal W/P Pl. 34
(OP) Lenticulina, carbonate intervals during transgression or period
outer platform bolivinidae of highstand sea level.

Small high-cemented bioconstruction composed

solitary corals,
Solitary coral facies of ahermatypic corals. The matrix is muddy and
W/P gastropods, Pl. 35
(CS) moldic cavities are inherited from the dissolution
plankton
of the primary aragonite.

Nummulites,
Outer Nummulite Well-stratified deposits composed of disseminated
plankton,
bank facies P/W nummulites, floating in a muddy matrix. Facies Pl. 36
discocyclinid,
(OB) are locally interbedded with chalky beds.
Operculina
gastropods,
These deposits mainly occur at the base of the
Gastropod-rich bivalves,
nummulite bank facies. The matrix is dominantly
facies P echinoids, Pl. 37
micritic and porosity is high, (large mold casts of
(GP) Nummulites,
gastropod).
Textularia
Thick bioclastic accumulation of nummulite tests,
Nummulites, which are floating in a muddy matrix. Pocket-
Nummulite bank
echinoids, filling structures are common and echinoid shells
facies P Pl. 38
Textularia, are preserved.
proximal (NB)
Peneroplis The amount of nummulite is extremely high, and
outer platform
A-Forms dominate the assemblage.
and massive and
topographic high These facies form the framework of large
branching corals,
Coralgal reef facies bioherms, and are characterized by the dominance
P/G red algae, Pl. 39
(CR) of corals. The important moldic dissolution
bivalves,
endows a high porosity.
echinoids
Bioclastic accumulation, dominated by large
"Corn-flakes" large Discocyclinid tests, infilling of small erosive
Discocyclinid facies P/G discocyclinid and channels. These high-energy facies are also Pl. 40
(CF) red algae debris characterized by the presence of cross-bedding
structures.

red algae, Grain-supported facies dominated by coralline

Algae-rich facies
G Nummulites and algae (rhodolites and fragments of massive Pl. 41
(AL)
discocyclinid forms).

Orbitolites, Fine-grain bioclastic facies containing significant

Orbitolites/Alevolina
Alveolina, miliolids and typical large foraminifers.
facies P/G Pl. 42
miliolids, red Orbitolites can dominate the assemblage in high-
(OA)
algae energy large-scale cross-bedding structures.
inner platform
reworked large Hard-cemented brownish or poor-cemented white
Dolomitized facies
initial P / G foraminifers and dolomitic layers, characterized by large mold Pl. 43
(DO)
red algae debris casts of foraminifer.

Yellowish grain-supported deposits, extremely

Poor-cemented reworked large poor-cemented, characterized by thin laminations
intertidal zone nummulite facies G foraminifers and of bioclastic material. Small A-Form nummulites Pl. 44
(NP) red algae debris are dominant, associated with debris of coralline
algae.

Table 4. Standard facies from the Dernah Formation, NE Libya

59
Chapter 4
fragments evidences the connexion with restricted
settings. Plurimetric biohermal structures are also
developed in the same area, and the dominance of
massive and branching corals indicates shallower
conditions.
The gastropod-rich facies is a good indicator
of substrate stabilization, leading to the development
of grazers’ community. Mainly occurring at the base
of nummulite bank facies, these deposits announce
favourable environmental conditions for the deposition
of nummulite-rich sediments.
The nummulite bank facies illustrates the
maximum of the nummulite carbonate production during
the Middle Eocene. Locally, the preferential erosion of
these facies is furthered by the high amount of mud
in the matrix, suggesting low-energy conditions. This
interpretation is also supported by the absence of high-
energy sedimentary structures, by the association with
others macrofossils as echinoderms and/or gastropods,
by common pocket-filling structures and by the random
orientation of large-flat nummulite tests within the
sediment. Macrospheric forms (small and small-robust
nummulites) generally dominate the assemblage. The
significant occurrence of planktonic foraminifera and
the abundance of thin tests of discocyclinid indicate the
deposition of outer bank facies in more open marine
conditions (distal part of the proximal platform).
As contrary, large-flat imbricated nummulite
facies strongly suggests a reworking, leading to the
imbrication of particles and a good grain size sorting.
Mud is occasionally preserved within the matrix and
in nummulite chambers, but geotropic figures and
infilling of shelter porosity indicates a post-depositional
infilling. These facies are frequently intercalated within
the nummulite-cave facies, characterizing periods of
reworking in high-energy settings (probably storms).
The corn-flakes discocyclinid facies has been
documented as another high-energy facies, deposited in
proximal outer ramp settings. This facies, constituted
by cross-bedding structures, characterizes the infilling
of small channels which incised the nummulite facies
belt.
Restricted conditions are represented by
the occurrence of Orbitolites and Alveolina large
foraminifers. The abundance of miliolids and red algae
fragments confirms the environmental attribution of
this facies, by reference to previous works (Eichenseer
and Luterbacher, 1992; El Hawat, 2001). Red algae
facies can also dominated in these shallow protected
zones, forming porous algal beds. Orbitolites facies can
be also deposited as shoals composed of large cross-
bedding structures (El Hawat, 2001).
Intertidal zones are surrounded by early
dolomitization and dissolution processes, which
consequently modify the original fabrics. Dolomitization
could characterized extreme evaporitic conditions, where
60
the dissolution of the calcitic elements is superimposed
to the replacement of the calcareous mud by dolomicrite.
The original sediment is constituted by nummulites and
large Discocyclinid tests and by red algae fragments.
These environmental conditions exclusively prevailed
close the area of Dernah, but dolomitization processes
can also affect the restricted facies.
Along the type section of west Dernah roadcut,
another facies typically illustrates the proximity of the
coastal environment. This facies is characterized by a
well-sorted, poor-cemented grainstone nummulite
facies, which internal structure is composed of alternative
coarse-grain and fine-grain lamina. Nummulites are
associated with discocylinids, red algae and echinoderm
fragments. These echinoid fragments are the only
particles, which developed an early calcitic cement
(syntaxial growth). Contacts between particles show
concavo-convex surfaces and rare calcitic bridges have
been discovered between particles. A lot of arguments
suggested a supratidal origin:
• fluid inclusions analysis within the syntaxial
cement around echinoid fragments revealed
the presence of freshwater;
• this facies appears in a shallowing-upward
sequence, few meters below a palaeosoil
horizon (type section of West Dernah
roadcut);
• the concavo-convex contacts, which are
interpreting as a vadose dissolution, are only
described in aeolian settings (example from
Bimini Island, Bahamas, from Davaud and
Strasser, 1984);
• the laminations of these deposits have an
average dip ranging from 30° to 40°, which is
in contradiction with laminations of subtidal
wave ripples or sandwaves.
As consequence, this well-sorted nummulite facies
could be deposited close to the shoreline and reworked
by winds into supra-tidal environments. As shown by
the presence of large foraminifera in the evaporitic
zone, it is not surprising to found marine particles which
are constituting littoral dunes. These types of deposits
are classically developed around modern carbonate
environments, especially if the carbonate production is
high in subtidal settings (Wright et al., 2000; Brooke, B.,
2001; Le Guern and Davaud, submitted). Also, recent
observations from the Egyptian desert, 70 km east of
Gizeh, report that small active dunes, totally composed
of centimetric fossil nummulites, are formed nowadays
(De Bono, oral communication). If we consider that
fossil nummulites can be moved by wind, it is easy to
understand that, after the cell death, a highly porous
test of living nummulite can be displaced by wind.

However, the formation of these potential supratidal
deposits closely depends of a good granulometric
sorting, which is the major condition of the aeolian
depositional processes.
4.5.2 Sequence stratigraphy
4.5.2.1 Definition of the depositional
sequences
We proceeded to facies association in order to
characterize the succession of the depositional sequences
on each sections. Grouping of facies are based on the
characterization of the vertical succession of the type
facies, which can be interpreted in term of fluctuations
of the relative sea level. A depositional sequence is
represented by a deepening-up and a shallowing-up
cycle, and is delimited by two sequence boundaries.
In the studied area, four principal depositional
sequences have been observed:
Sequence A1 (Apollonia 1) / Early Lutetian
This sequence is bounded at its base by the
SB0 boundary, which represents the contact between
the Late Cretaceous Athrun deposits and the Early
Lutetian Apollonia facies. The deepening-up cycle
of this sequence is represented by the deposition of
slope and basinal facies of the Apollonia Formation.
The maximum flooding surface could be equivalent
to a condensed horizon, described by El Hawat and
Shelmani (1993), outcropping in Wadi Athrun. This
level, Ypresian in age, is enriched in glauconite and in
planktonic foraminifera.
The shallowing-up cycle starts with the deposition
of deep planktonic facies of the Apollonia Formation,
which are abruptly interrupted by a major sequence
boundary that corresponds to the Ypresian/Lutetian
limit (SB1 boundary). This boundary can be interpreted
as an important fall of the relative sea level, leading to a
significant erosion of the series.
Sequence D1 (Dernah 1) / Early to Middle
Lutetian
This sequence is characterized by a single
shallowing-up cycle. This period of accommodation
decreasing is documented by the deposition of submarine
mass movements on the slope (slumped nummulite
facies), by the progradation of the nummulite facies on
the platform, and by the development of an evaporitic
zone in the area of Dernah, the top of it corresponding
the SB2 sequence boundary. In the area of Ain ad-
Dabusseyah, the SB2 boundary corresponds to the top
of the first nummulite bank deposit, dating from the
Middle Lutetian, passing laterally to Orbitolites shoals
in the region of Cyrene.
Nummulite carbonates from Northern Libya
Sequence D2 (Dernah 2) / Middle to Late Lutetian
The beginning of this sequence is marked by
an important deepening-up period that significantly
modified the environmental conditions. A large part of
the platform is recovered by planktonic chalky facies,
leading to the breakdown of the nummulite carbonate
production on the area of Ain ad-Dabusseyah. In Dernah,
this period of accommodation increasing corresponds
to the edification of small patch reefs dominated by
solitary corals.
During the next shallowing-up cycle, these coral
build-ups evolved into successive condensed boundstone
horizons composed of massive corals, encrusting algae
and large Discocyclinid. To the west (area of Ain ad-
Dabusseyah), nummulite facies are newly deposited,
forming thick bioclastic accumulations. Restricted
conditions are also active during the nummulite facies
deposition, and Orbitolites/Alveolina facies are locally
developed. The top of this shallowing-up cycle is limited
by a sequence boundary (SB3), which is followed by an
important flooding of the platform.
Sequence D3 (Dernah 3) / Late Lutetian to
Bartonian
A transgressive system tract characterizes
the beginning of this sequence. This period of
accommodation increasing is benefit to the deposition
of Operculina facies, retrograding southward on the
outer and the inner platform zones. Nummulites are
rarely associated with Operculina, which indicates that
the environmental conditions were not favourable to the
proliferation of nummulites. At Dernah, the aggradation
of large coral patch reefs, composed of massive and
branching corals, characterizes the transgression. This
aggradation suggests that rate of reef growth is equal
to accommodation increasing. Nummulites are present
with other bioclasts in the matrix of the reefs, which
suggests that nummulites are only laterally confined to
the bioherms during transgression.
The last shallowing-up cycle of the Middle
Eocene is characterized by an important development
of nummulite bank facies on the platform, which are
reworked up to supratidal zones for the region of Dernah.
During the Bartonian, nummulites show the larger
sizes that have been observed in Cyrenaica, sometimes
reaching more than 8 centimetres (Nummulites lyelli).
This morphologic criterion suggests that optimum
environmental conditions prevailed, preceeding the
progressive disappearance of nummulites from the
region. This shallowing-up cycle is capped by a sequence
boundary (SB4) that corresponds to the limit between
the Middle Eocene and the Oligocene. Unfortunately,
this stratigraphic limit clearly outcrops only at Dernah
where it coincides with a pedogenetic horizon.
61
62
I El Athrun

ha f
Chapter 4

ash Shafs
Arqùb D N
F
T
E H s
M

ïr
Murqù
Wadi
O

wà’
S

shSha
K Wadi bin Jubàrah

ba
ù
N

Arq
A R
W E Dubbuseia water rocks aj Mùsa
reservoir
Arqùb al H
L P
S G B DAB Q
field sections (DAB : main type section) 0 1 2 3 4 5km

I El Athrun

D F N
T
E H M

S O
U
K
N
R
W E A
L DAB P
S
faults G B Q
Formations Sequence stratigraphy Age Relative abundance of foraminifers and red algae
SB4
Bartonian
sequence D3
Upper Lutetian
DERNAH Formation SB3
Middle Eocene
sequence D2 Middle Lutetian
SB2
sequence D1 Lower Lutetian
APOLLONIA Formation SB1
SB0 sequence A1 Early Eocene Ypresian
ATHRUN Formation Late Cretaceous Maastrichtian Operculina Discocyclinid Nummulites Orbitolites Algae

Figure 45. Mapping of the extension of the middle Eocene depositional sequences in the area of Ain ad-Dabusseyah, NE Cyrenaica

The depositional sequences of the Dernah
Formation have been mapped over the area of Ain ad-
Dabusseyah (Figure 45). The mapping is based on the
integration from logged stratigraphic sections and 2D
outcrop subsequent and on the interpretation of aerial
photographs. The Late Cretaceous-Ypresian boundary
and sequence A1 haven’t been detailed on the field,
and they cannot be clearly individualized on the aerial
photographs.
The shallowing-up cycle of sequence D1 is
dominated by highly structured and prograding muddy
clinoforms, that are sometimes interfingered with
carbonates of the Dernah Formation. The sequence
boundary SB2 could be assimilated to a newly formed
palaeotopography that represents the base of the
nummulite-dominated carbonate platform at the Middle
Eocene.
The deepening-up cycle of the sequence D2 is
widely extended over the area, and is characterized by
a thickening toward the east. Locally, this cycle is also
erosional on sequence D1. The shallowing-up cycle
is well developed to the West of Ain ad-Dabusseyah,
forming a good lateral continuity of the nummulite
bank facies. To the East, this cycle is laterally thinner,
discontinuous and absent at sections M, Q and R. At
sections N, O and P, this cycle is dominated by the
deposition of the restricted Orbitolites/Alveolina
facies, forming a narrow inner platform. These facies
progressively pinch out to the east and to the west.
The deepening-up cycle of sequence D3 is
deposited over the area, and is dominated by the
deposition of Operculina facies. The shallowing-up
depositional cycle, outcropping locally at the top of
Arqùb Ash Shafshaf and in the southern zones, is
characterized by a wide extension of nummulite bank
facies, which progressively grade up into Oligocene
series.
4.5.2.2 Visualization of the depositional
sequences at outcrop
The region of Ras Hilal in Northern Cyrenaica is
particularly suitable for the interpretation of the geometry
of sedimentary bodies and for the visualization of the
global stacking pattern at outcrop. Created by numerous
wadis that cut down the Eocene carbonate platform,
large and laterally well-continuous cliffs were the main
exploration targets during our outcrop investigation.
The internal architecture of the platform can be
illustrated by the panorama of Ain ad-Dabusseyah
type section (Plate 45). The general aspect shows a
well-stratified carbonate complex, which has globally
prograded northward. As detailed for the type
section (cf. §.3.4.2.1.), this carbonate body evidences
important vertical changes of facies. At outcrop, the
main petrographical heterogeneity is represented by
the muddy white carbonates of sequences D1 and
Nummulite carbonates from Northern Libya
D2, which contrast with the massive Operculina and
nummulite carbonate series of the upper cycles. The
sequence boundaries are delimited by sub-horizontal
unconformities, well surrounded in the upper part of
the section. The transgressive cycle of sequence D2
becomes thinner to the South, confirming the northern
deepening of the platform.
The shallowing-upward cycle of sequence D1 can
be precisely detailed at the area of Wadi bin Jubàrah.
This cycle shows the progradation of large-scale
clinoforms, composed of pure carbonate muds of the
Apollonia Formation (Plate 46). The average dip ranges
from 2 to 3° toward the N/NE, and the top of the series is
truncated (SB2 boundary) by the trangressive cycle of the
sequence D2. This cycle is overlaid by sub-horizontally
stratified beds of sequence D3, characterized by metric
carbonate bars. These bars are discontinuous toward
the North, passing laterally into mud-dominated facies.
Looking southward in the same wadi (Plate 47), they
change southward into thick carbonate bars, while the
topography of the platform at boundary SB2 shows an
important inclination toward a NE direction. Southern
facies were examined on the area of section L, and
they are dominated by restricted Orbitolites/miliolids
packstones. It strongly suggests that facies distribution is
indirectly controlled by the topography of the platform,
and the generation of new submarine palaeosurfaces are
followed by drastic changes in sedimentation (marls vs.
carbonates). The inclination of the slope could be due
to local subsidence of the platform or it corresponds to
an erosional inherited topography.
The lateral evolution of the depositional sequences
can be also identified along an impressive valley,
resulting from the erosional way of Wadi Murqùs
(western zones). Two large outcrops of 4-km-long
border the valley.
The first observations concern the exposure along
the western flank of Wadi Murqùs. From South to North,
three successive panoramas have been selected (a visual
marker is placed on each photograph, pointing the same
zone). From the South (Plate 48), the trangressive cycle
of sequence D2 is intercalated between two carbonate
units, rich in Orbitolites and nummulites. The global
thickness of the outcropping series is about 50 m, and
individual carbonate bars do not exceed 1-m-thick.
Sequences are globally thicker toward section E, and
facies are progressively dominated by nummulites.
Rare thin layers enriched in shallow benthic organisms
locally end up the shallowing up cycle of sequence D1
until section H. Northward, the colour of carbonate
units change into brownish stratified beds (Plate 48).
Intercalated eroded zones are frequent on the upper part
of section E, where nummulite bank facies represent
a major 10-m-thick stratified body. The abundance of
nummulite is maximal at the top of the body, forming
a mud-supported horizon (floatstone facies). The
63
Chapter 4
maximum thickness of this nummulite bank reaches
30 m at section T (Plate 49). Its internal stratification
indicates alternative periods of sedimentation, dominated
by gastropods, nummulites or large Discocyclinid. To
the south, along sections U and I (quick-look logged
sections, not illustrated in appendix), the thickness of
this body is drastically reduced to 15-20 m, evidencing
a lenticular shape. This body is capped by massive
Operculina facies, which deposition corresponds to the
transgressive cycle of sequence D3.
Complementary observations have been realized
on the eastern flank of Wadi Murqùs. The area provides
a complete overview of the internal organization of the
carbonate platform and exhibits wonderful lithological
contrasts along the panorama (Plate 50). The system
is globally prograding toward the north, and lateral
variations of facies are clearly detected in the different
sequences. In the Eocene Apollonia terms, these lateral
changes mainly result in the interfingering between
deep carbonate sands and pure carbonate muds in
northern zones. To the south, the carbonate production
is dominated by the nummulite fabric, indicating the
presence of massive bars. Sequence D2 is represented
by a thickening of the transgressive cycle toward the
North, and the geometry of shallowing-up nummulite
bank facies (in red) confirm a lenticular shape. This
carbonate body, dominated by lagoonal facies in the
south-western zones, changes into nummulite bank and
outer bank facies toward the NE. A well-individualized
carbonate bar (sequence D3), the lateral extension of
which toward the north was not clearly delimited, caps
these facies.
4.5.2.3 Internal heterogeneities of
sedimentary bodies
Based on the preliminary establishment of the
depositional sequences at each sections, two correlation
profiles are presented (Figure 46 and Figure 47). The
first one, which is located West of Ain ad-Dabusseyah,
allows completing the visual characterization at Wadi
Murqùs, focusing on the internal heterogeneities of facies
of the nummulite bank of sequence D2. The second one
concerns the eastern zone of Ain ad-Dabusseyah, where
restricted settings have been detected on sections N, O
and P.
As mentioned in the previous paragraph, the
shallowing-upward nummulite bank of sequence D2
is characterized by a lenticular shape, its extension
reaching about 3 km in dip direction at Wadi Murqùs.
A detailed correlation of the internal unconformities
indicates that this nummulite bank is composed of two
small successive shallowing-up cycles (Figure 46). The
maximum of nummulite deposition always occurs at
the top of both cycles. These facies show typical bank
64
settings, showing a dominant floatstone texture, an
important associated fauna, nicely preserved nummulite
tests and bioturbation (pocket-filling structures). The
base of the first cycle is represented by the deposition of
large discocyclinid facies, locally composed of cross-
bedding structures and overlaid by a gastropod-rich layer.
These deposits could be compared with those observed
at Dernah, where they are described as bioclastic
infilling of erosional channels (cf. Plate 40). Lumachellic
nummulite and gastropod assemblage dominate the
base of the second cycle. This facies confers a highly
porous interval, laterally well extended, interbedded at
the middle of the nummulite bank structure. On most
of the sections, the gastropod-rich assemblage was
classically observed as preceeding the edification of
nummulite bioaccumulations. The hard cementation
the muddy matrix and the abundance of moldic cavities
suggests very early diagenetic processes, allowing to
stabilize the substrate for nummulite proliferation.
The western area of Ain ad-Dabusseyah
constitutes a complex zone, where several facies are
interfingered. This area is also locally dominated by
restricted lagoonal facies that are potentially interesting
in term of reservoir rocks. At the section of Cyrene,
these facies form 20-m-thick large-scale bioclastic
shoals that prograde on nummulite banks (cf. §.3.4.2.3.
and Plate 42). The faunisitic association (Orbitolites,
miliolids, red algae), indicating a very shallow water
depth, suggests that marine and freshwater phreatic
diagenesis could significantly contribute to increase the
reservoir quality.
A cross-section diagram illustrates the geometric
relation between shoal, bank, and outer bank deposits
(Figure 47). Orbitolites shoal facies prograde on the
nummulite bioaccumulation during the shallowing-up
cycle of sequence D1. The maximum of progradation
of shoal facies globally corresponds to the maximum
extension of nummulite facies toward the north. The
transition with deep stratified clinoforms of the Apollonia
Formation is characterized by the interfingering
of outer bank facies. It is difficult to precise if the
lenticular shape of the carbonate shoal is inherited from
depositional (high amount on carbonate) or physical
processes (reworking by sea currents), or from the
erosional event at boundary SB2. This boundary could
also be assimilated to a flooding surface, leading to the
deposition of Operculina facies above the previously
deposited Orbitolites shoals. The shallowing-up cycle
of sequence D2 shows newly deposited shoal facies,
prograding over section N. Toward the west, they are
laterally discontinuous, changing into nummulite bank
sediments.
These observations evidence that the internal
architecture of a nummulite reservoir can be significantly
heterogeneous. In most cases, this heterogeneity increase
 Nummulite carbonates from Northern Libya

Figure 46. Geometry and sedimentary heterogeneities of a nummulite bank

Figure 47. 3D correlation diagram showing the interfingering between sandy (nummulites and Orbitolites deposits) and
muddy carbonates (Apollonia, Operculina and chalky facies)

65
Chapter 4
the reservoir quality, due to the intercalation of highly
porous gastropod layers or shoals made of reworked
restricted facies. Toward the north, the extension of
these reservoir bodies is variable, probably depending
of the slope angle of the platform. Shoals appear
shortly extended in strike direction, forming narrow
sedimentary bodies back to the nummulite bank.
4.5.3 Palaeogeographical reconstruction of
the northern cyrenaican carbonate
platform during the Middle Eocene
In order to characterize the evolution of facies
distribution at the Middle Eocene, palaeogeographical
maps have been established for the zone of Ain ad-
Dabusseyah, which covers an area of 80 km2, from
the roadcut of Ras el Hilal to Wadi bin Jubàrah. A
palaeogeographical reconstruction is proposed for
several time intervals, based on dating from nummulites
and on sequence stratigraphy (Figure 48).
Early to Middle Lutetian (sequence D1, shallowing-
up cycle)
Two main spots of restricted lagoonal facies
deposition prevailed, forming two narrow prograding
shoals. The nummulite facies belt appears laterally well
continuous, while its dip extension does not exceed
1.5 km. Operculina facies are present in front of the
nummulite bank, in the distal part of the platform.
Deepest settings are represented by the progradation of
the muddy carbonates products that are deposited down
to the basin.
Middle Lutetian (sequence D2, deepening-up cycle)
Above the SB2 boundary, the palaeogeography
radically changed with the deposition of a wide
Operculina facies belt, interfingered northward with
deep planktonic muds. The period of accommodation
increasing inhibits the nummulite carbonate production,
is limited to the SW of the area.
This deepening upward cycle continued with an
important retrogradation of the depositional settings,
indicating a maximum of transgression of the cyrenaican
platform during the Middle Eocene. The entire area
is covered by the deposition of deep bioturbated
chalky facies, the high planktonic content of which
clearly results from open marine conditions. The rare
disseminated nummulites found in these facies suggest
that the nummulite carbonate production is still active,
but probably restricted to the internal zones (south of
the study area).
Late Lutetian (sequence D2, shallowing-up cycle)
The configuration of the platform is similar than
Early Lutetian times. Two main promontories are
66
dominated by the deposition of lagoonal Orbitolites
facies, in front of which a nummulite facies belt is
developed. A differential subsidence could explain
the short extension of nummulites toward the east, the
deposition of which is restricted around the Orbitolites
shoals. However, nummulite bank facies formed a
lenticular sedimentary body along a widely extended
zone to the West, reaching a maximum of 40 m in
thickness.
Late Lutetian (sequence D3, deepening-up cycle)
This map shows the latest deepening-up event
of the cyrenaican platform at the Middle Eocene.
As during the Early Lutetian, this event drastically
modified the environmental conditions, leading to a
new development of a wide Operculina facies belt. At
this time, nummulite facies are not recorded over the
area, indicating a non-deposition or an erosion.
Bartonian (sequence D3, shallowing-up cycle)
The Bartonian characterizes the maximum
abundance of nummulites in Northern Cyrenaica.
Nummulite assemblages are characterized by the
dominance of the very large Nummulites lyelli
and Nummulites gizehensis, and red algae become
significantly associated. This period corresponds also
to a maximum extension of the nummulite facies belt in
northern Cyrenaica, except for local deeper zones.
The palaeogeographical evolution of northern
Cyrenaica shows a permanent interplay between the
production of coarse grain carbonates (i.e. nummulites
and lagoonal facies) and mud-dominated products.
These changes in the carbonate production are strongly
controlled by frequent fluctuations of the relative sea
level that could relate to the tectonic activity of the
region during the Middle Eocene. Nummulite-rich
carbonates seem to be exclusively deposited during
periods of accommodation decreases, while carbonate
mud, dominating the depositional settings during periods
of accommodation increasing, is however produced
during the entire Middle Eocene. This huge amount of
carbonate mud is derived from the residual products of
the carbonate factory during lowstands (erosion and
biogenic precipitation) and from the deposition under
deep-water settings during highstands.
 Nummulite carbonates from Northern Libya

N SB4
J El Athrun
I W E
H
T S

E D
M
U N
O

D3 - DERNAH
S K

R
Bartonian B 1km
L G A AADTS P Q
N
J I El Athrun
W E
H
T S
E D
M
U N
O
S K

R
B 1km
Upper Lutetian L G A AADTS P Q
N
SB3
J I El Athrun
W E
H T
S

E D
M
U N
O

S K

R
B 1km
Upper Lutetian L G A AADTS P Q
N

J I

D2 - DERNAH
El Athrun W E

H
T S

E D
M
U N
O

S K

R
B 1km
Middle Lutetian L G A AADTS P Q
N
J I El Athrun
W E
H
T S

E D
M
U N
O

S
K
R
Middle Lutetian B 1km
L G A AADTS P Q
N
SB2
J I El Athrun
D1 - DERNAH

W E
H
T S

E D
M
U N
O

S K

R
base of Middle Lutetian B 1km
L G A AADTS P Q

LEGEND

inner-bank facies (dolomitized Orbitolites-Alveolina-Miliolids-red algae limestones) outer-bank facies (Operculina limestones)

bank facies (Nummulites-Discocyclina limestones) slope facies (bioturbated chalky limestones)

slope to basinal facies (bioturbated planktonic foraminifera muds)

Figure 48. Paleogeographical maps showing the evolution of the middle Eocene carbonate platform in NE Cyrenaica, from
early Lutetian to Bartonian times

67
Chapter 4

HIGHSTAND PLATFORM (stable passive margin)

coastal dunes and foreshore deposits

Orbitolites sand waves

dolomite
restricted Orbitolites / Alveolina facies

sea
leve
l

lenticular nummulite bank

prograding outer bank facies

prograding Apollonia facies

TRANSGRESSIVE PLATFORM (subsiding passive margin)

lagoonal large discocyclinid and red algae facies

sea
lev
e l

Figure 49. Paleoenvironmental reconstruction of the Northern Cyrenaican carbonate platform at the Middle Eocene, in res-
pect to the subsidence rate of the continental passive margin

68

4.5.4 Stratigraphic evolution of the
depositional model
As mentioned in the previous paragraph, the
Middle Eocene facies distribution in Northern Cyrenaica
is strongly influenced by the structuration of the region.
The continued NNW drift of Africa mainly conditions
this structural control during the Alpine orogeny,
leading to periods of relative stability or instability of
the southern passive margin of the Tethys.
Taking account the palaeogeographical
observations for the area of Ain ad-Dabusseyah, the
configuration of the platform has changed through time,
depending on variations of accommodation. Based on
the facies succession observed at Dernah, it appears
that other facies are deposited during the different time
intervals (from Early Lutetian to Bartonian), these
facies being absent in the western areas. Dating from
nummulites and establishment of the depositional
sequences indicate that highstand periods correspond to
the development of evaporitic zones, while transgressive
periods are dominated by the edification of coralgal
bioherms.
These observations led us to establish two different
facies models, based on the structural control of the
passive margin and on the lateral variability of facies.
The first facies model illustrates the facies distribution
during periods of highstand, corresponding to periods
of relative stability of the passive margin (Figure 49).
The general configuration of the platform is a ramp
characterized by a progressive deepening toward the
north. The nummulite bank facies are deposited in
mid ramp settings, forming a lenticular body. Proximal
settings prevailed back to the nummulite bank, where
the large Orbitolites and Alveolina foraminifera are
found in association with red algae and miliolids. High-
energy facies can be deposited within these restricted
areas, forming prograding shoals rich in Orbitolites.
These shoals, prograding also onto the nummulite
banks, evolve laterally into intertidal to supratidal
settings toward the south. The intertidal environment
is characterized by the presence of an evaporitic zone,
dominated by dolomitization and dissolution processes.
Supratidal settings are represented by littoral dunes,
which could contribute to isolate a restricted evaporitic
zone. A prograding bioclastic material, rich in thin tests
of discocyclinidae, characterizes the outer nummulite
bank facies. These facies laterally pass into large-scale
prograding clinoforms of the Apollonia Formation,
dominated by mud-rich facies.
The main production of nummulite facies occurs
in mid ramp settings in this model. Nevertheless,
nummulites can be reworked by currents and by wind
towards more proximal settings, constituting other
potential reservoir rocks. In Cyrenaica, the transportation
of nummulites by currents toward the intertidal domain
(evaporitic zone) has contributed to form highly
Nummulite carbonates from Northern Libya
porous intervals, where dolomitization and dissolution
processes prevailed. The presence of supratidal
deposits confirms that nummulites can be reworked by
winds, forming coastal carbonates dunes. At the light
of this work, the geometry of such reservoirs is not
determinable, because of the rarity of outcrops exposures
in these intervals. However, based on the observations
of Tertiary and Quaternary eolianites, these supratidal
facies could constitute very good reservoirs, laterally
well continuous, with a high primary porosity (Abegg
et al., 2001). This primary porosity is well preserved in
the Middle Eocene carbonates, representing more than
40% of the porous network.
The second model characterizes the facies
distribution during periods of accommodation
increasing (transgressive system tract), occurring two
times during the Middle Eocene (sequences D2 and D3).
Along this platform, the distribution of the depositional
palaeoenvironments is mainly conditioned by the
presence of coralgal bioherms that have constituted a
major environmental barrier, separating lagoonal and
open marine settings (Figure 49). The lagoonal zone
is dominated by the deposition of red algae and large
discocyclinid facies. Red algae occasionally composed
grainstone patterns, dominated by rhodolites. The
development of the lagoon is permitted by the edification
of coralgal bioherms. Shallow water corals (massive
and branching forms), bivalves and abundant red algae
dominated these reefs. These bioherms, which are 20-
m-thick bodies, have growth according to aggradation
processes (progressive compensation of the increasing
of the relative sea level). The presence of high-energy
facies within the lagoon (red algae grainstones) suggest
that the barrier reef was probably constituted by
isolated reef structures, leading to a connection between
restricted and open marine zones. Some of these pass
are represented by channels, which erode the fore reef
depositional facies, i.e. the nummulite deposits. These
erosional structures are filled up with lagoonal material
(large discocyclinidae and red algae). The principal
nummulite deposition takes place in front of the
coralgal bioherms, forming a narrow facies belt. They
pass laterally to outer bank facies, which are dominated
by Operculina and thin discocyclinidae. Operculina
facies represent the major bioclastic component in
outer platform settings, where small isolated patch
reefs are also documented. In term of depositional
palaeodepth, these reefs differ from the upper shallow
water bioherms: solitary forms only represent corals,
nummulites are absent while Operculina are present.
This indicates that these patch reefs have growth in
relative deep-water settings. Along the Dernah roadcut,
interbedded solitary coral facies with Operculina-rich
layers suggest that both facies have been deposited in a
similar depositional environment. The deeper facies of
this model are represented by the chalky facies.
The presence of corals is rarely documented at the
69
Chapter 4
Eocene, except for the southern Pyrenees (Eichenseer and
Luterbacher, 1992). Indicating a tropical to subtropical
climate, their presence in Northern Cyrenaica related to
a major increasing of accommodation, occurring at the
Middle Lutetian. This transgression probably related
to an important subsidence of the southern margin of
the Tethys, leading to a significant deepening of the
platform.
4.6 Conclusions
The study of the nummulitic carbonates from NE
Libya evidences relationships between autochthonous
carbonate production and its lateral exportation. In
comparison with the Early Eocene accumulations from
Central Tunisia, the depositional palaeoenvironments
are more diversified, showing a clear association with
algae.
New identifications of Nummulites species allowed
to define some stratigraphic subdivisions for the Dernah
Formation that is organized in three depositional
intervals, from Early Lutetian to Bartonian times. These
determinations also revealed that the Late Eocene is
absent in the studied area. A new lithostratigraphical
chart is proposed for illustrating the biostratigraphical
framework and the succession of the depositional
sequences of the Eocene series from NE Cyrenaica, that
are limited by four major sequence boundaries.
13 standard facies were defined for the Dernah
Formation, characterizing the important facies
variability (diversification of the petrographic textures,
of the faunistic associations, and of the overprinted
diagenetic processes), from basin to shallow restricted
platform settings. The association of coral reefs and
algae demonstrates that environmental conditions
were prolific for the diversification of carbonates.
However, the presence of nummulites in all carbonate
environments (slope, platform, intertidal and supratidal
settings) suggest that these larger foraminifers were
mainly dominant in platform settings during the Middle
Eocene.
Four depositional sequences were identified along
the different sections and mapped in the area of Ain
ad-Dabusseyah. By two times, nummulite-dominated
facies are abruptly interrupted by trangressive patterns
(mud-supported facies), suggesting important floodings
of the platform. These periods of accommodation
increasing are characterized by the deposition of deep
chalky and Operculina facies, which have retrograded
until the internal zones.
Palaeogeographical reconstructions have been
established for the area of Ain ad-Dabusseyah. The
different maps illustrate the stratigraphic evolution
70
and the facies distribution of the nummulitic platform
during the Middle Eocene, according to the relative
sea level oscillations. During periods of lowstand, the
deposition of Orbitolites shoals prevailed at the top of
two principal palaeohighs, and the nummulite facies
belt extended in front of both marine promontories. The
nummulite carbonate factory is strongly reduced during
periods of highstands, these periods corresponding
to the transgression of outer platform facies. The
palaeogeographical extension of the nummulite
platform reached its maximum at the Bartonian.
Two facies models are proposed to illustrate
the distribution of the palaeoenvironments during the
Middle Eocene, according to the structural control of
the passive margin. The first facies model illustrates
the facies distribution during periods of highstand,
corresponding to periods of relative stability of the
passive margin. The general configuration of the
platform is a ramp, characterized by the development of
lenticular nummulite bank facies, which are deposited
in mid ramp settings. Proximal settings prevailed back
to the nummulite bank, evolving into intertidal to
supratidal deposits. A prograding bioclastic material,
rich in thin tests of discocyclinidae, characterizes
the outer nummulite bank facies. The second model
characterizes the facies distribution during periods of
accommodation increasing (transgressive system tract).
Along this platform, the distribution of the depositional
palaeoenvironments is mainly conditioned by the
presence of coralgal bioherms, that have constituted a
major environmental barrier, separating lagoonal and
open marine settings. The lagoonal zone is dominated
by the deposition of red algae and large discocyclinid
facies. The principal nummulite deposition takes place
in front of the coralgal bioherms, forming a narrow
facies belt. They pass laterally to outer bank facies,
which are dominated by the deposition of Operculina
facies.
Chapter 5 :
Sedimentological Synthesis
of Tunisian and Libyan Eocene Carbonates,
and Application to the subsurface reservoirs in NW Offshore Libya
T his last chapter will attempt to synthesize
our observations at outcrop, comparing the
Eocene carbonates from Tunisia and Libya. Geometric
and sedimentological observations are used for a better
interpretation of subsurface nummulite reservoirs. Also,
the correlation of outcrop data between both localities is
important in order to predict the stratigraphic evolution
of the nummulite carbonate factory along the Eocene,
and to document its distribution according global
tectonic.
Main objectives of this chapter are:
• to compare the sedimentology of both Tunisian
and Libyan nummulite carbonates;
• to characterize the diagenetic processes for
each potential reservoir rocks that have been
identified at outcrop, in relation with specific
depositional environments;
• to compare outcrop data with subsurface
reservoirs (internal heterogeneities, shape and
size of the reservoir bodies, and sedimentary
structures);
• to propose a correlation of the main
stratigraphical boundaries between Central
Tunisia and Libya, and to illustrate the
palaeogeographical distribution of the
nummulite carbonate factory through Early to
Middle Eocene in south-western Tethys, based
on outcrop and offshore data.
5.1 Sedimentological comparison of both
outcrop analogues
The comparison between the nummulite
carbonates from Tunisia and Libya shows important
differences in term of depositional thicknesses, facies
and sedimentological processes (Table 5).
The El Garia carbonates, older than the north-
eastern series of Cyrenaica, are assimilated to a very
shallow deposited bioaccumulation, permanently
eroded and reworked by hydrodynamic processes. The
generated carbonate reservoirs are characterized by the
amalgamation of high-energy layers, resulting from the
reworking of nummulite tests by onshore spreading.
Two types of potential reservoirs have been identified:
stacked nummulite bars which have been deposited
tangentially to the coastline, and porous dolomite
layers, made of deposited and dissolved nummulite-
rich sediment in restricted embayment. At Kesra, the
intense reworking of the nummulites also contributes to
produce consequent thicknesses of silt-size carbonate
debris. Rarely preserved in the high-energy facies, these
particles are mostly exported toward the distal part of the
platform, representing the dominant lateral transition
with the mud-supported basinal facies. They are also
amalgamated in deep intra-shelf depressions, where
poor oxygen settings led to preserve a significant amount
of organic matter, closely to the reservoir. In Central
Tunisia, the facies distribution is strongly conditioned
by the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene tectonic activity,
which implied important topographic irregularities
onto the platform. The nummulite carbonate production
ends up abruptly at the Ypresian / Lutetian boundary.
At Kesra, the absence of younger deposits, the intense
karstification of the El Garia carbonates and the low
maturation of the organic matter suggest that the
area was rapidly exposed to subaerial conditions, as
previously mentioned by Jauzein (1967).
The deposition of the nummulite series in Northern
Cyrenaica started at the Early Lutetian. Nummulites
perplexus, occurring at the top of the El Garia Formation
in Central Tunisia, is the only species in common that is
found in the Early Eocene series of the Dernah Formation
(dominated by Nummulites gizehensis). In addition
to this faunal recurrence, the carbonate deposition is
dominated by an «algal» environment (as opposed to
the Early Eocene «calcareous» sedimentation of Central
Tunisia) where large foraminifers are diversified and
coral reefs are locally developed. Depending on the
relative tectonic movements of the passive margin,
different carbonate reservoirs can be generated, and
most of them are developed during periods of relative
stability of the passive margin. These periods of
highstand are favourable to the deposition of large-
scale lenticular nummulite bank facies. The edification
of these structures derived from a high prolific in situ
carbonate production, where the poor reworking of the
sediment by hydrodynamic processes have induced a
lower production of nummulite debris. A significant
production of pure carbonate mud is however observed,
mainly preserved in proximal settings or exported
seaward. Extensive evaporitic zones and coastal
carbonate dunes are also developed during lowstands,
constituting highly porous reservoirs.
71
Chapter 5

Central Tunisia, Kesra Plateau Libya (NE Cyrenaica)

Formation El Garia (Fournié, 1975) Dernah (Gregory, 1911)

Early to Middle Eocene

Age Early Eocene (Upper Ypresian)
(Lower Lutetian to Bartonian)

Thickness of the studied interval 15 to 45 m 60 to 400 m

Occurrence of nummulite deposits abrupt gradual

low fragmentation and good preservation of

bad preservation of nummulite tests,
Preservation vs. fragmentation nummulite tests,
high production of nummulithoclasts
high production of carbonate mud
rapid, interfingered outer platform progressive, interfingered outer platform
Lateral variations of facies
and basinal facies and basinal facies

Operculina, Discocyclinidae,
Associated large foraminifers Operculina, Discocyclina
Orbitolites , Alveolina

carbonate platform with

Platform morphology carbonate ramp / rimmed platform
topographical irregularities
lenticular nummulite belts,
Geometry of the potential nummulite stacked subtidal dunes,
dolomitic embayment
reservoir dolomitic embayment
and supratidal dunes
continental dominated OM (El Garia Fm)
Distribution of potential source rock marine OM (Apollonia Fm)
marine OM (Bou Dabbous Fm)

dominant post-tectonic sedimentation syntectonic sedimentation

Sedimentation vs tectonic
on inherited palaeotopographical highs on large inverse-structural lands

Disappearance of abrupt, ends up

progressive, grades into the Oligocene
nummulite carbonate factory at the Ypresian / Lutetian boundary

Table 5. Recapitulative table comparing the nummulite-reservoir analogues from Central Tunisia and NE Libya

Both outcrop studies demonstrate that the
nummulite carbonate factory can generate diversified
sedimentary bodies from Early to Middle Eocene. The
architecture of the nummulite reservoir is strongly
conditioned by the topography of the platform
(carbonate ramp or uneven palaeoreliefs), which can
be modifying during deposition. The degree of the
reworking is another important factor controlling the
distribution of such reservoirs.
5.2 Diagenesis of the potential reservoirs
5.2.1 Case study from Northern Cyrenaica
5.2.1.1 The nummulite bank
well-preserved nummulite tests indicate a very low
reworking of the original sediment by marine currents,
except some horizontal unconformities, which could be
related to storm events.
The general shape of the nummulite bank is
a lenticular body, which can be divided from south
(proximal part) to north (distal part) in different
diagenetic zones:
• Dolomitization occurs in the proximal part
of the bank, synchronously to the appearance
of restricted fauna (Orbitolites, Alveolina,
miliolids). The precipitation of dolomite
consists of the replacement of a carbonate mud
by euhedral dolomite crystals. Nummulites
shells are also dolomitized, sometimes
dissolved.

The nummulite bank characterizes nummulite- • At the middle of the bank structure, where the
rich deposits that result from the in situ carbonate reservoir body reaches its maximum thickness,
production of the original biocoenosis. The presence normal marine diagenetic settings prevailed
of a muddy matrix, of complete echinoid shells, and during deposition. A micritic carbonate mud

72
 Sedimentological synthesis of Tunisian and Libyan Eocene Carbonates
poorly cemented nummulites, which compose
the main bioclasts. This muddy matrix does
not show evidences of dolomitization, but
dissolution features are however visible. Some
vugs, variable in size, are typically developed
in the matrix. These dissolutions could be
interpreted as post-depositional fluid flows.
Others dissolutions concerns intercalated
shell beds, which are dominated by gastropod,
echinoid and nummulite. These beds,
systematically occurring at the base of the
nummulite banks, are characterized by large
moldic cavities, derived from the dissolution
of bioclasts which skeletons are made of
aragonite. The primary porosity of this middle
part of the bank is nicely preserved at outcrop.
The amount of porosity is directly controlled
by the degree of the internal cementation
of nummulite chambers. Additional moldic
porosity contributes to generate petrophysical
heterogeneities.
• The distal part of the bank structure is
characterized by dominant muddy carbonates.
Disperse dolomite crystal are occasionally
developed in the matrix, precipitated during
late burial diagenesis. The microporosity is
however significantly representative, forming
a well-connected pore network.
5.2.1.2 Supratidal carbonates of Northern
Cyrenaica
This reservoir facies is the only one that has
not been studied in term of geometry. The rarity of
exposures at outcrop does not allow to characterize the
shape of the reservoir body. Nevertheless, interesting
petrophysical properties have suggested to study in
detail the reservoir potential of this particular nummulite
facies, which exhibits 40% of porosity at least.
All observations allow interpreting this facies as
a supratidal carbonate deposit: packing, laminations
(pine-stripe laminations?), meteoric cement, vadose
dissolution and pedogenetic features at 3 meters above
it. The very poor cementation of this facies is similar
to that we observe for many aeolianites deposits of
Mediterranean regions (Miocene of Corsica, Pleistocene
of Sardinia, Pliocene-Pleistocene of Mallorca,
Pleistocene of Tunisia). Nevertheless, early diagenetic
processes give a relative cohesion to the sediment.
As the sediment is totally composed of marine
particles, evidences of early marine cementation are
detected in the internal porosity of the bioclasts. No other
marine diagenesis signature, such as marine phreatic
cement, has been detected. It supposes that particles
have been rapidly transported to the beach and reworked
by wind into supratidal settings. Meteoric diagenesis
has fixed the sediment by developing syntaxic cement
around echinoderm fragments and meniscus cements
between particles. The residual porosity has been nicely
preserved along each diagenetic stage, dominated by
porous nummulite chambers and intragranular voids.
If we consider that this facies represents coastal
carbonate dunes, it implies that important reservoir
bodies can be generated onshore during a period of
lowstand or highstand, which is compatible with the
development of nummulite banks in subtidal settings.
The geometry of such supratidal reservoirs should be
interesting in term of lateral extension, and a very good
connection between the different sedimentary bodies
is expected. The structuration of littoral dunes depends
also of the morphology of the platform. A carbonate
ramp constitutes optimal conditions for the transport
of sediment toward the interior of the platform. In
Cyrenaica, the edification of highstand coralgal reefs
during the Middle Eocene is incompatible with an
important reworking of nummulites toward the lagoon.
5.2.1.3 Dolomitic beds
In Northern Cyrenaica, the dolomitic horizons
are characterized by metric fine-grain dolomicrites
(dolomudstones). Constituents include red algae and
some foraminifers, plus others bioclasts. The micritic
matrix and allochems have been replaced by very
small dolomite crystals, which occasionally allows
preservation of the primary fabrics. Although some
of these strata have considerable moldic porosity
at outcrops, no equivalent units are known in the
subsurface. Some evaporites have been detected at the
base of the B3 well (NW offshore Libya), but it concerns
the Chouabine facies.
These dolomicrites are generally interpreted as
probably deposited in a shallow subtidal or lacustrine
setting of a coastal salina or a hyper saline marine
lagoon (Bustillo et al., 2002; Mresah, 1998; Lumsden
and Chimahusky, 1980). In order to form dolomite by
replacement of calcite or aragonite, hypersaline water
is required. Fluids enriched in Mg are generated by the
precipitation of gypsum, which mobilizes Ca, inducing
an increasing of the Mg/Ca ratio (model of the evaporitic
reflux, McKenzie et al., 1980; McKenzie, 1981).
Dolomitization may also result from the mixing
of fresh water and seawater, called Dorag zone
(Badiozamani, 1973; Carpenter and Badiozamani,
1976). The presence of evaporites, detected by
Hammuda (1973) on the landward side of the Dernah
facies belt, coincides with the precipitation of dolomite
by evaporitic reflux processes. This model suggests
periodic flooding of an exposed tidal flat or sabkha over
a limestone, which increases the density of brine and its
Mg/Ca ratio. As the Ca-depleted brine moves through
73
Chapter 5
the limestone, calcite is replaced by dolomite. However,
evidences of vadose dissolution in supratidal deposits
and the extensive dissolution in dolomicrite suggest
also that freshwater input and mixing with marine pore
fluids may have led to dolomitization through “brine
mixing” (“Dorag” dolomite).
The alternation between both models has been
clearly documented for the Permian reef complex of
Guadalupe and Delaware Mountains (Kendall, 1969;
Sarg, 1981). The back reef areas of the Permian reef
complex are typified by calcareous grainstones and
mudstones with a mixture of preserved primary
porosity and secondary porosity related to such
factors as early freshwater cementation and leaching,
early dolomitization, or late dissolution of evaporite
minerals.
5.2.2 Case study from Central Tunisia
5.2.2.1 The nummulite bar
The formation of this reservoir facies consists
of the accumulation of nummulite-shell beds by
reworking and transportation of nummulites from the
bank. In Central Tunisia (Kesra Plateau), evidences
of local sub-aerial exposures indicate that nummulites
may be transported and deposited along the coastline.
The reworking is characterized by the presence of high-
energy sedimentary structures and by the production of
a high amount of nummulite debris.
The absence of dolomitization suggests dominant
intertidal to subtidal settings, under normal marine
conditions. As opposed to the nummulite bank
described in Cyrenaica, the nummulite bars outcropping
at Kesra are characterized by dominant high-cemented
grainstones. The primary diagenetic stage consists
of the precipitation of syntaxic and equigranular spar
cements, precipitated from the marine phreatic zone.
Last diagenetic stage is represented by the precipitation
of drusy and blocky calcite, which completely close
up the pore network of the matrix. The important
cementation of the nummulite bar facies from Kesra
could be conditioned by the relative shallow settings
during deposition. The presence of high-energy
structures indicates that marine currents permanently
reworked the sediment. Under high-energy conditions,
the permanent flooding of marine water through subtidal
sediments could explain rapid cementation processes.
Residual porosity is locally preserved in nummulite
chambers. Secondary porosities can be created by
occasional sub-aerial exposures during deposition,
which increases dissolution by freshwater circulation.
This dissolution preferentially concerns bioclasts that
have skeletal structures made of primary aragonite,
such as gastropods.
74
At Kesra, post-depositional diagenetic processes
have generated an important karstic network at the scale
of the reservoir. Probably emerged from the end of the
Eocene, the nummulitic carbonates are affected by large
joints which have furthered the freshwater circulation
and the dissolution of carbonates. Such reservoirs could
be also considered if an important sub-aerial exposure
is detected in subsurface.
5.2.2.2 The restricted bay
Synchronously to the deposition of the Early
Eocene nummulite facies belt, restricted facies were
deposited back to the palaeoreliefs or in narrow bay.
Dominated by a gastropodal assemblage south of Kesra,
facies are represented by thick dolomitized series on
the eastern flank of the Kasserine Island. Studied at
the Djebel Cherahil at two cross sections (Zelafine and
Ferj Hari sections), the series are composed of stacked
dolomitic beds, which colour and porosity vary along the
stratigraphic succession (Plate 51). For the first time in
this study, the presence of silica (detritic and authigenic
quartz) is detected. Anhydrite crystals are frequently
observed in thin sections, and rare centimetric nodules
were described at outcrop. Nummulites are relatively
abundant, but they are often dolomitized, partially or
completely dissolved. Dolomitized gastropod-shell
beds have been found at the top of both sections.
Dolomitization processes affected mostly
original packstones, initially composed of small-robust
nummulites and carbonate mud. Three diagenetic stages
are expected:
• the replacement of the carbonate matrix by
dolomite, characterized by the precipitation of
euhedral dolomite crystals,
• the dolomitization of the nummulite walls,
which original calcitic structure have been
replaced by large anhedral crystals,
• and the dissolution of the residual nummulite
casts, which significantly increases the
porosity.
Both stages of dolomitization have to be considered
in order to explain the preservation of the moldic cavities.
A singular event should imply the complete obliteration
of the bioclastic structures after dolomitization, which
is incompatible with the relative abundance of moldic
cavities. In comparison with the evaporitic deposits
of Northern Cyrenaica, resulting facies are very
similar in term of petrophysical properties (dominant
intercrystalline and moldic porosity). However, no
freshwater input has been clearly evidenced in Central
Tunisia. The presence of silica, dolomite, anhydrite,
and dissolution cavities clearly attest to restricted and
evaporitic conditions, essential for the enhancement of
dolomitization. The absence of terrigeneous input in the
 Sedimentological synthesis of Tunisian and Libyan Eocene Carbonates

Reservoir facies

Sedimentary bodies evaporitic beds supratidal carbonates nummulite bar nummulite bank

EVAPORATION

intertidal zone
Diagenetic zones water table
phreatic marine water

euhedral dolomite calcitic bridges, equigranular and

Cement marine and freshwater calcite calcitic mud
and dolomicrite drusy calcite
around echinoid fragments

moldic, intra-granular, intra-granular,

Porosity intra-granular
inter-crystalline matrix vuggy

vadose meteoric and

Diagenetic fluids hypersaline phreatic marine phreatic marine
phreatic marine

early dolomitization early vadose cementation early marine poor cementation and
Diagenetic processes and dissolution and dissolution and late burial cementation late burial dissolution

Figure 50. Simplified diagram illustrating main diagenetic features of the potential reservoir rocks (derived from outcrop
studies in Central Tunisia and NE Libya). Porosity in black.

B2 B3 B1a

section in the Kesra Plateau

1 km

flooding surface
high-energy
facies
nummulithoclast facies
lenticular
top El Garia
nummulite banks

B A
anticline axis NW offshore Libya
B

A 1 km
6 km
Souar base El Garia
tectonic patterns of an offshore Libyan field
and localization of wells 1km Cretaceous substratum

Legend of the correlation diagram :

nummulite bank
high-energy facies
Figure 52. Interpretation of a seismic line indicating lenti-
nummulite bank
low-energy facies
cular nummulite banks that are interfingered with deeper
outer nummulite bank
nummulithoclastic deposits, Chouabine
nummulithoclastic facies in distal settings. They pass into
more restricted facies toward the top of the Cretaceous pa-
Figure 51. Stratigraphical architecture of a nummulite plat- laeohigh (evidenced by sedimentological observations on
form from NW offshore Libya, and comparison with the ana- the B1a well).
logue from Central Tunisia (Kesra Plateau) Original data: seismic line from NW offshore Libya, B strut-

northern nummulite facies (Kesra) could be explained The diagenetic features of all these potential
by the presence of palaeo-reliefs. However, regarding reservoir rocks are summarized on Figure 50. They could
the relative abundance of nummulites in restricted ideally coexist at the same time, and the petrophysical
settings, a connexion with open marine settings must heterogeneities between each facies are mainly induced
be considered. by the diversity of the depositional environments.

75
Chapter 5
5.3 Implications for the interpretation of
subsurface reservoirs
5.3.1 Contribution in understanding
geometry and internal heterogeneities
of the reservoir
5.3.1.1 Analogy Kesra / NW offshore Libya
The nummulite carbonates drilled in NW Libyan
offshore areas have been deposited during the Ypresian
/ Lutetian times. As in Central Tunisia, some intervals
studied on cores have been interpreted as high-energy
nummulite-shell beds, and transgressive facies have
been also detected at the middle of the reservoir.
A large hydrocarbon field from offshore Libya
(licence operated by Agip) is characterized by the
development of a large nummulite facies belt (Figure
51). The tectonic patterns are very similar to those
observed for Central Tunisia, dominated by NW/SE
lineaments and NE/SW anticline axes. The western
structural high has been selected in order to compare
the architecture of the nummulite deposits with the
outcrop analogue of Kesra.
The correlation between both wells, based on
sequence analysis (Caline et al., 2002), reveals little
thickness variation (layer-cake architecture) but
rapid facies change. The top of the structural high is
dominated by the deposition of high-energy nummulite
facies, which pass laterally into deeper deposits. The
micritic limestone member corresponds to the regional
deposition of transgressive facies that have been also
identified in other wells, which have been drilled on D
structure. These facies are only preserved in the distal
part of the carbonate platform.
Although the thickness of nummulite series is
reduced at the Kesra Plateau (40 m versus 150 m in
subsurface), facies types and stratigraphic organization
are very similar. As the high-energy facies of Kesra
are characterized by stratifications and preferential
imbrication of nummulites, Agip team used the Ypresian
outcrop in order to constrain the dipmeter interpretation
on different wells. Directions of progradation have
been deduced, and a global eastward progradation
of the nummulite banks at the scale of the field was
predicted.
This application confirms that the Kesra Plateau
can be used as a good analogue for characterizing the
high-energy nummulite facies. As we know from our
study, the deposition of such facies is directly controlling
by the depositional environment, which is shallow and
permanently agitated. The stacking of several sequences
of high-energy facies on the top of the anticline also
suggests a relative subsidence of the structural high. The
preferential preservation of transgressive facies in distal
settings is conditioned by palaeotopographic variations,
76
which induced important environmental changes. The
permanent reworking of the anticline crestal zone by
wave and storm currents could also contribute to erode
previously deposited mud-rich sediments.
As two wells are not sufficient to predict the lateral
variations of facies, the study on the Kesra Plateau
should also contribute to better characterize these
variations, in order to estimate the lateral extension of
the reservoir rocks. At outcrop, these transitions are
mostly abrupt, depending on the structuration of the
platform. At Kesra, high-energy facies are restricted to
the top of the palaeohigh when the platform is affected
by topographic irregularities (subsidence of intra-shelf
depressions). When these accommodation variations
are filled up by sediment, the nummulite facies abruptly
prograde towards the basin, forming an extended
platform, homogeneous in facies.
5.3.1.2 Analogy Cyrenaica / NW offshore
Libya
The shape of the reservoir body is often difficult
to delimitate in subsurface, taking account the relative
poor sedimentological control between wells. Sequence
stratigraphy allows predicting the lateral variation
of facies, but the nature of these changes remains
enigmatic.
The study of the Eocene carbonates from Northern
Cyrenaica has shown that nummulite bank structures are
developed on the middle part of the platform, forming
lenticular bodies of 45-m-high at their maximum
thickness. Such carbonate bodies, the diagenesis and
internal heterogeneities of which have been studied in
detail, constitute important potential reservoirs. On the
area of Ain-ad Dabusseyah, palaeogeographic maps
indicate that the nummulite bank facies are organized in
well-continuous facies belts, which are mainly parallel
to the coastline. The distribution and the morphology of
the facies belt are directly controlled by the topography
of the platform, and preferential accumulation of bank
facies is located on the flank of the palaeohighs. Resulting
facies belt of Cyrenaica show some digitations, which
are related to the position of shallow marine structural
promontories. The dimension of these carbonate bodies
toward the basin varies from 1,5 to 3 km long, and they
are laterally extended on more than 10 km of distance
(related to the dimension of the carbonate ramp).
In order to detect these sedimentary bodies in
subsurface, we proceeded to the interpretation of a
seismic line from NW offshore Libya (Figure 52).
Results from the exploration wells (B1a, B2 and B3)
indicate that reservoir rock distribution remains difficult
to predict. A detailed sedimentological description of
the cored intervals was carried out on the three wells,
 Sedimentological synthesis of Tunisian and Libyan Eocene Carbonates
showing an important lateral variation of facies (Caline
et al., 2000):
• the B1a-well is dominated by a succession of
nummulite and restricted miliolids facies;
• nummulitic grainstones/packstones are
abundant on the B3-well, forming a good
porous reservoir interval;
• the vertical succession of facies on the B2-
well is mostly dominated by the deposition
of nummulite facies at its base, which pass
upward into nummulithoclastic sands. The
deposition of these fine-grain carbonates are
responsible for a drastic deterioration of the
reservoir quality.
At the light of our observations in NE Cyrenaica,
we propose that the principal reservoir body, which
is crossed by the B3-well, is represented by the
superposition of two lenticular nummulite banks. Some
seismic reflectors have been identified within these
bodies, which could correspond to the progradation of
the nummulite-rich facies on the flank of the palaeohigh.
Dimensions of the nummulite banks are very similar to
those observed at outcrop, reaching about 3 kilometres
of width. Laterally, these banks pass into more restricted
facies toward the crest of the Cretaceous high, while they
could be interfingered with deeper nummulithoclastic
facies in distal settings.
This interpretation demonstrates that the important
size of the nummulite banks can be detected on seismic
lines, and the detailed observations at outcrop of the
internal heterogeneities of such carbonate bodies can
contribute to predict the lateral variation of facies in
subsurface.
5.3.2 Prediction of intra-reservoir source
rocks
In offshore Libya (D structure), an organic-rich
interval has been drilled in the El Garia succession.
Facies is represented by a well-laminated facies,
strongly bioturbated and containing dominant
nummulithoclastic debris. TOC value being relatively
important, (1.15%wt), this facies has been interpreted
as a potential good source rock.
Regarding our observations in Kesra (cf § 2.5.2.),
these facies are very similar to the organic-rich layers
detected at outcrop (Plate 52). However, this interval is
intercalated between two sedimentary sequences made
of nummulitic grainstones/packstones, by contrast with
Kesra, where these rocks constitute the base of the
El Garia Formation. Interpreted as deposited in intra-
shelf-depression during a shallowing-upward cycle,
their presence suggests a deposition during a period
of transgression for the NW Libyan offshore zones.
The origin of the organic matter could be interesting
to evaluate in order to establish a better comparison
with the outcrop, but the marine influence is strongly
expected during highstand periods.
If we consider that these facies have been deposited
during a lowstand, it suggests that the topography of the
seafloor abruptly changed, becoming more subsident. In
correspondence with Kesra, bathymetric changes could
be in relation with a major fault compartmentalization,
which had consequently modified the depositional
environment.
The presence of an intra-reservoir source rock
implies to consider a very specific depositional
environment, which has considerably influenced models
of transportation, accumulation and degradation of the
organic matter, as well as the quality of the resulting
hydrocarbons and their migration pathways. In term of
prediction, these intervals correspond more or less to
tight reservoirs (depending on late burial diagenesis),
which can be deposited from basinal to platform
settings.
The accumulations of nummulithoclastic material
in intra-shelf basin contribute to the formation of
important barrier of permeability, but they can be
associated to the deposition of significant amount of
organic matter. If the maturity of this organic matter
is sufficient to produce oil, hydrocarbons can easily
migrate toward the reservoir rocks, which are closely
deposited.
5.3.3 Interpretation of sedimentary
structures: comparison with facies
from drilled intervals in NW offshore
Libya (B and D structures)
The identification of high-energy sedimentary
structures is primordial for interpreting the depositional
environments of carbonates. On cores, their recognition
is all the more problematic because of the reduced
surface for observation (10 to 15 cm of diameter for
drilled cores). Concerning the nummulite carbonates,
the detailed observations at outcrop in Tunisia and
Libya has clearly contributed to evidence several
sedimentary structures. In Central Tunisia, imbrications
of nummulite tests suggest high-energy depositional
settings, and attest to the transportation of nummulites
from their biotope to proximal settings. In Libya, the
nummulite bank facies are characterized by specific
structures and by a random orientation of the nummulite
tests, which are floating in a muddy matrix.
In order to constrain the interpretation of
the depositional environments in subsurface, our
77
Chapter 5
CENTRAL TUNISIA (NW OFFSHORE LIBYA)
6 7
5 MIDDLE EOCENE / OLIGOCENE BOUNDARY
1 CHOUABINE FORMATION
2 APOLLONIA FORMATION
3 EL GARIA FORMATION
4 DERNAH FORMATION
5 SOUAR FORMATION
6 FORTUNA FORMATION
7 KETATNA FORMATION
8 BAYDA FORMATION
Figure 53. Correlation of main stratigraphical boundaries between Central Tunisia and NE Libya, from late Cretaceous to
Oligocene.
observations at outcrop are compared to diverse
sedimentological descriptions that we made on cores.
Examples come from two drilled intervals in NW
offshore Libya (D2 and B3 wells).
On both wells, several intervals are characterized
by the presence of zones where nummulites are
preferentially concentrated in small accumulations
(Plate 53). These structures are well organized, often
rounded, and contrast with the rest of the matrix.
Such structures can be compared with some internal
structures that are specific to nummulite bank facies. At
outcrop, nummulites are also frequently accumulated
in small pocket-structures. Such structures have been
interpreted as bioturbation (granulometric sorting), or
as coarse-grain accumulations in small erosive pockets.
The presence of these structures, of associated fauna and
of a muddy matrix attest to a nummulite bank deposit.
As the orientation of nummulites is also a good criterion
to interpret the depositional energy, the nummulite bank
facies are always composed of randomly orientated
nummulites (Plate 53).
Concerning the well-sorted grainstones, the
imbrication of nummulites constitutes a good marker
for characterizing the high-energy facies. In Central
Tunisia, the identification of high-energy sedimentary
structures revealed the omnipresence of imbrications in
sediments that have been deposited in shallow settings.
Moreover, cross-beds, resulting from high-energy tidal
currents, should have strata or laminations with different
78
NE CYRENAICA
8 OLIGOCENE
MIDDLE EOCENE
YPRESIAN / LUTETIAN BOUNDARY
2
EARLY EOCENE
LATE CRETACEOUS / EARLY EOCENE BOUNDARY
directions in the imbrications. Such variations of currents,
clearly identified at Kesra, correspond to the deposition
of well-preserved intervals from the subsurface, which
suggest similar depositional processes (Plate 53). The
reworking is clearly represented by the imbrications,
and abrupt changes in the direction of imbrication
strongly suggest variations in the direction of currents.
The high cementation of such facies and a low mud-
content should be good complementary arguments to
characterize them as nummulite bar deposits.
5.4 Distribution of the nummulite
carbonate factory from Early to
Middle Eocene: the «south-eastern
migration»
Despite the diversity in facies and the different
time intervals, Tunisian and Libyan Eocene carbonates
are bounded by well-individualized stratigraphic
boundaries at outcrop. Three major boundaries can be
correlated between both areas (Figure 53):
• The first boundary is represented by the top
of the Late Cretaceous, which characterized
the depositional surface for the Eraly Eocene
nummulite carbonates in Central Tunisia. In
NE Cyrenaica, the Palaeocene is also missing,
and the Ypresian deep Apollonia facies have
prograded on the Cretaceous basement;
 Sedimentological synthesis of Tunisian and Libyan Eocene Carbonates
• The second boundary corresponds to the
Ypresian-Lutetian limit. In Central Tunisia,
the carbonate productivity of the El Garia
Formation ends up abruptly at the Late Ypresian.
In NE Cyrenaica, this boundary represents a
sedimentary hiatus estimated about 3 My. This
hiatus is followed by large-scale slumped facies
of the Apollonia Formation, which indicates
the reworking of nummulite bank facies into
deep basinal settings. As we supposed that in
Kesra, the area has rapidly emerged during
the Lutetian, the Ypresian/Lutetian boundary
should correspond to a drastic fall of the relative
sea level. In term of depositional facies, this
boundary indicates a displacement of the main
nummulite carbonate production toward the
SE;
• the Middle Eocene/Oligocene boundary
represents the last guide line that can be
correlated. In both studies, the Late Eocene
is absent at outcrop. In Central Tunisia,
an important siliciclastic environment is
developed, leading to the deposition of the
Oligocene Fortuna Formation in the structural
depressions. From offshore Tunisia and NW
Libya, the Oligocene is known as corresponding
to the edification of bryozoan reefs that belong
to the Ketatna Formation. In NE Cyrenaica, we
saw that carbonates from the Bayda Formation
overlay unconformably the Middle Eocene
facies.
The correlation between the Eocene series from
Central Tunisia and NE Cyrenaica clearly indicates
a major displacement of the nummulite carbonate
factory at the Ypresian/Lutetian boundary toward
the SE. In order to document the displacement of the
carbonate production, we propose to reconstruct the
palaeogeographical distribution of the nummulitic
carbonates from Late Ypresian to Early Lutetian, along
the south-western tethyan margin. The repartition of
basins, carbonate platforms and emerged lands derive
from previous workers (peritethys maps established
by El Hawat and Argnani, 2001), and limits of facies
belts and of land outlines have been completed from
Bishop (1988) for Tunisian zones. In addition, the
palaeogeography is constrained by the stratigraphic
framework of the nummulite carbonates from NW
offshore Libyan zones (Al Jurf and Bouri fields, in
Caline et al., 2003).
Late Ypresian (Figure 54)
This period corresponds to the first significant
production of nummulitic carbonates in south-western
tethyan regions. The palaeogeography is inherited
from an important structuration of the passive margin
from Late Cretaceous to Palaeocene. This structural
instability is documented by:
• the emersion of large lands and the creation of
submarine palaeoreliefs in Central Tunisia and
in the Gulf of Gabès,
• the deposition of consequent submarine mass
flows along the NE Cyrenaica slope and basin,
• and the complete erosion of Palaeocene strata
at both localities.
The structuration of continental shelves and
isolated platforms in Central Tunisia directly induced
a preferential nummulitic carbonate production, while
deep basinal settings prevailed in Northern Cyrenaica.
However, the presence of nummulites in the matrix of
deep marine facies attest to their presence in NE Libya,
but the geometry and the palaeogeographic extension
of the platform are unknown. NW offshore zones
are potentially the more active spots for nummulite
deposition at the Late Ypresian, which structural
settings are closely similar to the Tunisian tectonic
patterns (dominant NW/SE faults, NE/SW structural
axes mostly Cretaceous in age) and representing thicker
intervals.
According to the peritethys reconstructions (El
Hawat and Argnani, 2001), the region of the Sirte Basin
is characterized by a deep and large structural graben,
which has isolated the Cyrenaican promontory from the
«Saharian shield».
Early Lutetian (Figure 54)
This time interval shows a drastic change in the
palaeogeography, implying an eastward displacement
of the global nummulite carbonate production. The
beginning of the Early Lutetian Eocene (base of the
Middle Eocene) is characterized by the occurrence
of the widely extended Nummulites perplexus, which
covered most of the carbonate platforms at this time.
In Central Tunisia, mixed and continental
environments rapidly dominate the sedimentation, and
nummulitic carbonates are rare. Some condensed series
are locally deposited, corresponding to the Reineiche
Formation (SBZ13 biozone of Serra-Kiel et al., 1998).
In NW offshore Libya, the nummulitic carbonate
production is still active during the Early Lutetian,
showing an increasing of the depositional thickness
toward the East. Condensed nummulite facies occur at
the top of the Al Jurf field (presence of N. perplexus),
while thicker intervals are dominated by Alveolina,
Gyrodinella and Orbitolites facies at the Bouri field
(Caline et al., 2003). In general, dating from the top
of the nummulitic series attest to the Early Lutetian
(SBZ13 biozone).
79
Chapter 5

slope and basinal carbonate muds

nummulite carbonate factory

undifferentiated carbonate platform

shallow marine and coastal carbonates

evaporitic zones

Deltaic, coastal and shallow marine clastics

emerged land

clastics

EARLY LUTETIAN

slope and basinal carbonate muds

nummulite carbonate factory

Kesra undifferentiated carbonate platform

shallow marine and coastal carbonates

evaporitic zones

emerged land
Al Jurf field
uninterpreted area

Ras el Hilal

LATE YPRESIAN

Figure 54. Paleogeography of the south-western Mediterranean regions at the early to middle Eocene times, characterizing
the «south-eastern migration» of the nummulite carbonate factory (elaborated after peritethys maps - El Hawat and Argnani,
2001 - Bishop, 1988, and Zaïer et al., 1998).

80
 Sedimentological synthesis of Tunisian and Libyan Eocene Carbonates
In NE Cyrenaica, the nummulitic carbonate
production started to produce on the northern flank of
Al Jabal al Akhdar anticlinorium at the Early Lutetian
(SBZ13/SBZ14 biozones). Three major nummulite
platforms were successively developed until the
Bartonian (top of the Middle Eocene, top of the SBZ18
biozone). The northward extension of these platforms
could be controlled by the subduction front of the Tethys
oceanic ridge. Recent seismic investigations in offshore
Cyrenaica attest to the proximity of the deformation
regarding the position of the present-day coastline
(Hugen and Mascle, 2001). At the Middle Eocene,
the southern flank of Al Jabal al Akhdar anticline is
dominated by evaporitic settings, which deposited
facies could extended toward the area of Dernah.
Regions between NW offshore Libya and NE
Cyrenaica should be constituted by nummulitic
carbonates, deposited from Middle to Late Lutetian
(CP13/CP14, equivalent to SBZ14/SBZ16 biozones of
Serra-Kiel et al., 1998).
As conclusions, this work contributes to evidence
the progressive displacement of the nummulite carbonate
factory in south-western tethyan regions. This «south-
eastern migration» indicates important modifications in
the palaeoenvironment of nummulites, evolving from
calcareous settings at the Late Ypresian into algal and
coralgal associations during the Early Lutetian.
These regional environmental modifications
are necessary conditioned by global tectonic, which
implies important variations of the relative sea level. At
the top of the Late Ypresian, the end of the nummulite
carbonate production in Central Tunisia could
correspond to a progressive restriction of the oceanic
circulations, induced by the continuous NW drift of the
African plate. This compressional period has probably
triggered a major fall of the relative sea level at the
Ypresian/Lutetian boundary, which had reduced shelf
areas and increased proportion of land masses. The
result is a significant modification of the environment
at the Early Lutetian, shifting the carbonate production
where optimal conditions prevailed. During this time,
the continuous uplift of Al Jabal al Akhdar anticline has
constituted an ideal target for a new development of
nummulite carbonate platforms in northern Cyrenaica.
These platforms were preferentially initiated on
carbonate shelves, which are structured around large
Cretaceous inlets. The large size of some new species
suggests that waters were saturated by carbonates,
essential for the calcification of such tests.
81
Chapter 6: Conclusions
T his study, dedicated to the nummulite facies
from southern Mediterranean regions, deals
with the fundamental research on nummulites and
its implications for petroleum exploration of such
carbonated hydrocarbon reservoirs. First of all, this
work reports many aspects concerning the depositional
environment of nummulites, from the study of
sediment transportation to the classification of induced
sedimentary bodies based on diagenetic criteria. Two
case studies, respectively in Central Tunisia and NE
Libya, correspond to basis of observation for the
application of outcrop data to the subsurface nummulite
reservoirs in NW offshore Libya.
Based on previous works and on new outcrop
observations, the reworking of nummulitic sediment is
frequently put forward in order to explain the massive
accumulations of nummulite tests in the Eocene
series. For this reason, our experimental approach on
nummulites has contributed to better characterize the
sedimentary processes at the origin of the reworking
of these unicellular organisms, which main results are
summarized as following:
Taking account our observations on the internal
structure of nummulites, their availability to be
transported by sea currents is controlled by the high
primary skeletal porosity and by the nature of the fluids
within chambers. The variability of both parameters
induces an erratic hydrodynamic behaviour, which
is independent of the morphological parameters (size
and shape of the test). For this reason, the preferential
deposition of heterogranular assemblages is not
favourable to the formation and the preservation of high
energy sedimentary structures, that can be only detected
at outcrop if there is a good granulometric contrast.
The peculiar hydrodynamic behaviour of
nummulites explains the diversity of the depositional
models. Our experimental measurements shows that
nummulites can be easily transported by wave-driven
currents, far from the original biotope. From observations
at outcrop, the transportation of nummulites can induce
the formation of subtidal dunes, shoreline deposits,
and it can also produce a significant amount of such
foraminifers in the evaporitic zones.
The transportation of nummulites by currents
induces abrasion and fragmentation of nummulites. The
study of the internal structure of the tests demonstrates
that the microporous architecture strongly furthers
their fragmentation under wave action. By contrast, the
early cementation of chambers contributes to rigidify
the structure and to preserve tests from fragmentation
processes. The outcrop observations demonstrate also
that the amount of nummulithoclastic facies depends on
the degree of reworking, which is more important in
shallow settings.
Outcrop investigations have produced new data
regarding the regional geology of both Central Tunisia
and NE Libya. Dating from Nummulites, sequence
stratigraphy, palaeogeographic maps and depositional
models have been produced for each localities, also
contributing to establish a regional palaeogeography
by correlation of both areas, and pointing out an
important change of the carbonate production close to
the Ypresian/Lutetian boundary.
The El Garia Formation in Tunisia, upper
Ypresian in age, is characterized by frequent lateral
facies variations, the depositional environment being
dominantly calcareous and pratically devoid of
algae. Large foraminifers are poorly diversified, and
nummulites dominate grainstone/packstone faunistic
assemblages. The configuration of the late Ypresian
carbonate platform is strongly conditioned by inherited
topographies, which derived from the structuration of
the area during the late Cretaceous and the Paleocene.
Based on evidences of local subaerial exposures, the
deposition of nummulitic grainstones/packstones
are mostly interpreted as related from an intense
reworking in very shallow settings. The resulting facies
are characterized by high energy sedimentary bodies
stacked at the top of the palaeoreliefs. The intense
reworking of the nummulite sediments has contributed
to produce a significant amount of nummulithoclastic
particles, that are laterally deposited to the nummulite
grainstones or distally accumulated in fault-delimited
intraplatform depressions. At Kesra, the deposition of
reservoir nummulite facies at the top of the palaeohighs
and of potential source rocks within intrashelf
depressions (organic-rich nummulithoclastic facies)
are synchronous during the late Ypresian. Behind
some palaeoreliefs, more internal platform zones are
interpreted as confined embayments where evaporitic
conditions prevailed, inducing massive dolomitization
and dissolution of carbonates.
The Dernah Formation from northeastern
Cyrenaica is also characterized by important
heterogeneities of facies, but the palaeoenvironment
was dominated by red algae. Large foraminifers are
diversified and became abundant from the base of
the middle Eocene, coral build-ups locally aggraded
up to 20-m-high, and thickness of the middle Eocene
series are ranging from 60 to 400-m-thick. The general
configuration of the carbonate platform is a ramp,
attached southward to the top of Cretaceous palaeohighs
and gently dipping northward toward the basin. The
differentiation of the depositional environments is easily
realizable, based on the different faunistic associations:
83
Chapter 6
deep outer platform zones are characterized by
disseminated Nummulites-Discocyclina-Operculina
large foraminifers associated with abundant planktonic
forms, bioturbated nummulite-rich packstones are often
characteristic of mid ramp facies, and shallow protected
zones are characterized by the presence of Alveolina-
Orbitolites-Miliolids packstones. Depending on the
depositional environment, different sedimentary bodies
are generated: large-scale prograding clinoforms are
developed on the margin of the outer ramp, lenticular
sedimentary bodies are formed by the amalgamation
of nummulite-rich sediments, and the progradation of
giant Orbitolites sand waves is typical from inner ramp
settings. Moreover, sequence stratigraphy indicates
that the middle Eocene cyrenaican carbonate ramp
is organized in four depositional sequences. Two
trangressive patterns evidence major floodings of the
platform during the middle and the late Lutetian. In term
of palaeogeography, the region of Ain ad-Dabusseyah
was constituted by two major palaeohighs, in front of
which nummulite facies were preferentially deposited.
Both studies demonstrate that the nummulite
carbonate factory can be adapted to variable
environmental conditions (algal or calcareous),
generating different sedimentary bodies. In all cases,
the geometry of these bodies is controlled by the
topography of the platform (carbonate ramp, rimmed
or isolated platform) which can be change during
deposition. The degree of reworking is an important
factor controlling the geographic distribution and the
petrophysical properties of such carbonate facies.
Different potential reservoir bodies have been
identified from outcrops. In Central Tunisia, these
reservoirs are represented by the amalgamation of high
cemented shallow nummulite bars, and by dolomitic
beds, which are deposited in restricted settings.
These dolomites are characterized by an important
moldic porosity, which results from the dissolution of
nummulite tests and others bioclasts. In Libya, main
reservoirs are constituting by nummulite banks, which
depositional thicknesses reach about 40 metres. These
facies show a good preservation of the intragranular
porosity at outcrop. Also, facies deposited in inner
platform settings represent good reservoir rocks, and
are characterized by dolomites and probably some
carbonate littoral dunes.
Petrophysical properties and preservation of the
reservoir facies closely depend on their diagenetic
evolution, which is specific to each depositional
environment. Taking into account this observation,
applications to the subsurface have been performed
at different scales. Results show that outcrop data
contribute to predict the internal heterogeneities
and the lateral variations of facies, especially when
exploration wells are separated from several kilometres.
In comparison with an offshore Libyan field, the
84
facies organisation which is observed at Kesra in
Central Tunisia contributes to a better interpretation
of the internal architecture of the platform. Also, the
characterization at outcrop of kilometric, lenticular
nummulite sedimentary bodies gives an important
key to interpret the geometries on seismic lines, as
demonstrated for the Al Jurf field in NW offshore
Libya. Then, in order to constrain a better interpretation
of the depositional environment, we attempt to make a
correspondence between the outcropping sedimentary
structures and their possible equivalents on cores. Some
characteristic structures of nummulite banks (pocket-
filling structures and randomly orientated nummulites)
have been recognized along different cored intervals.
The frequent imbrication of nummulites in the high
energy facies could correspond to abrupt changes in the
direction of imbrications on cores.
The correlation of the depositional sequences
between Tunisia and Libya, based on the integration
of three major stratigraphic boundaries, illustrates the
diachronism of the nummulite deposits in North Africa.
At the early Eocene, the nummulite carbonate production
is mostly concentrated in Central Tunisia and in the
Gulf of Gabes. In Cyrenaica, prevailing basinal settings
have not permitted the development of a carbonate
platform at this time. At the Ypresian/Lutetian limit,
the distribution of the carbonate production clearly
evidences a displacement toward the south-eastern
regions. The disappearance of nummulites in Central
Tunisia corresponds to an important relative sea level
fall at the Ypresian/Lutetian limit, and the progressive
installation of nummulites in NE Cyrenaica is explained
by the structuration of palaeoreliefs in the region at the
late Ypresian/early Lutetian.
This «south-eastern migration» of the nummulite
carbonate factory corresponds to drastic changes of the
palaeoenvironment. All outcrop data agree to suggest
that a general uplift of the southern margin of the Tethyan
Sea occurred at the Ypresian/Lutetian boundary, which
could be responsible for the emersion of the nummulite
platform in Central Tunisia and for the development
of a nummulite carbonate ramp attached to the newly
formed palaeohighs in northern Cyrenaica. This remark
confirms that tectonic furthers the development of
wide nummulite carbonate platforms in southern
Mediterranean during early to middle Eocene, and is
also responsible for the disappearance of such carbonate
productivity in Central Tunisia.
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Wright, C.I, Miller, W.R. and Cooper, J.A.G., 2000.
The late Cenozoic evolution of coastal water bodies
in Northern Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa. Marine
Geology, 167, 207-229.
Yeh, H.W. and Epstein, S., 1981. Hydrogen and carbon
isotopes of petroleum and related organic matter.
Geochimica and Cosmochimica Acta., 45 (5), 753-
762.
 References

Zaïer, A., Beji-Sassi, A., Sassi, S. and Moody, R.T.J.,

1998. Basin evolution and deposition during the
Early Paleogene in Tunisia. In: Petroleum Geology
of North Africa (eds. D.S. Macgregor, R.T.J. Moody
and D.D. Clark-Lowes), Geological Society of
London, Special Publication, 132, 375-393.
Zert, B., 1974. Geological map of Libya; 1:250000.
Sheet NI 34-16, Dernah. Indust. Resear. Cent.,
Tripoli.

93
 List of Plates

Plate 1: Geomorphology of the Kesra Plateau (Central Tunisia)...............................................................................98

Plate 2: Sedimentology of the Aleg and Abiod Formations (late Cretaceous, region of Kesra).............................. 99
Plate 3: Sedimentology of the nodular Chouabine Formation (late Ypresian, Kesra Plateau)............................... 101
Plate 4: Late Ypresian Nummulites species observed at the top of the El Garia Formation, Kesra region........... 103
Plate 5: Delineation of unconformities along the cliff of Dir el Jerouia West, and sedimentology of the stacked
depositional sequences................................................................................................................................. 104
Plate 6: Lateral evolution of the stratigraphical pattern along the cliff of Sl Mohamed ben Abdallah, northern
flank of the Kesra Plateau.............................................................................................................................105
Plate 7: Delineation of unconformities along the cliff of A. ès Souk, and illustration of the vertical succession of
facies at outcrop............................................................................................................................................ 106
Plate 8: Illustration of high-energy sedimentary structures located at the top of the El Garia Formation, Kesra
Plateau...........................................................................................................................................................107
Plate 9: High-energy sedimentary structures located at the top of the El Garia Formation, Kesra Plateau.......... 109
Plate 10: Observations of sedimentary structures at the village of Kesra............................................................... 111
Plate 11: Illustration of nummulite carbonate subtidal dunes from the El Garia Formation, Juggurta Plateau,
western Tunisia............................................................................................................................................. 112
Plate 12: Observation of sedimentary structures from the Eocene series of Corsica (Unité de Sovéria, Lutetian)....
......................................................................................................................................................................113
Plate 13: Standard facies of the El Garia Formation: large-robust nummulite packstone (Facies 1)....................114
Plate 14: Standard facies of the El Garia Formation: small-robust nummulite grainstone/packstone (Facies 2). 115
Plate 15: Standard facies of the El Garia Formation: large-flat nummulite grainstone/packstone (Facies 3)....... 116
Plate 16: Standard facies of the El Garia Formation: small nummulite packstone (Facies 4)............................... 117
Plate 17: Standard facies of the El Garia Formation: Operculina and nummulithoclastic packstone (Facies 5). 118
Plate 18: Standard facies of the El Garia Formation: nummulithoclastic packstone (Facies 6)............................ 119
Plate 19: Standard facies of the El Garia Formation: argillaceous wackestone (Facies 7).................................... 120
Plate 20: Palynofacies from Central Tunisia.............................................................................................................121
Plate 21: Selected correlation profiles across the Kesra Plateau for the 3D modelling..........................................122
Plate 22: 3D reconstruction of the geology of the Kesra Plateau............................................................................ 123
Plate 23: Establishment of new cross sections in the computed stratigraphic grid................................................ 124
Plate 24: Oucropping series from NE Cyrenaica, region of Ras el Hilal, Libya.................................................... 125
Plate 25: Sedimentology of the Apollonia Formation (early to middle Eocene) in north-eastern Cyrenaica....... 126
Plate 26: Sedimentology and facies heterogeneities of the Dernah Formation (middle Eocene) in northeastern
Cyrenaica...................................................................................................................................................... 127
Plate 27: Middle Lutetian Nummulites species from the Dernah Formation, NE Cyrenaica................................. 129
Plate 28: Middle Lutetian Nummulites species from the Dernah Formation, NE Cyrenaica................................. 131
Plate 29: Middle to Late Lutetian Nummulites species from the Dernah Formation, NE Cyrenaica.................... 133
Plate 30: Middle to Late Lutetian Nummulites species from the Dernah Formation, NE Cyrenaica.................... 135
Plate 31: Bartonian Nummulites species from the Dernah Formation, NE Cyrenaica........................................... 137
Plate 32: Bartonian Nummulites species from the Dernah Formation, NE Cyrenaica........................................... 139
Plate 33: Standard facies of the Dernah Formation: Chalky facies (Facies CH).................................................... 140
Plate 34: Standard facies of the Dernah Formation: Operculina facies (Facies OP)..............................................141
Plate 35: Standard facies of the Dernah Formation: Solitary Coral facies (Facies CS)......................................... 142
Plate 36: Standard facies of the Dernah Formation: Outer Nummulite Bank facies (Facies OB).........................143
Plate 37: Standard facies of the Dernah Formation: Gastropod-rich facies (Facies GP)....................................... 144
Plate 38: Standard facies of the Dernah Formation: Nummulite Bank facies (Facies NB)................................... 145
Plate 39: Standard facies of the Dernah Formation: Coralgal Reef facies (Facies CR)......................................... 146
Plate 40: Standard facies of the Dernah Formation: «Corn-Flakes» Discocyclinid facies (Facies CF)................ 147
Plate 41: Standard facies of the Dernah Formation: Algae-rich facies (Facies AL)............................................... 148
Plate 42: Standard facies of the Dernah Formation: Orbitolites/Alveolina facies (Facies OA)............................. 149
Plate 43: Standard facies of the Dernah Formation: Dolomite facies (Facies DO)................................................ 150
Plate 44: Standard facies of the Dernah Formation: Poor-cemented Nummulite facies (Facies NP) ...................151
Plate 45: Geological panorama of the Middle Eocene outcrop of Ain ad-Dabusseyah roadcut, showing the
progressive thickenning of the series toward the north.............................................................................. 153

95
Plate 46: Geological panorama of the Middle Eocene series, showing large-scale prograding clinoforms of the
Apollonia Formation.................................................................................................................................... 155
Plate 47: Geological panorama showing the progradation of the Middle Eocene carbonate platform................. 157
Plate 48: Successive geological panorama illustrating the geometry and the lateral evolution of the Middle
Eocene depositional sequences from NE Cyrenaica...................................................................................159
Plate 49: Geological panorama showing the shape of a nummulite bank (top of sequence D2, outcrop of Arqùb
ash Shafshaf, NE Cyrenaica)....................................................................................................................... 161
Plate 50: Geological panorama showing lateral variations of facies and the successive progradation of the Middle
Eocene carbonate platform from NE Cyrenaica......................................................................................... 163
Plate 51: Sedimentology and diagenetic processes of the Ain Merhotta Formation, late Ypresian, Central
Tunisia..........................................................................................................................................................164
Plate 52: Comparison between nummulithoclastic source rock from offshore Libya (D2-well) and potential
analogues from the Kesra Plateau (Central Tunisia)...................................................................................165
Plate 53: Correspondence between sedimentary structures observed at outcrop and at cores (offshore Libya)...167

96
Plates Plate 1:
Geomorphology of the Kesra Plateau
(Central Tunisia)

a- Panorama of the western flank of the Kesra Plateau and view of the village of Kesra

b- Panorama of well extended outcrops located on the western flank of the Kesra Plateau

Early Eocene

Late Cretaceous

c- Illustration of the Cretaceous Abiod limestones, d- View of the centre of the Kesra Plateau. The prin-
capped by the Eocene carbonates of the El Garia Fm cipal depression is delimited by normal faults

e- Fractures at outcrop, characterized by vertical f- Characterization of the frequent rock-fall at the

joints. Dir Daba, northern flank of the Kesra Plateau base of the Eocene carbonates

98
 Plate 2: Plates
Sedimentology of the Aleg and Abiod Formations
(late Cretaceous, region of Kesra)

a- the Aleg Formation, dominated by green shales b- Evidence of vertical stylolites at the top of the
with thin interbedded carbonated horizons Abiod Formation

SOUAR marls

channel

ABIOD lime mudstones

ABIOD lime mudstones

c- Detail of a turbiditic channel eroding the horizon- d- Carbonate conglomeratic level at the base of
tally stratified beds of the Abiod Formation turbiditic channels. Oued Bahloul, south of Kesra

NE SW

20 m

c- Slumped scours from the top of the Abiod Formation, Kesra Plateau

99
Plates

Plate 3:

Sedimentology of the nodular Chouabine Formation (late Ypresian, Kesra Plateau)

a- Aspect at outcrop of the nodular Chouabine series.

b- Phosphatic microconglomerate layer at the base of the nodular Chouabine Formation.

c- Microfacies of the nautiloid-rich facies, showing abundant gastropod shells.

d- Nautiloid shell from the nodular Chouabine Formation (carinate species).

e- Aspect of the microconglomeratic Chopuabine facies from the northeastern part of the Kesra Plateau.

f- Aspect of the microconglomeratic Chouabine facies from the southwestern part of the Kesra Plateau.

100
 a c d

2
nautiloid-rich facies

photo -c- : Microfacies of tha nautiolid-rich facies, show-

ing abundant gastropod debris.

2 1 cm
photo -d- : Example of nautiloid. All organisms are cari-
nate.

miliolidae (*10) textulariidae (*10) bryozoan (*4)

1 erosive surface
Cibicidae (*10) Globigerinidae (*25) Lenticulina (*10)

1 cm
b

f ostracod (*10) gastropod (*10) solitary coral (*4)

1
microconglomerate

echinoid spine (*10) phosphatic grain (*4) glauconite (*25)

Illustration of main constituants of the microconglomeratic facies

photo -e- : Aspect of the microconglomeratic facies sampled at the

NE of the Plateau. The granulometry is heterogeneous.

photo -f- : Aspect of the microconglomeratic facies sampled at the

1 cm
SO of the Plateau. It is characterized by a good sorting.

101
Plates
Plates

Plate 4:
Late Ypresian Nummulites species
observed at the top of the El Garia Formation, Kesra region

a- Nummulites perplexus Schaub, 1981.

b- Nummulites tenuilamellatus Fischeur, 1890.

c- Nummulites rollandi (evoluted caillaudi d’Archiac & Haime, 1853).

d- Nummulites pomeli Fischeur, 1890.

e- Nummulites formosus De La Harpe, 1883.

Repartition of the different species in the Kesra region

% of species
Sections
N. rollandi N. aff. pomeli N. perplexus N. tenuilamellatus
Kef el Garia 77.7 11.1 11.1
Kef Mergueb 40 48 12
Kesra Plateau 12 84 4
Kef el Garia 2 22.2 22.2 55.6
Kef el Garia 3 70 26 4

102
 Plates

-b-

-a-

-e-

-d-

0.5 cm
-c- scale :

103
104
Plates

NE SO

S3 Top S3
S2
S1

100 metres

sequence S2
fine-grain bioturbated
nummulithoclast
facies
Plate 5:

10cm

top sequence S3 : coarse-grain nummulite facies

sequence S1
and sedimentology of the stacked depositional sequences
Delineation of unconformities along the cliff of Dir el Jerouia West,
 Plate 6: Plates
Lateral evolution of the stratigraphical pattern
along the cliff of Sl Mohamed ben Abdallah, northern flank of the Kesra Plateau
E

W
Section SMbA2:

Sequences are characterized by stacked massive

beds with intercalations of thin eroded layers,
section SMbA2
indicating mud-rich intervals.

1km

Section SMbA5:
This section is located 2 km west from SMbA2.
The lateral evolution of the depositional sequences
A, B and C shows a global thickenning and the
section SMbA5 dominance of mud-rich intervals, indicated by
the thick eroded beds. This lateral variation of
facies is clearly illustrated by the evolution of the
erosional profile.
1km

105
106
Plates

W E

50 metres
Panorama of the northern cliff of A. ès Souk

fault

SB2
* * * SB2
* SB1 SB1

Delineation of unconformities

-6- nummulite facies -1- -2- -3- -4-

unconformity
Plate 7:

Operculina limestone
*-5-
S3 unconformity

nummulithoclast facies
*-4-
(2nd unit with silicified surfaces)

-3- argillaceous limestone SB2 microfacies 1 cm 1 cm 1 cm 1 cm

N
-5- -6- W E
S
S2 -2- nummulithoclast facies
Si (1st unit with silicified surfaces)
Delineation of unconformities along the cliff of A. ès Souk,
and illustration of the vertical succession of facies at outcrop

SB1
S1 1m
-1- Nautiloid-rich facies 0 2 km
Sequence stratigraphy and facies succession 1 cm 1 cm localization of the panorama on the Kesra Plateau
 NE direction of progradation SW

erosive surface

SW direction of progradation NE
Plate 8:

erosive surface
Illustration of high-energy sedimentary structures
located at the top of the El Garia Formation, Kesra Plateau

a- Large-scale prograding dunes, characterized by low-angle prograding sets, which are tangential at their base. Behiret Kesra, centre of the Kesra
Plateau.

107
Plates

b- Sedimentary structures showing sigmoidal prograding foresets. East of Behiret Kesra. Hammer for scale (yellow circle).
Plates

Plate 9:

High-energy sedimentary structures

located at the top of the El Garia Formation, Kesra Plateau

a- Small-scale cross bedding. Behiret Kesra. Hammer for scale.

b- HCS-type structures and overlying prograding sets. East of Behiret Kesra. Hammer for scale (green
circle).

c- Large-scale nummulite dunes, showing variation in the direction of progradation (tide influence?).
Behiret Kesra.

d- Cross-beddings. Section of the Douirat Sadoune, east of Kesra Plateau. Hammer for scale (green
circle).

e- Low-angle prograding foresets. Section of A. ès Souk, east of Kesra Plateau. Hammer for scale (green
circle).

f- Small-scale prograding sets at the base of a bank. Section of Dir el Hadj Ali, east of Kesra Plateau.

108
 Plates

a b

prograding sets

erosive surface HCS

structures

erosive surface

c direction of progradation

NE SW
erosive surface

d e

0.25cm

109
Plates

Plate 10:

Observations of sedimentary structures at the village of Kesra

a- Characterization of undulating bedding. Section of Murabat. See hammer for scale.

b- Observation of the bedding in ancient roman tombs, showing that stratifications are laterally
continuous.

c- Detail of the nternal structures of a packstone/grainstone microfacies, sampled in the undulating

beds.

110
 Plates

10 cm

granulometry

c
fine-
grain

coarse-
grain

fine-
grain

coarse-
grain
1 cm

111
Plates Plate 11:
Illustration of nummulite carbonate subtidal dunes
from the El Garia Formation, Juggurta Plateau, western Tunisia
gastropod and bivalve-rich facies

prograding hydraulic dunes of

nummulite grainstone facies
100m

large-flat nummulite packstone

facies
dolomitized grainstone, rare Discocyclina
serpulid-rich packstone facies Photograph of the Juggurta Plateau, locat-
ed south of the city of El Kef.
The El Garia facies, represented by the verti-
planktonic foraminifera mud
cal cliff in the background (about 100-m-thick).

nummulitic and bioclastic grainstone facies

planktonic foraminifera mud

Synthetical section,
based on the observation serpulid-rich packstone facies
of thin-sections and of
geometries at outcrop.
The top of the Eocene series planktonic foraminifera mud
is marked by the alternation
between massive and well-stratified
nummulitic grainstones. phosphate and glauconite

112
 Plate 12: Plates
Observation of sedimentary structures from the Eocene series of Corsica
(Unité de Sovéria, Lutetian)

Middle Eocene
nummulitic grainstones with oblique and (Soveria Unit)
cross stratifications
Permo-Carboniferous basement
MIDDLE EOCENE (Lutetian)

nummulite bar with cross-bedding

structures
erosive surface
sandstone, locally rich in nummulites View of the Fuata cliff, Soveria, north of Corte
25m

bioturbated sandy limestone

sandy limestone (HCS?)

fine-grain laminated limestone

bioturbated microconglomerate
with nummulites
Illustration of the nummulitic limestone (N. millecput)
erosive surface
conglomeratic sandy limestone
(rounded elements)
erosive surface
conglomerate

rhyolite
PERMIAN
conglomerate
(angular elements)

Synthetical section of the Fuata cliff.

Detail of bioturbations traces (Thalassonoides type?)

3D reconstruction
of the prograding
foresets

30cm

Observation of cross-bedding structures

Transversal view of prograding foresets Lateral view of prograding foresets

113
 Tunisia, Kesra Plateau - El Garia Formation, Late Ypresian

114
LARGE-ROBUST NUMMULITE FACIES FACIES 1
Plates

Field description : large-robust nummulite facies Outcrop observation

Texture : Packstone
Components : nummulites, large bivalves, gastropods, scaphopod and echinoid debris This facies is characterized by
Pore types : dominant intergranular porosity the presence of large-robust
Diagenesis : cementation of a bioclastic matrix, spar and microspar precipitation in porous nummulites and associated
cavities. large bivalves (6-7cm width),
Depositional environment : shallow upper ramp facies, deposited in moderate energy set- which are mostly in living posi-
tings tion.
This level, regionally
developped, corresponds to the
top of the El Garia Formation
(Upper Ypresian/Lower Lutetian
boundary).

Locality : Kesra Plateau

Section DeJO

Outcrop observation

Large-flat nummulites are found

also in association with gastro-
pods. Highly cemented, this
Thin section scanning image facies is typically deposited
Sample SJ201 under low-energy settings, and
1cm
Section of the Behiret Kesra (BK1) gastropod attest to a relative
stabilization of the depositional
Plate 13:

substratum.

Locality : Kesra Plateau

Section DeJO
0.125cm 0.5cm 100µm
Outcrop observation
Illustration 1 Illustration 2 Illustration 3
Standard facies of the El Garia Formation:

Detail of a transversal section in a
scaphopod tube, which is filled up with
coarse-grain nummulithoclast). The
structure is composed of two distinct
mineralogies :
a- thick external calcitic layer
b- thin internal micritic layer
Example of a coarse-grain matrix,
composed of large bivalve debris,
small nummulites and scaphopod
debris. Nummulithoclasts dominate a
large part of the bioclastic content.
Detail of a rare associated This photograph illustrates the
Discocyclina.
This foraminifera is characterized by a
internal organization of a
discoïdal test, rectangular equatorial nummulite facies dominated by
chambers and large lateral chambers. large-robust forms, which are
randomly oriented. Other
large-robust nummulite packstone (Facies 1), Kesra Plateau

bioclasts are associated, such

upper ramp lower ramp a s ve rt e b r a t e d e b ris (t e e t h
FWB
shark), bivalve and echinoid
fragments.
SWB
1 2 3 Gastropod shells are pointed by
4 arrows.
5
6 Locality : Kesra Plateau
7 Section DeJO
 Plate 14: Plates
Standard facies of the El Garia Formation:
small-robust nummulite grainstone/packstone (Facies 2), Kesra Plateau

Tunisia, Kesra Plateau

El Garia Formation, Late Ypresian SMALL-ROBUST NUMMULITE FACIES FACIES 2

Field description : nummulite facies dominated by small-robust forms

Texture : Packstone to Grainstone
Components : nummulites, rare discocyclinid, rare small benthic foraminifers, debris of echinoid, serpulid bioherms or dissemi-
nated fragments
Pore types : intergranular and matrix porosity
Diagenesis : cementation of the matrix by calcite or micrite. Matrix more or less enrich in nummulithoclast.
Depositional environment : proximal upper ramp, high-energy facies

Thin section scanning image Outcrop observation

Natural light
Sample SJ33, Section DeJO

1 cm

Small robust nummulite grainstone

T h e m a t rix is re p re s e n t e d b y n u m m u lit h ocla sts. Illustration of the top of a serpulid bioherm
Nummulites shows a preferential imbrication. Section of Murabat (Mu)

Microfacies description

a a

b
b b
0.25cm 0.620µm 100µm

Illustration 1 Illustration 2 Illustration 3

Example of a typical small robust num- Illustration of a bioclastic matrix. Particles Illustration of a small benthic foraminifera
mulite (a). Other are present but rare : are dominated by nummulithoclasts (a) in the matrix (Textulariidae).
small nummulite (b) and large-flat num- and echinoid debris (b).
mulite (c).

upper ramp lower ramp

FWB

SWB

1 2 3
4
5
6
7

115
116
Tunisia, Kesra Plateau - El Garia Formation, Late Ypresian LARGE-FLAT NUMMULITE FACIES FACIES 3
Plates

Particular diagenetic features

Field description : Highly cemented limestone, dominated by large-flat nummulites Some diagenetic processes
Texture : Packstone to Grainstone attest to the shallow deposition-
Components : nummulites, discocyclinid, scaphopod and echinoderm fragments al depth of such nummulite
Pore types : dominant intragranular porosity facies. This microfacies, sam-
Diagenesis : early marine cementation within nummulite chambers, spar cement and pled at the top of a large-flat
drusy calcite between grains nummulite deposit, exhibits
Depositional environment : high-energy facies, upper ramp some dissolution cavities at out-
crop. These cavities come from
the dissolution of large bivalve
shell or serpulid tubes, which
are sometimes filled up with
fine-grain nummulithoclastic
sands (a). Calcite has precipitat-
ed at the top of the cavities (b)
or under nummulites.

Observations at outcrop

Thin section scanning Weathered rocks allow to make

image good observations of the inter-
Sample SJ32 nal organization of such facies.
Section of the Kesra quarry Large-flat nummulites dominate
1cm the assemblage and appear
(DeJO)
mostly imbricated. Some undu-
lated unconformities are well-
Plate 15:

visible (a), as well as rounded

bioturbation structures (b).

Locality : Kesra Plateau

Illustration 1
This microfacies shows an important
Illustration 2
Example of a classical matrix, com-
Section DeJO
Observations at outcrop
Illustration 3
This microfacies shows an important
Standard facies of the El Garia Formation:

imbrication of large-flat nummulites.
Imbrications are initiated by the pres-
ence of high-energy submarine cur-
rents, allowing to transportation and
redeposition of the nummulitic sands.
upper ramp
posed of scaphopod debris (a), echino- accumulation of nummulite shells
The deposition of large-
derm fragments (b), and which are probably deformed by com- nummulite facies may occur
nummulithoclasts (c). paction. However, the non- a b ru p tly in th e succession,
fragmentation of the tests suggest a
good articulation of the skeletic struc- forming erosive boundaries (red
ture. line). These sharp granulometric
change could be correspond to
lower ramp high-energy hydrodynamic
FWB
events, contributing to the depo-
large-flat nummulite grainstone/packstone (Facies 3), Kesra Plateau

sition of nummulite-dominated
SWB
sandy bars.
1 2 3
4
5
6 Locality : Kesra Plateau
7 Section MKR
 Plate 16: Plates
Standard facies of the El Garia Formation:
small nummulite packstone (Facies 4), Kesra Plateau

Tunisia, Kesra Plateau

El Garia Formation, Late Ypresian SMALL NUMMULITE FACIES FACIES 4

Field description : small nummulite facies

Texture : Packstone to Grainstone
Components : nummulites, rare discocyclinid, rare
small benthic foraminifers, debris of echinoid
Pore types : low intergranular porosity
Diagenesis : cementation of the matrix by calcite or
micritie.
Depositional environment : distal upper ramp facies

Illustration of a typical nummulite facies dominate

by small A-forms.

This facies, characterized by a packstone texture, is

cemented by calcite. Rare Discocyclina are associated
with nummulites.

Thin section scanning image

Sample SJ85
Section of the Murabat (Mu)

Illustration 1 Illustration 2 Illustration 3

Small nummulites dominate the Rare preserved shells of Discocyclina Small benthic foraminifera can be asso-
bioclastic assemblage. They are random- are associated in such grainstone facies ciated (Textulariidae, see yellow arrow).
ly oriented, and chambers are mainly (indicated by yellow arrows). Debris are
cemented by calcite more frequent.

upper ramp lower ramp

FWB

1 2
SWB

3
4
5
6
7

117
118
Tunisia, Kesra Plateau - El Garia Formation, Late Ypresian OPERCULINA FACIES FACIES 5
Plates

b c d
Outcrop description : Operculina limestone
Texture : Packstone to grainstone
Bioclastic components : Operculina, scaphopods, phosphatic debris and nummulithoclasts
Pores types : low intragranular porosity, no porosity within the matrix
Diagenesis : micritic matrix, rare sparitic cement
Depositional environment : Lower mid ramp
Sequence stratigraphy : These facies are widely extended during highstand settings. They can occur
during lowstand, but their extension is reduced at the lower midramp. 2 mm 2 mm 2 mm

Operculina and scaphopod limestone. Observation of Operculina on outcrop sample.

The main bioclasts are Operculina, scaphopods and few small
benthic foraminifers. Debris of nummulites and Operculina domi- a : Characterization of Operculina. These forms are characterized by a typical evolute spira, by
nate the composition of the matrix. a non-recovering of external turn and by a progressive increase of the length of chambers.
Bioclasts are cemented by a micritic mud. b and c : Equatorial section of Operculina
Nnummulites with unbroken tests are represented by 90 % of d: Transversal section of Operculina
small A and B forms. Large-flat nummulites are less abundant
and disseminated. Operculina are characterized by small tests
(0.5 cm of lenght) in the packstones, while large forms (1 cm)
SCAN LAME MINCE compose the grainstones.

Thin section photograph :

Sample SJ 1016
El Garia Fm
Kesra Plateau
Section SMbA 5
1 cm Natural light
Plate 17:

d
c a
b a a

a 2 mm 0.125 cm

Operculina Scaphopod

0.125 cm
Standard facies of the El Garia Formation:

Matrix

Illustration of the main bioclasts

This matrix is essentially composed of
nummulithoclasts (a) and of carbonated mud (b).
Other components are echinoderm fragments (c)
and scaphopod debris (d). 100 mm 100 mm

Cibbicidae ostracod

upper ramp lower ramp

Illustration of the Operculina facies at outcrop.
FWB
Operculina and nummulithoclastic packstone (Facies 5), Kesra Plateau

Operculina facies are easily recognizable at outcrop. On the photograph, they correspond to thick eroded beds
SWB (a), which preferential erosion indicates a significant mud-content. These deposits characterized a period of
1 2 highstand sea level, which follows a main flooding event at the scale of the studied area.
33 4
5 Locality : Kesra Plateau
6 7
Section : Dir Feddane el Mrassi
 Tunisia, Kesra Plateau - El Garia Formation, Late Ypresian NUMMULITHOCLAST FACIES FACIES 6
Outcrop description : fine dark limestone, more or less laminated and often dolomitized Aspect of the nummulithoclastic
Texture : Packstone facies at outcrop.
Bioclastic content : Rare nummulites and Operculina, common scaphopod debris and small benthic for-
aminifers (Bolivina, Cibbicidae, Textulariidae, Lenticulina), echinoderm and ostracod debris . These facies are characterized by verti-
Pore types : no macroporosity, the microporosity is essentially localized within the matrix cal cliffs in the landscape. The bedding
Diagenesis : good cementation of grains, frequent euhedral dolomite crystals. is well-visible and often shows
Depositional environment : Lower ramp ondulating unconformities. At Kesra,
Sequence stratigraphy : Characterize periods of accommodation infilling in the intra-shelf depressions these facies represent the thickest
accumulations of sediment within the
Upper Ypresian interval.
Fine grain packstone.
The matrix is mainly composed of nummulite debris
(nummulithoclasts). These debris are silt-sized nummulite frag-
ments. This matrix is often dolomitized, and characterized by the
presence of disseminated dolomite crystals.
This facies is frequently bioturbated. In thin section, the
bioturbation shown circular zones, where grains are disorganized.
Some small argillaceous and phosphatic grains are also visible. Locality : Kesra Plateau
SCAN LAME MINCE Section : Deroudj el Hamra

Illustration of a silicified, bioturbated

horizon.
Thin section photograph :
Sample SJ 52 These horizons are typically found in
El Garia Fm association with the nummulithoclastic
Kesra Plateau facies. These structures, which are
Section Dir el Jerouia East silicified, can be followed along the out-
1 cm Natural light crop, sometimes on more than 100
The matrix phosphatic debris scaphopode
metres. Generally, when these surfac-
es are visible at outcrop, it indicates
Main components are that the facies is enriched in organic
Plate 18:

nummulithoclasts, which are matter, suggesting a poor-oxygen dep-

not visible at outcrop. These
debris are silt-sized fragments ositional environment.
of nummulites that have been
transported and deposited in 100 µm 0.125 cm
a muddy matrix.
plankton ostracode
Sample SJ.52
Section Dir el Jerouia Est Locality : Kesra Plateau
0.25 cm
Section : Deroudj el Hamra
The matrix content
a Interpretation of a bioturbated hori-
Main bioclastic components 100 µm 0.25 cm zon on a polished surface.
are Bolivina (a), Plankton (b),
echinoid debris (c), and
Standard facies of the El Garia Formation:

Lenticulina Operculina
nummulithoclasts (d).

Main bioclastic components

b 10 c
m
These bioturbated surfaces are well-
All components are integrated exposed at the base of the quarry of
d in a carbonate mud-rich
f matrix (e). Dolomite crystals Kesra, and occur during the first depo-
c (f) are also visible. sitional cycle of the El Garia Fm.
e
nummulithoclastic packstone (Facies 6), Kesra Plateau

The facies is a dark nummulithoclastic

0.125 cm Sample SJ.52 100 µm 0.125 cm
Section Dir el Jerouia East packstone. Burrows are infilled by mud,
argillaceous pebbles and disseminated
upper ramp lower ramp nummulites.
These surfaces, which indicate a low
FWB sedimentation rate, can be assimilated
to unconformities. The bioturbation
SWB occurs several times on 4 meters thick,
1 2 developing a parallel bedding.
3
4 bioturbation
5 nummulites Locality : Kesra Plateau
6 7 argillaceous pebbles Section : Dir el Jerouia Ouest

119
Plates
120
Tunisia, Kesra Plateau - El Garia Formation, Late Ypresian ARGILLACEOUS LIMESTONE FACIES 7
Plates

presence of Facies 7
Field description : High-cemented, bioturbated argillaceous limestone
Texture : Wackestone to Packstone
Components : nummulites, Operculina, phosphatic fragments and planktonic foraminifers
Pore types : tight facies Geographic extension of the
Diagenesis : presence of spars dolomite crystals (late burial diagenesis) argillaceous limestone on the
Depositional environment : low-energy facies, lower ramp. Also known as intercalated Kesra Plateau
facies within the Bou Dabbous series in basinal settings.
This horizon is well delim-
ited on the Kesra Plateau, hav-
ing the same extension than the
1km nummulithoclastic facies (grey
area corresponding to standard
Facies 6).

N
N
O Observations at outcrop

Illustration of a planktonic for- This level is characterized by an

aminifera which is common in intense bioturbation. Burrows
this microfacies (Thalassinoides type) are most-
ly subhorizontal and are filled in
G with nummulites and others
bioclasts. The thickness of this
horizon is relatively homoge-
Plate 19:

neous at Kesra, not exceeding

50 cm thick.
The microfacies, character-
N ized by a wackestone to
packstone texture, shows well-
G preserved bioturbation structures. Locality : Kesra Plateau
Nummulites (N) and Operculina Section DeH
(O) preferentially occurs within
Observations at outcrop
burrows, associated with large
phosphatic grains (P).
Standard facies of the El Garia Formation:

At outcrop, this horizon is

ge n e ra lly we ll d e lim it e d b y
argillaceous wackestone (Facies 7), Kesra Plateau

Thin section scanning image unconformities. The high pro-

1cm Sample SJ175 portion of mud and clay leads to
Section of Deroudj el Hamra (DeH) a preferential erosion.
(see arrow for the localization of
the level)
upper ramp lower ramp
FWB

SWB
1 2 3
4 Locality : Kesra Plateau
5
6 Section DFeM1
7
 Plate 20: Plates
Palynofacies from Central Tunisia

SJ 1346 (EL GARIA Fm)

polished section thin section

FLUORESCENCE

M
A
TRANSMITTED LIGHT

100µm 100µm 100µm

a b c
diffuse algal organic matter (M) bisaccate pollen, opaque organic matter with
and filamentous alginite (A) displaying yellow fluorescence fluorescent outline (continental debris

SJ 1370 (BOU DABBOUS Fm)

polished section thin section

FLUORESCENCE

A
M
TRANSMITTED LIGHT

100µm 100µm 100µm

d e f
diffuse algal organic matter (M) fluorescent amorpheous marine phytoplankton group,
and filamentous alginite (A) organic matter (marine origin) Dinocyst (proximochlorate?)

121
Plates Plate 21:
Selected correlation profiles
across the Kesra Plateau for the 3D modelling
DeH 1 large-robust nummulite and bivalve grainstones
profil 1 SMbA5
2 small-robust nummulite grainstones
SMbA2 SMbA3
MKR Mu 3 large-flat nummulite grainstones
4 small nummulite and Discocyclina packstones
5 nummulithoclast and Operculina packstones
6 nummulithoclast packstones
7 argillaceous wackestones
nautiloid-rich wackestones
glauconitic marls
AeH
DeH AeS AeH
DS

profil 3

profil 2
DD2 DD1 DD3 DD4 MKR
DeJO
DS DeJE AbS DD2

profil 5

profil 4 DFeM1
DD4 AeH
DFeM1 SMbA2
AbS

profil 7

4
profil 6
Profil’s localization
DS
on the Kesra Plateau
DFeM1 3
DD4 8

7
5 6
2
profil 8 1km

122
 erosion of the grid
by the topography

final stratigraphic grid topography of the Kesra Plateau

Plate 22:

of the Kesra Plateau

3D reconstruction of the geology

1 large-robust nummulite and bivalve grainstones

2 small-robust nummulite grainstones
3 large-flat nummulite grainstones
stratigraphic grid EL GARIA 4 small nummulite and Discocyclina packstones
showing the outcropping 5 nummulithoclast and Operculina packstones
Late Ypresian facies nummulithoclast packstones
6
at Kesra
7 argillaceous wackestones
nautiloid-rich wackestones
CHOUABINE
glauconitic marls

123
Plates
 N N
axis 3

124
axis 2 W E W E
Plates

S S
axis 1
marker
marker S2 - EL GARIA

aggradation of nummulite facies

N N

W E W E

S S

a- Position of axes on the stratigraphic grid

S3 - EL GARIA

progradation of nummulite facies

d- Section realized on axis 3

e- isopach map of the N

b- Section realized on axis 1 deepening-up cycle of
W E
Plate 23:

S3-EL GARIA
S
in the computed stratigraphic grid
Establishment of new cross sections

0m 4m
c- Section realized on axis 2

1 large-robust nummulite and bivalve grainstones 4 small nummulite and Discocyclina packstones 7 argillaceous wackestones
2 small-robust nummulite grainstones 5 nummulithoclast and Operculina packstones nautiloid-rich wackestones
3 large-flat nummulite grainstones 6 nummulithoclast packstones glauconitic marls
 Plate 24: Plates
Oucropping series from NE Cyrenaica,
region of Ras el Hilal, Libya

a- Panorama of the K-T rocks outcropping along the coast of the Libyan sea in NE Cyrenaica

b- Illustration of the Eocene Dernah Formation c- Slumped unit of the Atrun Fm (late Cretaceous)

d- Slumped carbonates of the Apollonia Formation (early Eocene), wadi Atrun

e- Slumped carbonate mud series of the Apollonia Formation (middle Eocene), wadi Atrun

125
126
Libya, NE Cyrenaica, Apollonia Formation APOLLONIA FACIES FACIES AP
Plates

Field description : Lithographic limestone, slumped or well-stratified units

inner platform topographic high outer platform slope basin
Texture : Mudstone sea level
Components : Planktonic foraminifers, ostracods, small benthic foraminifers, few discocyclinids, few
nummulites (silicified), echinoderm fragments
Pore types : high microporosity (matrix porosity)
Diagenesis : hard-cemented limestone, micritic matrix Apollonia muddy-facies
Environment : outer platform, slope and basin
Sequence stratigraphy : lowstand, sometimes interfingered with Dernah Fm during transgression Theoretic carbonate platform profile

Field sample Geometry of these deposits

Field observations
S N

DERNAH Fm APOLLONIA Fm

Panorama taken from section A, looking on the western ridges

Apollonia limestones (slope and basinal settings) are

1cm interfingered with the Dernah facies (platform settings). They
are often characterized large clinoforms which are prograding
Plate 25:

toward the N-NE.

Thin section Petrographic composition Muddy-slumped facies within the Apollonia Fm

Sedimentology of the Apollonia Formation

500µm 500µm 500µm

(early to middle Eocene) in north-eastern Cyrenaica

Planktonic foram. Ostracod Textulariidae

500µm 300µm 50µm

1cm Reworked-silicified nummulites within slumped
Benthic foram. ? Miliolidae Discocyclinid facies
 Libya
NE Cyrenaica DERNAH FACIES
Field description : coarse-grain limestones, sometimes porous or dolomitized
inner platform topographic high outer platform slope basin
Texture : Packstone to grainstone, dolomitic limestone, boundstone sea level
Components : nummulites, Orbitolites, alveolinids, Discocyclina, Operculina, gastropods, oysters,
red algae, Spirorbis, small benthic foraminifers (miliolids, Peneropidae, Textulariidae)
Pore types : mainly moldic and intragranular porosity
Diagenesis : hard-cemented limestone, dolomitization, dissolution Dernah facies
Environment : from evaporitic to outer platform settings
Sequence stratigraphy : lowstand, sometimes interfingered with Apollonia Fm during transgression Theoretic carbonate platform profile

Field sample Geometry

Field observations
Plate 26:

Dernah limestones are generally characterized by a massive horizontal bedding

Thin section
Illustration of a typical nummulite facies
(middle Eocene) in north-eastern Cyrenaica
Sedimentology and facies heterogeneities of the Dernah Formation

Association of gastropods and nummulites

dolomite Orbitolites Discocyclina nummulites

127
Plates
Plates

Plate 27:

Middle Lutetian Nummulites species from the Dernah Formation, NE Cyrenaica

N1-3: Nummulites gizehensis (Förskal), microspheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah type section.

N1-4: Nummulites gizehensis (Förskal), microspheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah type section.

N1-8: Nummulites gizehensis (Förskal), macrospheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah type section.

N2-6: Nummulites gizehensis (Förskal), macrospheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah type section.

N2-5: Nummulites gizehensis (Förskal), macrospheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah type section.

128
 Plates

N1-8

N2-6

N1-3
N2-6

N2-5

N2-5

0.5 cm
N1-4

129
Plates

Plate 28:

Middle Lutetian Nummulites species from the Dernah Formation, NE Cyrenaica

N1-5: Nummulites gizehensis (Förskal), microspheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah roaduct.

N2-22: Nummulites gizehensis (Förskal), microspheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah roaduct.

N2-16: Nummulites gizehensis (Förskal), microspheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah roaduct.

N1-2: Nummulites gizehensis (Förskal), microspheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah roaduct.

SJ669-19: Nummulites perplexus (Schaub), macrospheric form. Section Q, Wadi bin Jubàrah.

130
 Plates

N1-5

N2-22

SJ669-19

N2-16

0.5 cm

N1-2

131
Plates

Plate 29:

Middle to Late Lutetian Nummulites species

from the Dernah Formation, NE Cyrenaica

N3-27: Nummulites gizehensis, microspheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah type section.

N3-5: Nummulites gizehensis, macrospheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah type section.

N3-16: Nummulites gizehensis, macrospheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah type section.

N3-1: Nummulites gizehensis, macrospheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah type section.

N3-11: Nummulites gizehensis, macrospheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah type section.

N3-12: Nummulites gizehensis, macrospheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah type section.

N2-23: Nummulites gizehensis, macrospheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah type section.

132
 Plates

N3-27

N3-1 N3-11

N3-5

N3-12 N3-23

N3-16

0.5 cm

133
Plates

Plate 30:

Middle to Late Lutetian Nummulites species

from the Dernah Formation, NE Cyrenaica

N5-19: Nummulites gizehensis, microspheric form. Ain ad-Dabusseyah type section.

N3-29: Nummulites gizehensis, microspheric forms. Ain ad-Dabusseyah type section.

N11-6: Nummulites discorbinus, microspheric form. Section H, Wadi Murqùs.

N11-21: Nummulites discorbinus, microspheric form. Section H, Wadi Murqùs.

Y30-1: Nummulites discorbinus, microspheric form. Section A, Sidi al Machmud.

134
 Plates

N5-19

N11-6

N11-21

0.5 cm Y30-3
N3-29

135
Plates

Plate 31:

Bartonian Nummulites species from the Dernah Formation, NE Cyrenaica

Y7-26: Nummulites lyelli (d’Archiac & Haime), microspheric form. West Dernah roadcut type section.

Y7-24: Nummulites lyelli (d’Archiac & Haime), microspheric form. West Dernah roadcut type section.

136
 Plates

Y7-26

1 cm

Y7-24

137
Plates

Plate 32:

Bartonian Nummulites species from the Dernah Formation, NE Cyrenaica

Y7-16: Nummulites lyelli (d’Archiac & Haime), macrospheric form. West Dernah roadcut type section.

Y7-19: Nummulites lyelli (d’Archiac & Haime), macrospheric form. West Dernah roadcut type section.

Y7-9: Nummulites lyelli (d’Archiac & Haime), macrospheric form. West Dernah roadcut type section.

Y7-1: Nummulites lyelli (d’Archiac & Haime), macrospheric form. West Dernah roadcut type section.

Y7-12: Nummulites beaumonti (d’Archiac & Haime), microspheric form. West Dernah roadcut type
section.

138
 Plates

Y7-16

Y7-19 Y7-9 Y7-1

0.25 cm

Y7-12

139
140
Libya, NE Cyrenaica - Dernah Formation, Middle Eocene CHALKY FACIES (CH) FACIES CH
Plates

Field description : well-stratified muddy facies, finely laminated, exhibiting large chert nodules proximal distal
intertidal zone inner platform topographic high slope basin
outer platform outer platform
Texture : Mudstone or Floatstone sea level
Components : Planktonic foraminifers, ostracods, small benthic foraminifers, reworked (silicified)
nummulites, echinoderms
Pore types : dominant microporosity (matrix and moldic porosity)
Diagenesis : silicification of reworked nummulite facies chalky facies
Depositional environment : low-energy facies in distal outer platform settings
Sequence stratigraphy : transgressive facies deposited during major flooding events. Theoretic carbonate platform profile
Standard Microfacies Field observations
Plate 33:

Well-stratified chalky facies (foreground)

Chert level
Chalky facies (Facies CH), NE Cyrenaica
Standard facies of the Dernah Formation:

1cm

Fine-laminated and bioturbated

mudstone, composed of planktonic
foraminifers, ostracods and
reworked nummulites (sometimes 1cm 1cm
Illustration of Teichichnus fossil traces
silicified within chert nodules)
Teichichnus Field samples from silicified horizons
 Libya, NE Cyrenaic - Dernah Formation, Middle Eocene OPERCULINA FACIES FACIES OP
Field description : high-cemented limestone, rich in Operculina and echinoderm fragments proximal distal
intertidal zone inner platform topographic high slope basin
outer platform outer platform
Texture : Wackestone to Packstone sea level
Components : Operculina, planktonic foraminifers, small benthic foraminifers (Textulariidae,
Peneroplidae, Lenticulina), few small nummulites, echinoderms fragments
Pore types : moldic cavities and matrix porosity Operculina facies
Diagenesis : early calcitic cement around echinoderm debris, muddy matrix
Depositional environment : low energy facies, outer platform
Sequence stratigraphy : transgressive system tracts Theoretic carbonate platform profile

Field sample Thin-section Petrographic composition

a b

0.1cm 0.1cm 0.1cm

planktonic foram. undeterminated foram. peneroplidae

Plate 34:

1cm 0.25cm
250µm 250µm 0.1cm

a- Operculina-rich limestone Textularia Lenticulina moldic porosity

b- transerse section of Operculina
c- equatorial section of Operculina Field observations
SW NE
c
Standard facies of the Dernah Formation:
Operculina facies (Facies OP), NE Cyrenaica

0.5cm operculina

nummulites
Microscopic view of the Operculina chalky facies
facies. It is composed of small
250m
bioclasts which are often dissolved.
0.25cm Nummulites and Discocyclinidae are Panoramic view of the eastern cliff of Arqùb ash Shafshaf.
uncommon within this facies. Operculina occurs above a major sigmoidal nummulite body.

141
Plates
142
Libya, NE Cyrenaica - Dernah Formation, Middle Eocene SOLITARY CORAL FACIES (CS) FACIES CS
Plates

Field description : massive limestone, rich in solitary coral and moldic cavities proximal distal
intertidal zone inner platform topographic high slope basin
outer platform outer platform
Texture : Packstone sea level
Components : Solitary coral, small benthic foraminifers (Textulariidae, Mililolidae), bryozoan, echino-
derms
Pore types : moldic cavities (dissolution pf primary aragonite) Solitary coral facies
Diagenesis : hard-cemented facies, dissolution of aragonitic shells and mud-infilling
Depositional environment : low energy facies, outer platform
Sequence stratigraphy : transgressive deposits Theoretic carbonate platform profile

Field sample Thin-section Petrographic composition

0.5cm 750µm 600µm

solitary coral miliolidae bryozoan

Plate 35:

0.1cm 0.25cm 0.25cm

textulariidae geotropic figure moldic cast

Macrofossils in solitary coral facies

1cm
Standard facies of the Dernah Formation:

Illustration of the solitary coral

Solitary Coral facies (Facies CS), NE Cyrenaica

facies collected on the field. This

facies is found within small 1cm
bioherms exclusively composed of
ahermatypic corals. This facies suc-
Microscopic view of the solitary coral
ceed to the dolomitized level of the
facies. It is composed of small and large
Dernah type section, and are fol-
bioclasts, often dissolved. Micrite infilling 1cm 1cm 1cm
lowed by the edification of a mas-
led occasionally to preserve the original
sive coral reef (coralgal reef stan-
structures of organisms. solitary corals gastropod
dard facies)
 Libya, NE Cyrenaica - Dernah Formation, Middle Eocene OUTER NUMMULITE BANK FACIES FACIES OB
Field description : well-stratified deposits with disseminated nummulites and discocyclinid
inner platform topographic high outer platform slope basin
Texture : Packstone to Wackestone sea level
Components : nummulites, discocyclinid, Operculina, planktonic foraminifers, small benthic foramin-
ifers (Lenticulina, Bolivinidae), echinoderm fragments, fecal pellets
Pore types : dominant intragranular porosity Outer nummulite bank facies
Diagenesis : micritic cement, low compaction
Environment : low energy facies, outer platform
Sequence stratigraphy : highstand deposits Theoretic carbonate platform profile

Thin-section section H Aspect at outcrop type section of Ain ad-Dabusseyah

Plate 36:

rotalidae bryozoan discocyclinid

(scale : 10 cm)

Petrographic composition
Standard facies of the Dernah Formation:

1 cm 3 mm 2.5 mm 1.5 mm
Outer Nummulite Bank facies (Facies OB), NE Cyrenaica

nummulites discocyclinid Operculina

Mud-supported facies with dissemi-

nated nummulites. Operculina and
thin tests of discocyclinid are also These facies are characterized by well-
associated, and nummulites are stratified muddy beds, sometimes 350µm 350µm 350µm
often randomly orientated. interbedded with chalky facies
planktonic foraminifera Lenticulina fecal pellets

143
Plates
144
Libya, NE Cyrenaica - Dernah Formation, Middle Eocene GASTROPOD-RICH FACIES FACIES GP
Plates

Field description : massive gastropod deposits intertidal zone inner platform topographic high
proximal distal
slope basin
Texture : Packstone outer platform outer platform
sea level
Components : gastropods, nummulites, echinoderms, bivalves
Pore types : dominant moldic porosity
gastropod-rich facies
Diagenesis : hard-cemented facies, micritic matrix, dissolution of aragonitic elements (gastropods)
Depositional environment : moderate energy facies deposited before the nummulite bioaccumula-
tion, onto the topographic highs
Sequence stratigraphy : highstand deposits Theoretic carbonate platform profile

Field sample Thin-section Petrographic composition

0.2cm 0.75cm 0.5cm

moldic cavity echinoderm shell nummulite

2cm
(dissolved gastropod) filled in with nummulites accumulation
Nummulite facies showing an
important concentration of dissolved Field sequence
gastropod shells (primary aragonite)
Plate 37:

nummulite bioaccumulation

progressive facies change

Standard facies of the Dernah Formation:
Gastropod-rich facies (Facies GP), NE Cyrenaica

gastropod-rich facies
1cm
Detail of the structure
of the micritic matrix. Illustration in thin section of this gastro- sharp contact
Micrite is also found pod-rich limestone. It forms and thin
within the infilling of homogeneous horizon at the base of the muddy limestone
gastropod shells. nummulite accumulation
 Libya, NE Cyrenaica - Dernah Formation, Middle Eocene NUMMULITE BANK FACIES (NB) FACIES NB
Field description : non-stratified nummulite deposits, forming big caves (eroded parts) proximal distal
intertidal zone inner platform topographic high slope basin
outer platform outer platform
Texture : Packstone sea level
Components : nummulites (A and B forms), echinoderm shells and fragments, few gastropods and
scaphopods fragments.
Pore types : dominant intregranular porosity (intra-nummulite) Nummulite-cave facies
Diagenesis : poor-cemented facies, micritic and bioclastic matrix, no dissolution.
Depositional environment : facies deposited on palaeohighs or in proximal outer platform settings
Sequence stratigraphy : highstand deposits Theoretic carbonate platform profile

Field sample Field section (Arqùb ash Shafshaf cliff)

a b

2cm

Nummulite-rich facies showing an

nummulites
important accumulation of A and B
forms.
Plate 38:

c d
Standard facies of the Dernah Formation:

chalky facies
Nummulite Bank facies (Facies NB), NE Cyrenaica

a- Nummulite cave observed along the section of Wadi

0.25cm Marcus
b- Detail of the nummulite content
Nummulite-rich facies showing a c- View of the random position of nummulites
micritic-bioclastic matrix (bioclastic d- Characteristic helicoidal concentration of nummulite,
fraction = nummulithoclasts) forming a “pocket-filling” structure.

145
Plates
146
Libya, NE Cyrenaica - Dernah Formation, Middle Eocene CORALGAL REEF FACIES (CR) FACIES CR
Plates

Field description : muddy limestone, rich in hermatypic corals and moldic cavities intertidal zone inner platform topographic high
proximal distal
slope basin
Texture : Packstone to Boundstone outer platform outer platform
sea level
Components : hermatypic corals (branching, massive), bivalves, small benthic foraminifers
(Textulariidae, Mililolidae), bryozoan, red algae, echinoderms coralgal reef facies
Pore types : moldic cavities
Diagenesis : poorly cemented facies (muddy matrix), important dissolution of aragonitic elements
Depositional environment : high energy facies developed on the palaeohighs
Sequence stratigraphy : aggrading facies during transgressive events Theoretic carbonate platform profile

Field sample Thin-section Petrographic composition

0.2cm 0.25cm 0.25cm

branching coral bivalve (geotropic fig.) red algae

1cm
Plate 39:

0.1cm 0.1cm 0.5cm

miliolidae textulariidae moldic cavities

Illustration of different coral reef organisms

Standard facies of the Dernah Formation:
Coralgal Reef facies (Facies CR), NE Cyrenaica

1cm

Coral-reef facies composed of a 0.50cm

muddy matrix, abundant coral frag-
ment and other bioclasts. All cavi- Illustration of a typical internal reef
ties were created by dissolution of muddy sediment. Macroporosity is char- 1cm
aragonitic elements. acterized by large moldic cavities
 Libya, NE Cyrenaica - Dernah Formation, Middle Eocene “CORN-FLAKES” DISCOCYCLINID FACIES (CF) FACIES CF
Field description : muddy limestone, rich in hermatypic corals and moldic cavities intertidal zone inner platform topographic high
proximal distal
slope basin
outer platform outer platform
Texture : Packstone, Floatsone or Boundstone sea level
Components : large Discocyclinidae, small benthic foraminifers, bryozoan, red algae, echinoderms,
small nummulites, planktonic foraminifers, scaphopods fragments
“corn-flakes” Discocyclinidae facies
Pore types : moldic cavities and intergranular porosity
Diagenesis : muddy matrix, no compaction
Depositional environment : high-energy facies accumulated through coralgal reefs into channels
Sequence stratigraphy : transgressive facies Theoretic carbonate platform profile

Field sample Thin-section Petrographic composition

0.25cm 0.25cm

algae & discocyclinid bryozoan

Plate 40:

700µm 0.1cm
1cm
planktonic foram. ? nummulite
1cm
Geometry
high-energy
cross-bedding structures “corn-flakes” discocyclinid facies The “corn-flakes”
Standard facies of the Dernah Formation:

facies is found in large

cross-bedding struc-
tures. This facies
clearly eroded the
lower nummulite hori-
«Corn-Flakes» Discocyclinid facies (Facies CF), NE Cyrenaica

nummulite facies
zon characterized by
parallel stratified beds.
An erosive unconfor-
mity separates both
1m
units.

147
Plates
148
Libya, NE Cyrenaica - Dernah Formation, Middle Eocene ALGAE-RICH FACIES (AL) FACIES AL
Plates

Field description : non-stratified deposits, extremely porous and rich in rhodolites intertidal zone inner platform topographic high
proximal distal
slope basin
outer platform outer platform
Texture : Packstone to Grainstone sea level
Components : Encrusting red algae, small benthic foraminifers (Rotalidae), nummulites,
discocyclinidae, bryozoans, echinoderms Algae-rich facies
Pore types : moldic cavities and inter-particle pore type
Diagenesis : less-cemented facies, equigranular calcitic cement around particles
Depositional Environment : high energy facies, inner platform (close to the topographic high)
Sequence stratigraphy : highstand and transgressive deposits in lagoonal settings Theoretic carbonate platform profile

Field sample Thin-section Petrographic composition

500µm 500µm 500µm

Lithothamnium moldic cavities nummulite

Plate 41:

500µm 500µm 500µm

rotalidae bryozoan discocyclinidae

Rhodolith facies outcropping along Dernah type-section

1.5cm
Standard facies of the Dernah Formation:
Algae-rich facies (Facies AL), NE Cyrenaica

2cm

Rhodolith-rich facies. Red algae are

associated with discocyclinidae and
with abundant echinoderm frag-
ments. This facies is only exposed 0.5cm
along the outcrop of West Dernah
roadcut where it is often intercalat- Illustration of a typical rhodolith facies.
ed between nummulitic series. Macroporosity is important, characterized
by large moldic cavities echinoderm (Plesiolampas)
 Libya, NE Cyrenaica - Dernah Formation, Middle Eocene ORBITOLITES / ALVEOLINA FACIES (OA) FACIES OA
Field description : large cross-bedding Orbitolites shoal structures or horizontal beds with Alveolina intertidal zone inner platform topographic high
proximal distal
slope basin
Texture : Packstone outer platform outer platform
sea level
Components : Orbitolites, Alveolina, miliolids, few nummulites (small robust), red algae
(Lithothamnium), small benthic foraminifers (Textulariidae, Peneroplidae), echinoderm fragments
Orbitolites/Alveolina/Miliolids facies
Pore types : moldic porosity
Diagenesis : common dolomitized facies
Depositional environment : low or high energy facies deposited in inner platform settings
Sequence stratigraphy : highstand deposits Theoretic carbonate platform profile
Thin-sections Field sample (Cyrenia roadcut) Petrographic composition

0.25cm 0.25cm

Orbitolites Alveolina
1cm 1cm
Plate 42:

Alveolina dominated facies Large Orbitolites facies

Sedimentary structures observed at outcrop

(Section of Apollonia-Cyrene)
after El Hawat, 2001 0.25cm 700µm
Standard facies of the Dernah Formation:

red algae miliolidae

Orbitolites/Alveolina facies (Facies OA), NE Cyrenaica

1cm 0.25cm 700µm

Orbitolites packstone shoals are characterized by large-scale
cross bedding structures. After the author, these structures
Orbitolites dominated facies represents the migration of giant sand waves. nummulite peneroplidae

149
Plates
150
Libya, NE Cyrenaica - Dernah Formation, Middle Eocene
Plates

DOLOMITIZED FACIES (DO) FACIES DO

Field description : white or brownish dolomitized facies, containing numerous moldic cavities intertidal zone inner platform topographic high
proximal distal
slope basin
outer platform outer platform
Texture : originally Packstone sea level
Components : moldic casts of nummulite, discocyclinid and red algae
Pore types : dominant moldic and inter-crystalline porosity dolomitized facies (evaporitic zones)
Diagenesis : early dolomitization of the original sediment (calcitic or aragonitic mud) under evaporitic
conditions, and dissolution of calcitic elements
Depositional environment : restricted low energy facies deposited in the intertidal zone
Sequence stratigraphy : lowstand to highstand deposits Theoretic carbonate platform profile

Field sample Thin-section SEM Analysis

0.2cm
The matrix of this facies is com-
posed of small dolomicrite crystals
2cm (1-5µm). Main process of dissolu-
tion is moldic type.
The preservation of initial bioclast
1 2
Mg Au Ca
O The matrix is composed of small dolo-
mite crystals, illustrated in photograph
n°1 (1-5µm). These crystals are also
found in moldic cavities, while internal
Plate 43:

biologic structures are preserved. SEM

white dolomite, poorly cemented, structures allows to interpret an
composed of large moldic disso- photograph n°2 shows preserved cast
1cm early dolomitization prior to the dis-
lution cavities solution of calcitic elements
of foraminifer chambers.
SEM semi-quantitative analyse
Standard facies of the Dernah Formation:
Dolomite facies (Facies DO), NE Cyrenaica

500µm
This facies shows a complete dolo-
mitized matrix. Large dolomitic crys-
2cm tals compose the matrix, whereas
dissolution cavities are sometimes
partially filled in with small dolo-
brownish dolomite, well-cemented, micrite crystals. All bioclastic parti-
composed of abundant moldic dis-
1cm cles have been dissolved
solution cavities (nummulites, discocyclinids, red
algae)
Mg Au Ca
O
Two different dolomite crystals can be rec-
ognized : large dolomite crystals and a
superimposed dolomicrite cement found in
the moldic cavities. The complete dissolu-
tion of the organic structures could be inter-
preted as an early diagenetic event, before
the infilling of dolomicrite.
SEM semi-quantitative analyse
 Libya, NE Cyrenaica - Dernah Formation, Middle Eocene POOR-CEMENTED NUMMULITE FACIES FACIES NP
Field description : stratified small nummulite facies, poorly-cemented intertidal zone inner platform topographic high
proximal distal
slope basin
outer platform outer platform
Texture : Grainstone sea level
Components : nummulites, Discocyclina, few small benthic foraminifers, red algae fragments, echi-
noderm debris poor-cemented nummulite facies
Pore types : dominant intra and inter-particle porosity (eolian deposit?)
Diagenesis : calcitic bridges, early cementation around echinoderm debris, vadose dissolution
Depositional environment : high energy facies, intertidal zone (eolian facies?)
Sequence stratigraphy : highstand deposits Theoretic carbonate platform profile

Field sample Thin-section Petrographic composition

0.2cm 0.4cm 0.4cm

Textulariidae Discocyclina Red algae

c
Plate 44:

0.4cm 0.2cm 400µm

f
development of syntaxic concavo-convex contact fringing cement within
c cement around echino- between nummulites nummulite chambers
derm fragments

SEM analysis
1.5cm
Standard facies of the Dernah Formation:

Typical aspect of this grain support-

ed facies showing some alternation
between coarse-grain (c) and fine- 0.5cm
Poor-cemented Nummulite facies (Facies NP), NE Cyrenaica

grain (f) laminations at outcrop.

These laminations have an average
dip of about 35-40°.
These laminations are also visible in
thin section
Illustration of this poorly cemented
limestone. Represented in blue, the
porosity, concentrated within the
matrix and within nummulites, reach- Concavo-convex contact formed by Calcitic bridges contributing to the
es values about 45%. vadose dissolution grain’s cohesion

151
Plates
Plates

Plate 45:

Geological panorama of the Middle Eocene outcrop of Ain ad-Dabusseyah roadcut,

showing the progressive thickenning of the series toward the north

a- Panorama of Ain ad-Dabusseyah roadcut section. The section is 250-m-thick.

b- Observation of the main unconformities.

c- Delineation of the depositional sequences and distribution of facies.

facies AP: Apollonia facies

facies CH: Chalky facies
facies NB: Nummulite bank facies
facies OP: Operculina facies

152
 N S

section
-a-

-b-

facies NB
facies OP
facies NB
facies CH

-c- facies AP

LEGEND Aerial photograph Map of sequences

Formations Sequence stratigraphy Age

SB4
Bartonian
sequence D3
Upper Lutetian
DERNAH Formation SB3
Middle Eocene
sequence D2 Middle Lutetian
SB2
sequence D1 panorama
Lower Lutetian
APOLLONIA Formation SB1 sequence A1 Early Eocene Ypresian
SB0
panorama
ATHRUN Formation Late Cretaceous Maastrichtian
1km

153
Plates
Plates

Plate 46:

Geological panorama of the Middle Eocene series,

showing large-scale prograding clinoforms of the Apollonia Formation

The Apollonia (facies AP) and Dernah outer nummulite bank facies (facies OB) show well individualized
carbonate bars that are discontinuous toward the N/NE. Wadi bin Jubàrah, NE Cyrenaica.

a- Panorama of the eastern cliff of Wadi bin Jubarah. The thickness of the Middle Eocene deposits are
ranging from 250 to 300-m-thick.

b- Observation of the main unconformities.

c- Interpretation of the depositional sequences and facies distribution.

facies AP: Apollonia facies

facies CH: Chalky facies
facies OP: Operculina facies
facies OB: Outer Nummulite Bank facies

154
 Plates

NE SW

-a-

-b-

facies OB

facies OP
facies CH

facies AP

-c-
Aerial photograph Map of sequences

Formations Sequence stratigraphy Age

SB4 panorama panorama

Bartonian
sequence D3
Upper Lutetian
DERNAH Formation SB3
Middle Eocene
sequence D2 Middle Lutetian
SB2
sequence D1 Lower Lutetian
APOLLONIA Formation SB1 sequence A1 Early Eocene Ypresian
SB0 1km
ATHRUN Formation Late Cretaceous Maastrichtian

155
Plates

Plate 47:

Geological panorama
showing the progradation of the Middle Eocene carbonate platform

The platform is dominated by thick carbonate bars in southern regions. This panorama also illustrates the
inclination of the SB2 boundary. Mouth of Wadi bin Jubàrah, NE Cyrenaica.

a- Panorama of Wadi bin Jubarah. See geologists on left side of the photograph for scale.

b- Observation of the main unconformities.

c- Interpretation of the depositional sequences and facies distribution.

facies AP: Apollonia facies

facies CH: Chalky facies
facies OP: Operculina facies
facies OB: Outer Nummulite Bank facies

156
 E W

-a-

-b-
facies OB
facies OP
facies CH

facies
AP

-c-
Formations Sequence stratigraphy Age Aerial photograph Map of sequences
SB4
Bartonian
sequence D3 panorama panorama
Upper Lutetian
DERNAH Formation SB3
Middle Eocene
sequence D2 Middle Lutetian
SB2
sequence D1 Lower Lutetian
APOLLONIA Formation SB1 sequence A1 Early Eocene Ypresian
SB0 1km
ATHRUN Formation Late Cretaceous Maastrichtian

157
Plates
Plates

Plate 48:

Successive geological panorama illustrating the geometry and the lateral evolution
of the Middle Eocene depositional sequences from NE Cyrenaica

a- Panorama 1 (Arqùb ash Shafshaf).

b- Interpretation of the depositional sequences and facies distribution.

facies AP: Apollonia facies

facies OA: Orbitolites/Alveolina facies
facies NB: Nummulite Bnak facies
facies CH: Chalky facies
facies OP: Operculina facies

c- Panorama 2 (Arqùb ash Shafshaf). Section H represents a 175-m-thick carbonate accumulation.

d- Interpretation of the depositional sequences and facies distribution.

facies AP: Apollonia facies

facies CH: Chalky facies
facies OP: Operculina facies
facies NB: Nummulite Bank facies

158
 Plates

W E

visual marker

section H
section E

Panorama n°1 (Arqub Ash Shafshaf)

facies NB
facies OP facies NB

facies C
facies OA H

facies A
P
Interpretation of the depositional sequences

SW visual marker NE

section D

section H
section E

Panorama n°2 (Arqub Ash Shafshaf)

facies OP facies OP
facies NB
facies CH
facies NB

facies AP

Interpretation of the depositional sequences

Formations Sequence stratigraphy Age Aerial photograph

SB4
Bartonian
sequence D3
Upper Lutetian
DERNAH Formation SB3 panorama n°2
Middle Eocene panorama n°1
sequence D2 Middle Lutetian
SB2
sequence D1 Lower Lutetian
APOLLONIA Formation SB1 sequence A1 Early Eocene Ypresian
SB0 1km
ATHRUN Formation Late Cretaceous Maastrichtian

159
Plates

Plate 49:

Geological panorama showing the shape of a nummulite bank

(top of sequence D2, outcrop of Arqùb ash Shafshaf, NE Cyrenaica)

a- Panorama of the eastern cliff of Arqùb ash Shafshaf. The cliff face is about 150-m-high.

b- Observation of the main unconformities.

c- Interpretation of the depositional sequences and facies distribution.

facies AP: Apollonia facies

facies CH: Chalky facies
facies NB: Nummulite bank facies
facies OB: Outer Nummulite Bank facies
facies OA: Orbitolites/Alveolina facies
facies OP: Operculina facies

160
 SW SE
visual marker

section D

section H section T
section E

-a-

-b-

facies NB
facies OB
facies NB
facies OP
facies OA
facies CH

s AP
facie

-c-
Formations Sequence stratigraphy Age Aerial photograph Map of sequences
SB4
Bartonian
sequence D3
Upper Lutetian
DERNAH Formation SB3
Middle Eocene
sequence D2 Middle Lutetian
SB2
sequence D1 Lower Lutetian
APOLLONIA Formation SB1 sequence A1 Early Eocene Ypresian
SB0 1km panorama panorama
ATHRUN Formation Late Cretaceous Maastrichtian

161
Plates
Plates

Plate 50:

Geological panorama showing lateral variations of facies

and the successive progradation of the Middle Eocene carbonate platform
from NE Cyrenaica

This panorama extends over 4 km wide from the eastern side of Wadi Murqùs. The thickness of the
Eocene facies are ranging from 100 to 250 m.

a- Panorama of the eastern side of Wadi Murqùs.

b- Delineation of the depositional sequences.

c- Depositional sequences and facies distribution along the outcrop.

facies AP: Apollonia facies

facies CH: Chalky facies
facies NB: Nummulite Bnak facies
facies OB: Outer Nummulite Bank facies
facies OA: Orbitolites/Alveolina facies
facies OP: Operculina facies

162
 NE SW E W
section G
section J section L
section U

-a-

-b- facies OB facies OP facies NB facies OA

facies CH

facies AP

-c-
Formations Sequence stratigraphy Age Relative abundance of foraminifers and red algae D
F
SB4 T
Bartonian E H
sequence D3
Upper Lutetian
DERNAH Formation SB3
Middle Eocene U
sequence D2 Middle Lutetian
SB2 panorama
sequence D1 Lower Lutetian
APOLLONIA Formation SB1 sequence A1 Early Eocene Ypresian
SB0 1km
ATHRUN Formation Late Cretaceous Maastrichtian Operculina Discocyclinid Nummulites Orbitolites Algae L G

163
Plates
164
S N
Plates

Zelafine section Ferj Hari section

Panorama of the Djebel Cherahil and location of sections

N S E W

top

top

base
Zelafine section (46-m-thick)

Successive stages
2cm of dolomitization base Ferj Hari section (60-m-thick)
dolomitization
Plate 51:

of nummulites 2cm

0.25cm

Dolomitized facies containing

late Ypresian, Central Tunisia

abundant moldic cavities

(dissolution of nummulite tests partial dissolution
of the dolomitized 1cm
and gastropod shells)
nummulite tests Field sample showing a
Moldic porosity
0.25cm in dolomite facies gastropod-rich dolomitized facies

moldic cavity, resulting

from the complete
dissolution of the
Sedimentology and diagenetic processes of the Ain Merhotta Formation,

dolomitized
0.25cm nummulite tests 500µm 500µm
Preserved fossil roots.
Scale is 10 cm Detail of the Detail of anhydrite crystals
dolomitized matrix
 Plate 52: Plates
Comparison between nummulithoclastic source rock from offshore Libya (D2-well)
and potential analogues from the Kesra Plateau (Central Tunisia)
3 ft
NW Offshore Libya, D structure
bioturbated and laminated fine-grain limestone
high concentration of organic matter (TOC : 1.15%)

Outcrop analogue:
the nummulithoclastic facies of Kesra

components : nummulithoclasts, plankton, ostracods, oysters

sedimentary structures : bioturbation, laminations
others : intensive silicification
TOC : 2.15%
Palynofacies : dominant continental fragments

sedimentation in narrow intra-shelf basin

(poor-oxygen layers)
emerged land

0m

SWB

200m

Cretaceous
substratum

5 km

reservoir facies

intra-reservoir source rock basinal source rock

(dominant continental OM) (dominant marine OM)

? interpretation
?
0 ft

165
Plates

Plate 53:

Correspondence between sedimentary structures

observed at outcrop and at cores (offshore Libya)

a- Pocket-filling structures (nummulite bank facies).

outcrop : Dernah Fm, NE Cyrenaica

cores: Al Jurf field, B3 well - 8952,00 to 8955,00 ft
D structure, D2 well - 8871,00 to 8874,00 ft

b- Cross-bedding structures (high-energy facies).

outcrop: El Garia Fm, Kesra Plateau

cores: Al Jurf field, B3 well - 9029,00 to 9032,00 ft

D structure, D2 well - 8949,00 to 8952,00 ft

c- randomly-oriented nummulites (nummulite bank to outer bank facies).

outcrop: Dernah Fm, NE Cyrenaica

cores: Al Jurf field, B3 well - 8709,00 to 8712,00 ft

D structure, D2 well - 9006,00 to 9009,00 ft

166
 Plates

OUTCROP AL JURF CORES D2 CORES

-a-

-b-

-c-

2cm

167
 Appendix

List of Appendix

Appendix 1: List of symbols for the facies description............................................................................................170

Appendix 2: Section of the Kesra Roman Steps (MKR), Kesra PLateau............................................................... 171
Appendix 3: Section of the Murabat (Mu), Kesra Plateau....................................................................................... 172
Appendix 4: Section of the Dir Daba (DD1), Kesra PLateau.................................................................................. 173
Appendix 5: Section of Ali ben Salem (AbS), Kesra Plateau.................................................................................. 174
Appendix 6: Section of Dir el Jerouia West (DeJO), Kesra Plateau........................................................................175
Appendix 7: Section of Dir el Jerouia East (DeJE), Kesra Plateau......................................................................... 176
Appendix 8: Section of Sl Mohamed ben Abdallah (SMbA1, SMbA2), Kesra Plateau........................................ 177
Appendix 9: Section of Sl Mohamed ben Abdallah (SMbA3), Kesra Plateau....................................................... 178
Appendix 10: Section of Sl Mohamed ben Abdallah (SMbA4), Kesra Plateau..................................................... 179
Appendix 11: Section of Sl Mohamed ben Abdallah (SMbA5), Kesra Plateau..................................................... 180
Appendix 12: Section of Sl Mohamed ben Abdallah (SMbA6), Kesra Plateau..................................................... 181
Appendix 13: Section of Deroudj el Hamra (DeH), Kesra Plateau......................................................................... 182
Appendix 14: Section of A. ès Souk (AeS), Kesra Plateau......................................................................................183
Appendix 15: Section of A. el Hallouf (AeH), Kesra Plateau................................................................................. 184
Appendix 16: Section of Dir el Hadj Ali (DeHA), Kesra Plateau........................................................................... 185
Appendix 17: Section of Douirat Sadoune (DS), Kesra Plateau............................................................................. 186
Appendix 18: Section of Dir Feddane el Mrassi (DFeM1), Kesra Plateau............................................................. 187
Appendix 19: Type Section of Ain ad-Dabusseyah (top), NE Cyrenaica............................................................... 188
Appendix 20: Type Section of West Dernah Roaduct, NE Cyrenaica.....................................................................189
Appendix 21: Type Section of Cyrene (top), NE Cyrenaica....................................................................................190
Appendix 22: Section A, Sidi al Machmùm, NE Cyrenaica.................................................................................... 191
Appendix 23: Section B, Sidi al Machmùm, NE Cyrenaica.................................................................................... 192
Appendix 24: Section S, Sidi al Machmùm, NE Cyrenaica.................................................................................... 193
Appendix 25: Section E, Wadi Murqùs, NE Cyrenaica........................................................................................... 194
Appendix 26: Section H, Wadi Murqùs, NE Cyrenaica........................................................................................... 195
Appendix 27: Section T, Wadi Murqùs, NE Cyrenaica........................................................................................... 196
Appendix 28: Section L, Wadi Murqùs, NE Cyrenaica........................................................................................... 197
Appendix 29: Section J, Ras el Hilal roadcut, NE Cyrenaica.................................................................................. 198
Appendix 30: Section G, Ra’s ar Ramlah, NE Cyrenaica........................................................................................ 199
Appendix 31: Section K, Arqùb ash Shawà’ir, NE Cyrenaica.................................................................................200
Appendix 32: Section M, Arqùb ash Shawà’ir, NE Cyrenaica................................................................................ 201
Appendix 33: Section N, Wadi bin Jubàrah, NE Cyrenaica.....................................................................................202
Appendix 34: Section O, Wadi bin Jubàrah, NE Cyrenaica.....................................................................................203
Appendix 35: Section P, Wadi bin Jubàrah, NE Cyrenaica......................................................................................204
Appendix 36: Section Q, Wadi bin Jubàrah, NE Cyrenaica.....................................................................................205
Appendix 37: Section R, Wadi bin Jubàrah, NE Cyrenaica..................................................................................... 206

169
Appendix

Appendix 1: List of symbols for the facies description

Symbol
bioclasts
nummulite s.s .................................................................
small nummulite .............................................................
small-robust nummulite ..................................................
large-flat nummulite .......................................................
large-robust nummulite ..................................................
discocyclinid ...................................................................
Operculina ......................................................................
Orbitolites .......................................................................
Alveolina .........................................................................
plankton ..........................................................................
gastropod .......................................................................
bivalve ............................................................................
red algae ........................................................................
scaphopod ......................................................................
serpulid ...........................................................................
massive coral .................................................................
branching coral ...............................................................
nautiloid ..........................................................................
lihoclasts and mineralogic components
chert ...............................................................................
lithoclast .........................................................................
phosphate .......................................................................
glauconite .......................................................................
sedimentary structures

undulating surface ..........................................................

erosive surface ...............................................................
bioturbated surface ........................................................
hard-ground ....................................................................
bioturbation ....................................................................
wavy-bedding .................................................................
low-angle cross stratification ..........................................
large-scale cross-bedding ..............................................
hummocky-cross stratification ........................................
sequence stratigraphy
shallowing-upward cycle ................................................
deepening-upward cycle ................................................

170
 N

1000
large benthic foraminifers

petrographic small benthic other faunic depositional environments

00 texture foraminifers and mineralogic components
10

upper ramp lower ramp

900

0 2 km

facies association
depositional sequences

sedimentary structures
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Echinoid debris
Phosphates
Glauconie

Milliolidae

Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae

Small numulites
Flat nummulites
Small robust nummulites
Large robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclina
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
Samples Erosion profile Section MKR
(1 bar = 2m)
SJ 151*
large robust nummulite grainstone 2
SJ 151
facies

SJ 150
3
high-cemented
SJ 149 unconformity
S3 - EL GARIA

common dissolved 4
SJ 148
bioclastic fragments
(sub-aerial exposure
SJ 147 surface) 3

erosive surface
SJ 146

SJ 145 small robust nummulite 2

SJ 144 grainstone facies

SJ 143
grainstone facies with
dominant large-flat 3
nummulites

SJ 142

SJ 141
S2 - EL GARIA

SJ 140
common large
Discocyclina 2

covered area

SJ 139

bioturbated surface
SJ 138
Appendix 2: Section of the Kesra Roman Steps (MKR), Kesra PLateau

Nautiloid-rich facies
Upper Ypresian
SJ 137 phosphatic micro- P G P G P G P
NODULAR CHOUABINE Fm
P G P G P G P G
comglomerate
SJ 136 G G G G
S1 - CHOUABINE

glauconitic marls G G G G G

171
Appendix
172
Appendix

N
large benthic foraminifers

1000 petrographic small benthic other faunic

depositional environments
texture foraminifers and mineralogic components
Section Mu 0
1 00

upper ramp outer ramp

Samples Erosion profile 900

Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Echinoid debris
Phosphates
Glauconie
facies association
depositional sequences

sedimentary structures
Milliolidae

Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae

Small numulites
Flat nummulites
Small robust nummulites
Large robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclina
(1 bar = 2m)

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
0 2 km 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
SJ 101 2
SJ 100 nummulite-rich facies

SJ 99
SJ 98

SJ 97

imbricated large-flat nummulite facies 3

S3 - EL GARIA

SJ 96
SJ 95

SJ 94
high-cemented unconformity
SJ 93 common dissolved bioclastic fragments 4
SJ 92 (sub-aerial exposure surface)
ondulating bedding
3
SJ 91

SJ 90
massive grainstone
/ packstone facies
constituted by serpulid tubes
SJ 89
2

condensation of
imbricated large nummulite
3
S2 - EL GARIA

SJ 88

SJ 87

small robust nummulite 2

and Discocyclina
grainstone facies
SJ 86

SJ 85 small nummulite
packstone facie 4
SJ 84

SJ 83

P P
SJ 82
Nautiloid-rich facies
P
P
Upper Ypresian
Appendix 3: Section of the Murabat (Mu), Kesra Plateau

P
abundant phosphatic pebbles NODULAR CHOUABINE Fm
covered area (glauconitic green shales ?)
S1 - CHOUABINE

SJ 81
G G
massive glauconitic/phosphatic wackestone G

SJ 80 semi-lithified hard-ground (borings are infilled with glauconite)

SJ 79
SJ 78 planktonic foraminifera mud Maastrichtian ABIOD Fm
 N

1000

large benthic foraminifers

00
10
petrographic small benthic other faunic
depositional environments
texture foraminifers and mineralogic components
900

upper ramp outer ramp

0 2 km

Samples Erosion profile

Echinoid debris

Small numulites
Flat nummulites
Small robust nummulites
Large robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclina
Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Milliolidae
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Phosphates
Glauconie
facies association
depositional sequences

sedimentary structures

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
(1 bar = 2m)
Section DD1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2
SJ 165

coarse-grain nummulite facies

3
SJ 164

SJ 163
S3 - EL GARIA

Operculina-dominated facies,
SJ 162 rich in scaphopod debris 5

imbrication of large-flat nummulites

SJ 161 presence of serpulids 3

SJ 160
4
SJ 159

SJ 158
imbrication of large-flat nummulites 3
SJ 157

SJ 156
S2 - EL GARIA

5
Operculina-dominated facies

bioturbated surface
Appendix 4: Section of the Dir Daba (DD1), Kesra PLateau

SJ 155

Nautiloid-rich facies

Upper Ypresian
NODULAR CHOUABINE Fm
G P G P
SJ 154 phosphatic microconglomerate
P P
G
S1 - CHOUABINE

G
SJ 153
G G G G
SJ 152 G G G G G glauconitic marls

173
Appendix
174
N
large benthic foraminifers
Appendix

1000 petrographic small benthic other faunic

depositional environments
texture foraminifers and mineralogic components
00
10
upper ramp outer ramp

900

facies association
depositional sequences

sedimentary structures
Small numulites
Flat nummulites
Small robust nummulites
Large robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclina
Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Milliolidae
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Echinoid debris
Phosphates
Glauconie

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
0 2 km 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Section AbS
Samples Erosion profile
(1 bar = 2m)
SJ 135

SJ 134 2

SJ 133 large-scale cross bedding

SJ 132 4
SJ 131
S3 - EL GARIA

SJ 130
SJ 129

SJ 128 5

argillaceous limestone 7
SJ 127
common lithoclasts
and scaphopod fragments

SJ 126
SJ 125
silicified burrows
SJ 124
SJ 123 silicified burrows
SJ 122 OM-rich content
6
SJ 121
SJ 120
SJ chert nodules
SJ 119
118
S2 - EL GARIA

SJ 117 dark-grey limestone

SJ 116

SJ 115
bioturbated surface P
P
Appendix 5: Section of Ali ben Salem (AbS), Kesra Plateau

SJ 114
SJ 113 G
Nautiloid-rich facies G
P Upper Ypresian
SJ 112
SJ 111 G NODULAR CHOUABINE Fm
G P
covered area
S1 - CHOUAB

bioturbated, glauconitic marls G G G

hard-ground
Cretaceous planktonic muds Maastrichtian ABIOD Fm
 N

1000
large benthic foraminifers

00 petrographic small benthic other faunic

10 depositional environments
texture foraminifers and mineralogic components
900
upper ramp outer ramp
0 2 km

Samples Erosion profile

Milliolidae
facies association
depositional sequences

sedimentary structures
Section DeJO

Small numulites
Flat nummulites
Small robust nummulites
Large robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclina
Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Echinoid debris
Phosphates
Glauconie
(1 bar = 2m) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
SJ 1040
large bivalves in life position 1
SJ 1039

robust nummulite facies

SJ 1038 (N. perplexus) 2
SJ 1037
SJ 1036 3
SJ 38 Nautiloid
SJ 37
SJ 36
SJ 35
gastropod-rich 2
SJ 34 facies
SJ 33
SJ 32

SJ 31
SJ 30 imbricated 3
num. facies
SJ 29 (2nd step)
SJ 28

SJ 27 small robust
SJ 26 nummulite facies

upstairs
S3 - EL GARIA

4
SJ 25

SJ 24

SJ 23 (1st step)
SJ 22
SJ 21

SJ 20 Operculina and
large nummulite
SJ 19
facies

upstairs
SJ 18
5
SJ 17

SJ 16
SJ 14 P

SJ 13 P P

SJ 12
bioturbated horizons
SJ 11 P P P

P
P
P
SJ 10 P

SJ 9 P P
P
P P
SJ 8 common echinoid P
P P
S2 - EL GARIA

and bivalve fragments

6
SJ 7 P
P P

P
P
P
bioturbated horizons
SJ 6
Appendix 6: Section of Dir el Jerouia West (DeJO), Kesra Plateau

dark-grey limestone
SJ 5
SJ 4 G P P
G P
Nautiloid-rich facies P P P
G
P P

phosphatic micro-conglomerate NODULAR CHOUABINE

SJ 3 G
SJ 2 P G
G G
S1-CHOUAB

SJ 1 bioturbated, glauconitic marls G G G

175
Appendix
176
N
large benthic foraminifers
Appendix

1000 petrographic small benthic other faunic

depositional environments
texture foraminifers and mineralogic components
00
10
upper ramp outer ramp

900

Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Echinoid debris
Phosphates
Glauconie

Milliolidae

Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae

Small numulites
Flat nummulites
Small robust nummulites
Large robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclina
facies association
depositional sequences

sedimentary structures

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
0 2 km 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Samples Erosion profile

Section DeJE
(1 bar = 2m)
SJ 331
SJ 330
SJ 329
large bivalves in life position 1
SJ 328
SJ 327

SJ 326
SJ 325
robust nummulite facies
SJ 324 (N. perplexus) 2
SJ 323
SJ 322
SJ 77
SJ 76
imbricated nummulite facies 3
SJ 75
SJ 74

SJ 73 2
SJ 72

SJ 71
S3 - EL GARIA

SJ 70
4
SJ 68
SJ 69 gastropod-rich facies
SJ 67

SJ 66
5
SJ 65
SJ 64
SJ 63

SJ 62

SJ 61
SJ 60
dark-grey limestone 6
SJ 59
SJ 58

SJ 57
SJ 56

SJ 55 5
SJ 54
SJ 53
SJ 52
S2 - EL GARIA

SJ 50 P P
P
common echinoid
SJ 51
SJ 49 and bivalve fragments
SJ 48

SJ 47
SJ 46 6
SJ 45
SJ 44
Appendix 7: Section of Dir el Jerouia East (DeJE), Kesra Plateau

SJ 43
dark-grey limestone
SJ 42 P

Nautiloid-rich facies P Upper Ypresian

P
SJ 41
NODULAR CHOUABINE Fm
SJ 40 phosphatic micro-conglomerate G G
SJ 39 G G
S1-CHOUAB

bioturbated, glauconitic marls G

 N
large benthic foraminifers

1000 petrographic small benthic other faunic

depositional environments
texture foraminifers and mineralogic components

00
10
upper ramp outer ramp

SMbA1 900
SMbA2

Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Echinoid debris
Phosphates
Glauconie
facies association
depositional sequences

sedimentary structures
Milliolidae

Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae

Small numulites
Flat nummulites
Small robust nummulites
Large robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclina

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
0 2 km 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Samples Erosion profile
(1 bar = 2m)
SJ 321 Section SMbA2
S3 - EG

SJ 320 5
SJ 319

SJ 318

SJ 317
3
SJ 316

SJ 315

SJ 314

SJ 313
4
SJ 312
3
SJ 311
S2 - EL GARIA

SJ 310
SJ 309

SJ 308
4
SJ 307

SJ 306

SJ 305

bioturbated surface
SJ 304
Nautiloid-rich facies NODULAR CHOUABINE Fm

Section SMbA1
SJ 110

SJ 109
nummulitic grainstone 2

SJ 108
4
S2 - EL GARIA

SJ 107
SJ 106 interbedded shales
P G P

G
SJ 105
P Nautiloid-rich facies
G P

P P G Upper Ypresian
NODULAR CHOUABINE Fm
SJ 104 P G P G P
SJ 103 P G P G P
phosphatic microconglomerate

covered area
S1 - CHOUABINE

SJ 102 G G G G
G G G G glauconitic marls
Appendix 8: Section of Sl Mohamed ben Abdallah (SMbA1, SMbA2), Kesra Plateau

177
Appendix
 large benthic foraminifers

178
N

1000
petrographic small benthic other faunic
depositional environments
texture foraminifers and mineralogic components
Appendix

00
10
upper ramp outer ramp

900

0 2 km

facies association
depositional sequences

sedimentary structures
Small numulites
Flat nummulites
Small robust nummulites
Large robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclina

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Echinoid debris
Phosphates
Glauconie

Bolivinidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae

Cibicidae
Miliolidae
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Section SMbA3
Samples Erosion profile
(1 bar = 2m)
SJ 980
SJ 979
SJ 978 5
SJ 977
SJ 976

SJ 975

SJ 974

Nummulite-dominated
facies 3
SJ 973

SJ 972

SJ 971
970

SJ 969
S2-EL GARIA

SJ 967 5
Operculina-dominated
SJ 966 facies
SJ 965

SJ 964

SJ 963
4

SJ 962 5
SJ 961

SJ 960

SJ 959 4

SJ 958 bioturbated surface

Appendix 9: Section of Sl Mohamed ben Abdallah (SMbA3), Kesra Plateau

P
G Nautiloid-rich facies NODULAR CHOUABINE
SJ 957
G
S1-CHOUAB

P
179
0
N

SJ 981
SJ 982
SJ 983
SJ 984
SJ 985
SJ 986
SJ 987
SJ 988
SJ 989
SJ 990
SJ 991
SJ 992
SJ 993
SJ 994
SJ 995
SJ 996
10
00

Samples
2 km

(1 bar = 2m)

P
P
Erosion profile

P
1000

900

Section SMbA4

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
texture

Packstone
petrographic

Grainstone
sedimentary structures
Small numulites
Flat nummulites
Small robust nummulites
Large robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclina
Bolivinidae
large benthic foraminifers

Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
foraminifers
small benthic

Miliolidae
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
other faunic

Echinoid debris
Phosphates
and mineralogic components

Glauconie

5
4
5
4
5
facies association
1
2
upper ramp

3
4
5

NODULAR CHOUABINE
6
depositional environments

outer ramp

7
depositional sequences
S1 - CHOUABINE S2 - EL GARIA
Appendix 10: Section of Sl Mohamed ben Abdallah (SMbA4), Kesra Plateau
Appendix
 large benthic foraminifers

180
petrographic small benthic other faunic
depositional environments
texture foraminifers and mineralogic components
Appendix

upper ramp outer ramp

N

1000

Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Echinoid debris
Phosphates
Glauconie

Bolivinidae
facies association

Lenticulina
depositional sequences

Textulariidae

Cibicidae

Small numulites
Flat nummulites
Small robust nummulites
Large robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclina
Miliolidae

sedimentary structures

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
00
10

900

0 2 km

Section SMbA5

Samples Erosion profile

(1 bar = 2m)

SJ 1019

SJ 1018
4
SJ 1017

SJ 1016
5
SJ 1015
3
SJ 1014

SJ 1013 5
SJ 1012

SJ 1011

SJ 1010
S2 - EL GARIA

SJ 1009
SJ 1008
6
SJ 1007

SJ 1006

SJ 1005

SJ 1004

SJ 1003
5
SJ 1002

P
P P
Appendix 11: Section of Sl Mohamed ben Abdallah (SMbA5), Kesra Plateau

NODULAR CHOUABINE
SJ 1001
P
P
P
S1-CHOUABINE
 large benthic foraminifers

petrographic small benthic other faunic

foraminifers depositional environments
N texture and mineralogic components

1000
upper ramp outer ramp

0 0
10

Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Echinoid debris
Phosphates
Glauconie
facies association

sedimentary structures
depositional sequences

Small numulites
Flat nummulites
Small robust nummulites
Large robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclina

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
Bolivinidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae

Cibicidae
Miliolidae
900 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 2 km

Section SMbA6

Samples Erosion profile

(1 bar = 2m)
SJ 1032

5
SJ 1031
Operculina facies

SJ 1030
1030*

SJ 1029
S2 - EL GARIA

SJ 1028

SJ 1027
6
SJ 1026

SJ 1025 interbedded shales

SJ 1024

SJ 1023

SJ 1022
P
SJ 1021
P

Nautiloid-rich facies
P NODULAR CHOUABINE
SJ 1020 interbedded shales
Appendix 12: Section of Sl Mohamed ben Abdallah (SMbA6), Kesra Plateau

S1 - CHOUABINE

P P
P

181
Appendix
 N
large benthic foraminifers

182
1000
Appendix

petrographic small benthic other faunic

00
depositional environments
10 texture foraminifers and mineralogic componants

upper ramp outer ramp

900

0 2 km
depositional sequences

facies association

sedimentary structures
Bolivinidae

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
small robust nummulites
large robust nummulites

flat nummulites
Lenticulina
Textulariidae

Packstone
small nummulites
Operculina
Cibicidae

Grainstone
Discocyclina
Miliolidae
Serpulids
Echinoid debris
Glauconie

Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods

Bryozoans
Phosphates

Ostracods
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Section DeH
Samples Erosion profile
(1 bar = 2m)

low bioclastic content 4

SJ 181
SJ 180

SJ 179
6
S3 - EL GARIA

SJ 178

SJ 177

5
SJ 176

SJ 175
argillaceous
SJ 174 limestone 7
silicified burrows

chert nodules
silicified
OM-rich content burrows

SJ 173
6
SJ 172
S2 - EL GARIA

SJ 171

SJ 170
Appendix 13: Section of Deroudj el Hamra (DeH), Kesra Plateau

SJ 169 bioturbated surface

SJ 168
Nautiloid-rich
SJ 167 facies NODULAR CHOUABINE
S1 - CHOUAB

SJ 166 glauconitic marls

 N large benthic foraminifers

1000
petrographic small benthic other faunic
depositional environments
texture foraminifers and mineralogic components
00
10
upper ramp outer ramp

900

facies association
depositional sequences

sedimentary structures

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
Small numulites
Flat nummulites
Small robust nummulites
Large robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclina
Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Miliolidae
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Echinoid debris
Phosphates
Glauconie
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 2 km

Samples Erosion profile

(1 bar = 2m)
Section AeS
SJ 237
SJ 236 2
SJ 235
low-angle
SJ 234
cross-stratifications
SJ 233 3
SJ 232
SJ 231
SJ 230
SJ 229
SJ 228
SJ 227
SJ 226 4
SJ 225
SJ 224
SJ 223
SJ 222

SJ 221

SJ 220
Operculina-rich
SJ 219
facies 5
SJ 218

SJ 217
S3 - EL GARIA

SJ 216

SJ 215 6

SJ 214
silicified surfaces

SJ 213
5
OM-rich content argillaceous
SJ 212 horizon 7

SJ 211
SJ 210
SJ 209

6
silicified surfaces
Appendix 14: Section of A. ès Souk (AeS), Kesra Plateau
S2 - EL GARIA

SJ 208

SJ 207 bioclastic facies

SJ 206

SJ 205

Nautiloid-rich NODULAR CHOUABINE

SJ 204 facies
SJ 203
micro-conglomerate
S1 - CHOUAB

SJ 202 (phosphatic pebbles) G P G

P G P

183
Appendix
 N

184
large benthic foraminifers
1000

petrographic small benthic other faunic and

depositional environments
Appendix

00 texture foraminifers mineralogic components

10
Section AeH
900 upper ramp outer ramp

0 2 km

Samples Erosion profile

facies association
depositional sequences

sedimentary structures
Bolivinidae

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Small robust nummulites
Large robust nummulites

Flat nummulites
Lenticulina
Textulariidae

Packstone
Small nummulites
Operculina
Cibicidae

Grainstone
Discocyclina
Miliolidae
Serpulids
Echinoid debris

Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Glauconie

Bryozoans
Phosphates

Ostracods
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(1 bar = 2m)
SJ 370

low angle cross stratifications

SJ 369 2
SJ 368

SJ 367

SJ 366
SJ 365 4
SJ 364
SJ 363
SJ 362

SJ 361

SJ 360 5
SJ 359

SJ 358
SJ 357
silicified surface
S3 - EL GARIA

SJ 356
SJ 355

SJ 354
6
SJ 353
SJ 352
SJ 351

SJ 350

SJ 349

SJ 348
SJ 347
SJ 346 5
argillaceous horizon 7
SJ 345

SJ 344 OM-rich content

SJ 343

SJ 342
SJ 341
silicified surface

SJ 340
SJ 339

silicified surface 6
SJ 338
S2 - EL GARIA

SJ 337
Appendix 15: Section of A. el Hallouf (AeH), Kesra Plateau

SJ 336

SJ 335
SJ 334
SJ 333
P
P P
SJ 332 Nautiloid-rich
P P NODULAR CHOUABINE
facies
P
S1 - CHOUAB
 N large benthic foraminifers

1000 petrographic small benthic other faunic and

foraminifers depositional environments
texture mineralogic components

upper ramp outer ramp

00
10

Bolivinidae

Small robust nummulites

Large robust nummulites

Flat nummulites
Lenticulina
Textulariidae

Small nummulites
Operculina
Cibicidae
facies association

Discocyclina
depositional sequences

sedimentary structures
Serpulids
Echinoid debris
Glauconie

Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods

Bryozoans
Phosphates

Ostracods

Miliolidae

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
900

0 2 km

Section DeHA
Samples Erosion profile
(1 bar = 2m)

SJ 302
hummocky stratifications
SJ 301

SJ 300

SJ 299
SJ 298
S2 - EL GARIA

SJ 297

SJ 296

SJ 295 low-angle foresets

SJ 294
SJ 293
SJ 292
SJ 291

SJ 290 6
SJ 289

SJ 288

fine-grain
bioclastic facies
SJ 287

SJ 286
S1 - EL GARIA

SJ 283

SJ 282

SJ 281
Appendix 16: Section of Dir el Hadj Ali (DeHA), Kesra Plateau

SJ 280 smooth laminations

SJ 279
SJ 278

Nautiloid facies
SJ 277
SJ 276 P P
NODULAR CHOUABINE
ondulated horizon
SJ 275 P P
S1 - CHOUAB

G G G
SJ 274

185
Appendix
 N large benthic foraminifers

186
1000
petrographic small benthic other faunic
depositional environments
texture foraminifers and mineralogic components
Appendix

0 0
10

upper ramp outer ramp

900

0 2 km

Milliolidae

Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Echinoid debris
Phosphates
Glauconie

Small numulites
Flat nummulites
Small robust nummulites
Large robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclina
facies association
depositional sequences

sedimentary structures

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
Samples Erosion profile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(1 bar = 2m)
Section DS
SJ 273

SJ 272 4
SJ 271
SJ 270 large amplitude
SJ 269 hummocky
stratifications
SJ 268 5
SJ 267
SJ 266
bioturbated facies
SJ 265
P P
SJ 264
P P P
SJ 263
OM-rich content 6
S3 - EL GARIA

SJ 262
SJ 261

SJ 260
SJ 259

5
SJ 258

SJ 257
SJ 256

SJ 255

SJ 254 OM-rich content

SJ 253
6
SJ 252

SJ 251
5
SJ 250
SJ 249
SJ 248
SJ 247
SJ 246
SJ 245

SJ 244
S2 - EL GARIA

brownish limestone
6
SJ 243
OM-rich content
SJ 242

bioclastic sandy limestone

Appendix 17: Section of Douirat Sadoune (DS), Kesra Plateau

SJ 241
SJ 240
SJ 239
NODULAR CHOUABINE
SJ 238 Nautiloid-rich
S1 - CHOUAB

facies
 N
large benthic foraminifers
1000
petrographic small benthic other faunic
depositional environments
texture foraminifers and mineralogic components
0
1 00
upper ramp outer ramp

900

Small numulites
Flat nummulites
Small robust nummulites
Large robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclina
Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Milliolidae
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Echinoid debris
Phosphates
Glauconie
facies association
depositional sequences

sedimentary structures

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 2 km

Samples Erosion profile

(1 bar = 2m)
Section DFeM1
SJ 200

SJ 199 2
SJ 198 3
SJ 197 coarsening-upward
sequence

SJ 196
S3 - EL GARIA

Operculina-dominated facies
5
SJ 195

bioturbated surface
argillaceous wackestone 7

SJ 194

SJ 193
6
SJ 192

SJ 191
silicified burrows
SJ 190
5
SJ 189

SJ 188
S2 - EL GARIA

SJ 187

SJ 186
SJ 185 6
SJ 184
Appendix 18: Section of Dir Feddane el Mrassi (DFeM1), Kesra Plateau

SJ 183

SJ 182 silicified burrows

187
Appendix
Appendix

Appendix 19: Type Section of Ain ad-Dabusseyah (top), NE Cyrenaica

Theoretic

Sedimentary structures

Depositional sequences
Field observations Texture Porosity Large benthic foraminifers Small benthic Other faunic components carbonate platform profile

Sequence boundaries
foraminifers

Small-robust nummulites
Large-robust nummulites

Planktonic foraminifers

Facies association
Ain Ad-Dabusseyah

proximal outer platform

Large-flat nummulites

supratidal to intertidal

distal outer platform

Type Section

Small nummulites

topographic high
Intracrystalline
Intercrystalline

Massive corals
Solitary corals
Discocyclinid

inner platform
Textulariidae
Intragranular
Intergranular

Fecal pellets
Wackestone

Scaphopods
Bolivinidae

Lenticulina
Operculina

Gastropods
Grainstone

Orbitolites

Peneroplis

Bryozoans
Miliolidae
Packstone
Mudstone

Echinoids
Ostracods

Red algae
Cibicidae

Rotalidae
Alveolina

Serpulids
Bivalves
Moldic
Marls

slope

basin
Oligocene
240 m
OLIGOCENE

Red algea, Discocyclina and ech-

inoid debris limestones (Bayda
Formation)

SJ 1098
Eocene / Oligocene
boundary SB4
Nummulite deposits rich in B-
220 m SJ 1097 forms, sometimes silicified

SJ 1096 SJ 434

SJ 1095

SJ 1094

SJ 1093 first appearence of red algea

Nummulites lyelli NB
SJ 1092 SJ 1165 Packstone facies with common
small nummulites
SJ1091
SJ1090
UPPPER LUTETIAN TO BARTONIAN

200 m
GAP (covered area)

Dernah 3
SJ1089

180 m dissolution of nummulite chambers

SJ1088
OP

SJ1087 silicified nummulites

laminated level (base of the bank)

SJ1086
SJ1085 nummulite facies
SJ1084

160 m
SJ 1164 SJ433
decreasing of bioturbation, good moldic
porosity, abundant gastropods and bivalves
GP
SJ1083 small cross bedding
strongly burrowed sediments
SJ1082* SJ1082
SB3
SJ1081

SJ1080
N5 SJ1079 Nummulites gizehensis
SJ1078
SJ1077
Floatstone facies with nummulites, NB
interbedded with chalky facies
SJ1076

140 m
SJ1075
N3 Nummulites gizehensis

SJ1073

Dernah 2
SJ432
mustone facies interbedded with chalky
MIDDLE LUTETIAN

120 m
limestones. Mudstone banks are strongly
burrowed (Teichicnus traces) CH

100 m SJ1072

SJ1071 Packstone with silicified nummulite shells

SJ1070
SJ1069
cherts level OP
SJ1068
cherts nodules, containing nummulites, gas-
SJ1067 tropods and iron oxyde infilling.
mudstone facies containing nummulites
N2
SJ1066
SJ 1163
SJ1065 Nummulites gizehensis SB2
SJ1064
First nummulite-rich facies, containing
80 m
SJ1063
pocket-filled structures
NB
N1 Nummulites gizehensis
SJ1062

SJ1061
SJ1060 SJ689
Cross bedding structures ?
SJ1059

SJ1058

SJ1057
SJ1056
60 m Decreasing of nummulite content

SJ1055
SJ1054 Floatstone facies with nummulites and
Operculina
SJ1053
SJ1052

SJ1051
OP
Dernah 1

SJ1050

SJ1049
SJ1048
EARLY LUTETIAN

40 m
SJ1047
SJ1046
SJ1045

SJ1044
SJ1043

SJ1042
SJ1041
Strongly burrowed muddy and chalky facies
SJ1040
SJ1039

SJ1038

20 m

AP
SJ430

SJ431
SJ 1062 SJ1037
Large horizontal burrows and big chert nod-
SJ1036
SJ1035 ules
SJ1034

SJ1033
0m

188
 Theoretic
Field observations Texture Porosity Large benthic foraminifers Small benthic Other faunic components carbonate platform profile
foraminifers
Dernah Type Section pore types %

(DhTS)

50%
supratidal to intertidal
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
distal outer platform
slope
basin

Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Small-robust nummulites
Lareg-robust nummulites

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracristalline
Intercristalline
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Rotalidae
Peneroplis
Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Red Algae
Echinoids
Planktonic foraminifers
Fecal pellets
Sequence boundaries

Depositional sequences

Facies association
lithology erosion profil

OLIGOCENE SJ 1149
70m SJ 450 Eocene / Oligocene boundary
SJ 451 SJ 1148 SB4
(palaeosoil)

SJ 449 poor-cemented nummulite facies Np

SJ 448

SJ 1145
Rhodolithes facies
N9 SJ 1143 Entire echinoderm shells (N9)
60m Nummulites lyelli / Nummulites beaumonti
Y7 Ag
SJ 1138 algal limestone
SJ 1137
Dernah 3

UPPPER LUT. TO BARTONIAN

coral reef buildup (composed of
SJ 1136
massive and branching corals)
Cr
SJ 1135 boundstone facies interbedded with SB3
50m
SJ 1134 mudstone facies

SJ 1133
small patch reef composed of solitary
corals, passing laterally to Discocyclina Cs
SJ 1132 and red algae facies
SJ 1132*
SJ 1131
SJ 1130

MIDDLE LUTETIAN
SJ 1129 dolomitized packstone, rich in moldic
SJ 1128 cavities of dissolution
Dernah 2

40m
SJ 1127
Ag
SJ 1126

SJ 1125
dolomitized packstone, rich in moldic SB2
SJ 1124 cavities of dissolution
SJ 1123
SJ 1122
SJ 1121 dolomitized packstone, rich in moldic
30m cavities of dissolution
SJ 1120
SJ 1119 Do
SJ 1118 abundant red algae
SJ 1117 packstone with common Discocyclina,
SJ 1116 red algae and echinoids debris
SJ 1115 incised channel with large Discocyclina
SJ
SJ 1114
1113 facies infilling (fining upward sequence) Cf
SJ 1112 occurence of coral debris
SJ 1111
SJ 1110
20m SJ 1109 small rhodolites
SJ 1108
Ag
SJ 1107 abundant Discocyclina at the top

SJ 1106
Dernah 1

abundant Discocyclina at the top

LOWER LUTETIAN
SJ 1105
SJ 1104

10m SJ 1103 increasing of nummulite size

SJ 1102 NB
abundance of gastropods and
SJ 1101 nummulites
Appendix 20: Type Section of West Dernah Roaduct, NE Cyrenaica

SJ 1100
SJ 1100* occurence of nummulite, Discocyclina,
SJ 1099 Op
spirorbis tubes
0m

189
Appendix
Appendix

Appendix 21: Type Section of Cyrene (top), NE Cyrenaica

Theoretic
Field observations Texture Porosity Large benthic foraminifers Small benthic Other faunic components

Sedimentary structures
carbonate platform profile

Depositional sequences
foraminifers

Sequence boundaries
Small-robust nummulites
Large-robust nummulites

proximal outer platform

Planktonic foraminifers

Facies association
Large-flat nummulites

supratidal to intertidal

distal outer platform

Section of

Small nummulites

topographic high
Apollonia-Cyrene

Intracrystalline
Intercrystalline

Massive corals
Solitary corals

inner platform
Discocyclinid

Textulariidae
Intragranular
Intergranular

Fecal pellets
Wackestone

Scaphopods
Bolivinidae

Lenticulina
Operculina

Gastropods
Grainstone

Orbitolites

Peneroplis

Bryozoans
Miliolidae
Packstone
Mudstone

Echinoids
Ostracods

Red algae
Cibicidae

Rotalidae
Alveolina

Serpulids
Bivalves
Moldic
Marls

slope

basin
lithology erosion profil

biotrubated facies rich in oysters

SJ475
450m
SJ471
SJ470
encrusting oysters
SB4
bioturbated facies
SJ468

nummulite-rich facies
SJ467
SJ466 important vuggy porosity NB
SJ465
SJ464 wavy laminations
abundant gastropods in the highly
SJ463 cemented top bank

SJ462
400m
common gastropods, oysters and
echinoids at the top of the bank
SJ460
important dissolution of nummulite
tests
OA
Orbitolites facies

Algae-rich facies with scaphopods

Dernah 3
SJ1196
and intraclast

NB
UPPPER LUTETIAN TO BARTONIAN

SJ487 Algae-rich facies

350m

SJ486
SJ485
large-flat nummulites, floating in a
SJ484
muddy matrix

OB

300m

Operculina facies OP
chert nodules
SJ483
flooding surface with extraclasts SB3
SJ482

250m
SJ481
Orbitolites and red algae shoal facies OA
SJ480 gastropod shells
SJ479

NB

Dernah 2
abundant small nummulites and sca-
210m SJ478 phopod

SJ1194
200m

SJ1193
intense dolomitization of floatstone
nummulite facies
OB
SJ1192

SJ1191

SJ1190
Operculina facies OP
MIDDLE LUTETIAN

flooding surface SB2

SJ1189
150m
Orbitolites shoal deposits, cross-
bedding structures OA

SJ1188 corn-flakes discocyclinid, associated

with rhodolites
SJ1186-1187
SJ1185
castle ruins

dolomitized nummulite-rich facies

NB

100m coarse-grain nummulite facies

Dernah 1

nummulite and discocyclinid facies,

muddy matrix

good moldic porosity

LOWER LUTETIAN

covered zone
50m SJ1184 dolomitized facies
OB
SJ1183 presence of bryozoans

SJ1181 dolomitization and dissolution

10m

190
191
0m
100 m
120 m
140 m
160 m
180 m

20 m
40 m
60 m
80 m

LOWER LUTETIAN MIDDLE LUTETIAN UPPPER LUTETIAN TO BARTONIAN

lithology
erosion profil

SJ1180
Section A

SJ1179
type section)

SJ1175

SJ1173
SJ1174
SJ1177-1178

SJ1176-Y30
(West of Ain Ad-Dabusseyah

SJ1172

SJ1171

Apollonia
and lenses
chalky facies
N. discorbinus
large gastropods
Operculina facies

N. lyelli / N. beaumonti

light slope, no outcrops

chalky facies of Ain Ad-

a possible equivalent to

abundant chert nodules

bioclastic nummulite facies
Field observations

chalky facies, equivalent to

Dabousseyah Type section
occurrence of solitary corals

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Texture

Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracrystalline
Porosity

Intercrystalline
Sedimentary structures
Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Small robust nummulites
Large-robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Large benthic foraminifers

Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
foraminifers

Peneroplis
Small benthic

Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Echinoids
Other faunic components

Planktonic foraminifers
Fecal pellets
Facies association

Ap
Ch

Op
Op
Gp
Op

NB
NB

OB
supratidal to intertidal
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
Theoretic

distal outer platform

slope
carbonate platform profile

basin
Dernah 1 Dernah 2 Dernah 3 Depositional sequences
Sequence boundaries

SB2
SB3
Appendix 22: Section A, Sidi al Machmùm, NE Cyrenaica
Appendix
192
Appendix

Theoretic
Field observations Texture Porosity Large benthic foraminifers Small benthic Other faunic components carbonate platform profile
foraminifers

Section B
(West of Ain Ad-Dabusseyah)

supratidal to intertidal
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
distal outer platform
slope
basin

Sedimentary structures
Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Small-robust nummulites
Large-robust nummulites

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracrystalline
Intercrystalline
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Rotalidae
Peneroplis
Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Red algae
Echinoids
Planktonic foraminifers
Fecal pellets
Depositional sequence
Sequence boundaries

Facies association
lithology erosion profil

SJ519 nummulite facies at the top of the cliff

NB
SJ518
SJ517 hard limestone rich in gastropods,
140m bivalves and echinoderm shells.
SJ516 Important moldic porosity
SJ515
Gp
SJ514
Dernah 3

SJ513

SJ512
Op
SJ511

SJ510
SB3
120m NB
SJ509
SJ508

UPPPER LUTETIAN TO BARTONIAN

SJ507
SJ506
SJ505
Gp
SJ504
outcrop projection

100m

GAP
covered area, interpreted as facies
equivalent to mudstone facies Ch
interbedded with chalky limestones,
which have been described on Ain
Dernah 2

MIDDLE LUTETIAN
80m Ad Dabusseyah Type Section

SJ503 Nummulites gizehensis / Nummulites lyelli

60m
Op
SJ502
chert nodule with dissolved and silici- SB2
fied nummulites

SJ501
40m NB
SJ500
SJ499
SJ498

SJ497

SJ496
SJ495 Op
Appendix 23: Section B, Sidi al Machmùm, NE Cyrenaica

20m
Dernah 1

LOWER LUTETIAN
SJ494

accumulation of discocyclina at the

SJ493
SJ492 top of the bank Ap
SJ491
SJ489 chert nodules

0m
193
0m
20m
40m
60m
80m
100m
120m

LOWER LUTETIAN MIDDLE LUTETIAN UPPPER LUTETIAN TO BARTONIAN

lithology
erosion profil

SJ717

SJ715
SJ716

SJ713
SJ714

SJ712

SJ711

SJ708
SJ709
SJ710-SJ710n
Section S

SJ707

SJ706
(West of Ain Ad-Dabusseyah Type Section)

SJ705
Elevation : 420m

Nummulites gizehensis

Chalky limestone
Chalky limestone

Large chert nodules

Large chert nodules
Field observations

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Texture

Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracrystalline
Porosity

Intercrystalline
Sedimentary structures
Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Small-robust nummulites
Large-robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Large benthic foraminifers

Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Rotalidae
foraminifers
Small benthic

Peneroplis
Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Red algae
Other faunic components

Echinoids
Planktonic foraminifers
Fecal Pellets
Facies association

Ch

Op
Op
Op

NB
NB

OB
supratidal to intertidal
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
Theoretic

distal outer platform

slope
carbonate platform profile

basin
Dernah 1 Dernah 2 Dernah 3 Depositional sequences
Sequence boundaries

SB2
SB3
Appendix 24: Section S, Sidi al Machmùm, NE Cyrenaica
Appendix
194
Appendix

Theoretic
Field observations Texture Porosity Large benthic foraminifers Small benthic Other faunic components
carbonate platform profile
foraminifers

Section E
(Arqub Shafshaff area)

Sedimentary structures
Facies association

Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Small-robust nummulites
Large-robust nummulites

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracrystalline
Intercrystalline
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Rotalidae
Peneroplis
Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoars
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Red algeas
Echinoids
Planktonic foraminifers
Fecal Pellets
supratidal to intertidal
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
distal outer platform
slope
basin
Sequence boundaries

Depositional sequences

lithology erosion profil

100m

fine-grain Discocyclina-rich Op
deposits
SJ541
Dernah 3

SJ540 muddy level containing gastro-

SJ539 SB3
SJ538
pods, bivalves and echinoids
80m

UPPPER LUTETIAN TO BARTONIAN

NB
SJ536
major nummulite deposits

SJ535
SJ534
Gp
mudstones interbedded with
60m
chalky facies, affected by bur-
rowing (Teichicnus)

SJ533 thin bed of nummulite facies

Ch
Dernah 2

GAP (covered area)

MIDDLE LUTETIAN
40m

Op

SJ532 nummulitic packstone

SB2
SJ531
NB
SJ530

20m
Op
SJ529
Appendix 25: Section E, Wadi Murqùs, NE Cyrenaica

SJ528 chert nodules with silicified

nummulites

very hard lithographic limestone

Dernah 1

Ap

LOWER LUTETIAN
irregular silicified surface
ondulated bed contact

SJ527 elevation : 430 m ; GPS point : WM

0m
 Theoretic
Field observations Texture Porosity Large benthic foraminifers Small benthic Other faunic components
carbonate platform profile
foraminifers

Section H
(Arqub Shafshaff Area)

Sedimentary structures
Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Small-robust nummulites
Large-robust nummulites

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracrystalline
Intercrystalline
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Rotalidae
Peneroplis
Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Red algae
Echinoids
Planktonic foraminifers
Feacl pellets
supratidal to intertidal
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
distal outer platform
slope
basin
Sequence boundaries

Depositional sequences

Facies association
lithology erosion profil

SJ576
160m

SJ575

Op
SJ574 Operculina facies
140m
Dernah 3

SJ573

Discocyclina facies

SJ572
120m SB3
SJ571

SJ570 occurrence of Discocyclina

UPPPER LUTETIAN TO BARTONIAN

NB
SJ569 Nummulites lyelli / Nummulites beaumonti
100m "tea time" Nummulites discorbinus / Nummulites gizehensis
SJ568
hard limestone rich in gastropods, bivalves
SJ567 and echinoid
Gp
Nummulites lyelli / Nummulites beaumonti
SJ566 "lunch"
Nummulites gizehensis
80m
coarsening up sequence in nummulite NB
deposits
Dernah 2

60m
Ch
GAP (covered area, interpreted as a chalky
facies interval)

MIDDLE LUTETIAN
40m Op
SJ565 SB2
nummulitic packstone pockets (burrows OA
infilling)
Appendix 26: Section H, Wadi Murqùs, NE Cyrenaica

SJ564
SJ563 silicified zone (SJ 564) NB
SJ562
SJ561

20m
muddy level

Op
Dernah 1

chert nodules with silicified nummulites

SJ560 Ap

LOWER LUTETIAN
0m

195
Appendix
 196
100m
120m
140m
160m

0m
20m
40m
60m
80m

LOWER LUTETIAN MIDDLE LUTETIAN UPPPER LUTETIAN TO BARTONIAN

lithology

SJ 727
SJ 728

SJ 726
erosion profil

SJ 724
SJ 725
Section T

SJ 723
SJ 722

SJ 721
SJ 721

SJ 720
(Arqub Shafshaff Area)

SJ 719
SJ 718
Operculina facies

"house in the cliff"

Discocyclina facies

Discocyclina facies

full shell of echinoids

GAP (covered area)

Nummulites gizehensis

thin beds of shalky limestone

Operculina-rich facies
Field observations

oblique stratifications in "corn flakes"

(coarsenning-upward sequence)

morphology, due to preferential erosion)

beautiful nummulite facies on the cliff (cave

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Texture

Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracrystalline
Porosity

Intercrystalline
Sedimentary structures
Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Small-robust nummulites
Large-robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Large benthic foraminifers

Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Rotalidae
foraminifers
Small benthic

Peneroplis
Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoars
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Red algeas
Other faunic components

Echinoids
Planktonic foraminifers
Fecal pellets
Facies association

Cf

Ap
Ch

Op
Op
Gp
Op

NB
NB
supratidal to intertidal

Gp
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
Theoretic

distal outer platform

slope
carbonate platform profile

basin
Dernah 1 Dernah 2 Dernah 3 Depositional sequences
Sequence boundaries

SB2
SB3
Appendix 27: Section T, Wadi Murqùs, NE Cyrenaica
Appendix
197
0m
20m
40m
60m
80m
100m

MIDDLE LUTETIAN UPPPER LUTETIAN TO BARTONIAN OLIGO.

lithology
erosion profil

SJ1234
SJ1235

SJ1232
SJ1233

SJ1230
SJ1231

SJ1229

SJ1228
Section L

SJ1226
SJ1227-1227*

SJ1225

SJ1224

SJ1223
(South of Wadi Marcus)

SJ1221-1222

SJ1220

SJ1219

SJ1218
“Lunch”
noderms
OLIGOCENE

Projection

Chalky facies
Massive beds

Elevation : 420m
Elevation : 525m

Dolomitized horizon
Silicified nummulites
Field observations

Massive bed with abundant echi-

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Texture

Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracrystalline
Porosity

Intercrystalline
Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Snmall-robust nummulites
Large-robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Large benthic foraminifers

Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Rotalidae
foraminifers
Small benthic

Peneroplis
Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Red algae
Other faunic components

Echinoids
Planktonic foraminifers
Fecal Pellets
Facies association
Ol

Ch

Op
Op

OA

NB
NB
supratidal to intertidal
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
Theoretic

distal outer platform

slope
carbonate platform profile

basin
Dernah 2 Dernah 3 Depositional sequences
Sequence boundaries

SB3
SB4
Appendix 28: Section L, Wadi Murqùs, NE Cyrenaica
Appendix
198
Appendix

Theoretic
Field observations Texture Porosity Large benthic foraminifers Small benthic Other faunic components
carbonate platform profile
foraminifers

Section J
(Ras al Hilal roadcut)

lithology erosion profil

supratidal to intertidal
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
distal outer platform
slope
basin

Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Small-robust nummulites
Large-robust nummulites

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracristalline
Intercristalline
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Peneroplis
Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Red algae
Echinoids
Planktonic foraminifers

Sedimentary structures
Facies association
Sequence boundaries

Depositional sequences

GPS point at the top (285m):

32°51'15''N - 22°9'48''E
SJ556
SJ555 red algae and large bivalve
SJ554 deposits
OA
SJ553
SJ552

70 m
Dernah 3

Op
SJ551
abundant bioturbation SB3
SJ550 + N12 Nummulites gizehensis / Nummulites lyelli

60 m

UPPPER LUTETIAN TO BARTONIAN

SJ1206 echinoid shells, almost in life
SJ1205 - 1205* position NB
SJ1204 - 1204* very small num. deposit

50 m
SJ1203 + N10 Nummulites gizehensis
SJ1202

SJ549

alternation of hard bioclastic

limestone and chalky facies.
presence of Teichichnus
40 m fossil traces
SJ690
Dernah 2

Ch

30 m

MIDDLE LUTETIAN
large bivalves

SJ548

SJ547 large bivalves

20 m
Op
Silicified nummulites

SJ546

10 m
Appendix 29: Section J, Ras el Hilal roadcut, NE Cyrenaica

SJ545 SB2

SJ544 Chert nodules OA

SJ543 erosive surface

LOWER LUTETIAN
SJ542 Silicified nummulites
Dernah 1

0m
199
0m
5m
10m
15m
20m
25m
30m
35m
40m
45m
50m
55m
60m
65m

MIDDLE LUTETIAN UPPPER LUTETIAN TO BARTONIAN OLIGOCENE

lithology
erosion profil

SJ615

SJ614

SJ613

WS20
SJ612

SJ611
Section G

WS21

SJ610

SJ609

SJ608
(cliff of Ra’s Ar Ramlah)

SJ607

SJ606

SJ605

SJ604

SJ603

SJ602

SJ601
WS19

SJ600

SJ599

SJ598

SJ597

SJ596

SJ595
WS18
micrite (vuggy porosity)
Important dissolution of
Field observations

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Texture

Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracrystalline
Porosity

Intercrystalline
Sedimentary structures
Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Small-robust nummulites
Large-robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Large benthic foraminifers

Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Rotalidae
foraminifers
Small benthic

Peneroplis
Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Red algae
Other faunic components

Echinoids
Planktic foraminifers
Fecal Pellets
Facies association
Ol

Ch
Gp
Op

NB
NB

OB
supratidal to intertidal
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
Theoretic

distal outer platform

slope
carbonate platform profile

basin
Dernah 2 Dernah 3
Depositional sequences
Sequence boundaries

SB3
SB4
Appendix 30: Section G, Ra’s ar Ramlah, NE Cyrenaica
Appendix
200
Appendix

Theoretic
Field observations Texture Porosity Large benthic foraminifers Small benthic Other faunic components
carbonate platform profile
foraminifers

Section K
(East of Ain Ad-Dabusseyah Type Section)

supratidal to intertidal
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
distal outer platform
slope
basin

Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Small-robust nummulites
Large-flat nummulites

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracrystalline
Intercrystalline
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Rotalidae
Peneroplis
Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Red algae
Echinoids
Planktonic foraminifers
Fecal pellets

Sedimentary structures
Facies association
Sequence boundaries

Depositional sequences

lithology erosion profil

decreasing of small nummulite

content toward the top of the
60m SJ 626 section

NB
SJ 625
55m
SJ 624

50m
Dernah 3

SJ 623 Op
45m

UPPPER LUTETIAN TO BARTONIAN

40m
SJ 622 occurence of Discocyclina, few
small nummulites SB3

35m SJ 621 Nummulites gizehensis

OB
well-exposed nummulite depos-
its, forming a major eroded
zone in the landscape
30m

SJ 620
muddy limestone, rich in
Discocyclina
abundant debris of gastropod, Op
SJ 619
scaphopod, bivalve and echi-
25m noid
SJ 618

20m

SJ 617
Dernah 2

Ch
15m

MIDDLE LUTETIAN
common echinoid fragments

10m
Appendix 31: Section K, Arqùb ash Shawà’ir, NE Cyrenaica

SJ 616

5m

shalky facies (Apollonia

Ap
limestone), with chert nodules

0m
 Theoretic
Field observations Texture Porosity Large benthic foraminifers Small benthic Other faunic components carbonate platform profile
foraminifers

Section M
(East of Ain Ad-Dabusseyah Type Section)

Sedimentary structures
Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Small-robust nummulites
Large-robust nummulites

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracrystalline
Intercrystalline
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Rotalidae
Peneroplis
Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Red algae
Echinoids
Planktonic foraminifers
Fecal Pellets
supratidal to intertidal
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
distal outer platform
slope
basin

Facies association
Sequence boundaries

Depositional sequences

lithology erosion profil

SJ1247 Top of the Plateau

SJ1246

120m
Op
Dernah 3

SJ1245 SB3

UPPPER LUTETIAN
SJ1244

SJ1243

100m Large gastropods

NB
SJ1242 Chalky facies

SJ1241

Alternation between chalky

Dernah 2

facies and hard mudstone

beds.

80m
Ch
Abundant small pelecypods

Chert nodules
SB2

MIDDLE LUTETIAN
Patches of nummulite pack-
stones
SJ1240 NB
60m
Mustone banks without fossil
content.
Bed thickness : from 0.50 m to
1m thick
Presence of large bivalves

SJ1239

40m

Op
Bioturbated chalky facies, con-
taining common bivalves.
Presence of nummulites
Dernah 1

packstones “patches”.
Dip : 2° toward the north

LOWER LUTETIAN
SJ1238
20m

Covered area
Appendix 32: Section M, Arqùb ash Shawà’ir, NE Cyrenaica

SJ1237
Ap
DERNAH Fm Presence of first small
SJ1236 nummulites
0m
APOLLONIA Fm

201
Appendix
 202
0m
5m
10m
15m
20m
25m
30m
35m
40m
45m
50m
55m
60m

LOWER TO MIDDLE LUTETIAN UPPPER LUTETIAN TO BARTONIAN

lithology
erosion profil

SJ1258

SJ1253
SJ1254
SJ1255
SJ1256
SJ1257
Section N

SJ1250
SJ1251
SJ1252
(East of Ain Ad-Dabusseyah Type Section)

SJ1249
SJ1248
disseminated Operculina
overlying lime mudstones

Alveolina-dominated facies

dolomitized Orbitolites facies

Field observations

lime mudstone beds, containing

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Texture

Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracrystalline
Porosity

Intercrystalline
Sedimentary structures
Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Small-flat nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Large benthic foraminifers

Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Rotalidae
foraminifers
Small benthic

Peneroplis
Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Red algae
Other faunic components

Echinoids
Planktonic foraminifers
Fecal Pellets
Facies association

Ch

Op
Gp
Op

OA

NB

OB
supratidal to intertidal
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
Theoretic

distal outer platform

slope
carbonate platform profile

basin
Dernah 2 Dernah 3
Depositional sequences
Sequence boundaries

SB2
SB3
Appendix 33: Section N, Wadi bin Jubàrah, NE Cyrenaica
Appendix
203
0m
5m
10m
15m
20m
25m
30m
35m
40m
45m
50m
55m

LOWER TO MIDDLE LUTETIAN UPPPER LUTETIAN TO BARTONIAN

lithology
erosion profil

SJ 635
Section O

SJ 634

SJ 632
SJ 633

SJ 631
projection

SJ 630

SJ 629
(East of Ain Ad-Dabusseyah Type Section)

SJ 628

SJ 627
dissolution

elevation : 355m
Dolomitized matrix
GAP (covered area)

Presence of fecal pellets

Orbitolites dolomitized facies
Field observations

small silicifications of bioclasts

Dolomitized matrix, bioclast shell
Presence of few small nummulites

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Texture

Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracrystalline
Porosity

Intercrystalline
Sedimentary structures
Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Small-robust nummulites
Large-robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Large benthic foraminifers

Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Rotalidae
foraminifers
Small benthic

Peneroplis
Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Red algae
Other faunic components

Echinoids
Planktonic foraminifers
Feacl pellets
Facies association

Ch
Op

OA

NB
NB
supratidal to intertidal
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
Theoretic

distal outer platform

slope
carbonate platform profile

basin
Dernah 2 Dernah 3
Depositional sequences
Sequence boundaries

SB3
Appendix 34: Section O, Wadi bin Jubàrah, NE Cyrenaica
Appendix
 204
0m
20m
40m
60m
80m
100m

LOWER LUT. MIDDLE LUTETIAN UPPPER LUTETIAN TO BARTONIAN OLIGO.

lithology
erosion profil

SJ651
SJ652
SJ653
SJ654
SJ655
SJ659

SJ657
SJ656
SJ658
SJ660
Section P

SJ650
Type Section)

SJ648
SJ649
(East of Ain Ad-Dabusseyah

SJ647

SJ638
SJ639
SJ640
SJ641
SJ642
SJ643
SJ644
SJ645
SJ646

SJ636
SJ637
Discocyclina
Algae-rich facies

Dolomitized level

GAP (covered area)

GAP (covered area)
GAP (covered area)

ORBITOLITES-RICH FACIES
“Corn Flakes” Discocyclina facies
Field observations

Elevation : 465 m - OLIGOCENE

Elevation : 355 m ; presence of large-thin

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Texture

Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracrystalline
Porosity

Intercrystalline
Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Small-robust nummulites
Large-robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Large benthic foraminifers

Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Rotalidae
foraminifers
Small benthic

Peneroplis
Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Red algae
Other faunic components

Echinoids
Planktonic foraminifers
Fecal Pellets
Facies association
Ol

Ch

Op
Op
Op

OA
OA

NB
NB
NB
supratidal to intertidal
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
Theoretic

distal outer platform

slope
carbonate platform profile

basin
Dernah 1 Dernah 2 Dernah 3
Depositional sequences
Sequence boundaries

SB2
SB3
SB4
Appendix 35: Section P, Wadi bin Jubàrah, NE Cyrenaica
Appendix
 Theoretic
Field observations Texture Porosity Large benthic foraminifers Small benthic Other faunic components carbonate platform profile
foraminifers

Section Q
(western ridge of Wadi Tair,
East of Ain Ad-Dabusseyah
Type Section)

supratidal to intertidal
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
distal outer platform
slope
basin

Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Small-robust nummulites
Large-robust nummulites

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracrystalline
Intercrystalline
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Rotalidae
Peneroplis
Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Red algae
Echinoids
Planktonic foraminifers
Fecal Pellets

Sedimentary structures
Sequence boundaries

Depositional sequences

Facies association
lithology erosion profil
OLIGOCENE (BAYDA Fm)
SJ687 SB4
“Corn flakes” Discocyclina and small num-
140m mulite facies
Abundant echinoid debris

GAP (covered area)

SJ686

SJ685

SJ684 NB
120m

SJ683

SJ682

SJ681 Projection
Dernah 3

SJ680
Presence of large gastropopds. Evidences of
abundant dissolution cavities Gp
100m

UPPPER LUTETIAN TO BARTONIAN

SJ679

SJ678
Op
SJ677 Operculina-rich facies

SJ675-676 SB3
SJ674
Projection NB
80m

GAP (covered area) Ch

Dernah 2

60m

MIDDLE LUTETIAN
SJ673

SJ672 Horizontal burrows

Op SB2
SJ671

NB
SJ670-SJ621n Nummulites gizehensis / Nummulites perplexus
SJ669
40m

SJ668

SJ667

SJ666

20m
Dernah 1
Appendix 36: Section Q, Wadi bin Jubàrah, NE Cyrenaica

Op
SJ665

LOWER LUTETIAN
SJ664
Operculina-rich facies

SJ663
SJ662 Elevation : 280m
SJ661 GPS : 32°50'54'‘ N / 22°22'18'’
0m

205
Appendix
 206
0m
5m
10m
15m
20m
25m
30m
35m
40m
45m
50m
55m
60m
65m
70m
75m
80m
85m
90m

LOWER LUTETIAN MIDDLE LUTETIAN

lithology
erosion profil

SJ702
SJ703
SJ704

SJ701

SJ699
SJ700
Section R

SJ698
(Wadi Bin Jubarah,

SJ697

SJ695
SJ696

SJ694

SJ693
East of Ain Ad-Dabusseyah Type Section)

SJ692

SJ691
shell-size
few Operculina

Elevation : 290m
Elevation : 385m

presence of nautiloid

increase of the gastropod

abundant pelecypods and

unconformity is visible.
Field observations

patch of nummulite packstones

side of the wadi. An angular
Lunch : this bank correspond
to the top of the massive bank
which is observed on the other

Marls
Mudstone
Wackestone
Packstone
Texture

Grainstone
Intragranular
Intergranular
Moldic
Intracrystalline
Porosity

Intercrystalline
Sedimentary structures
Small nummulites
Large-flat nummulites
Small-robust nummulites
Large-robust nummulites
Operculina
Discocyclinid
Alveolina
Orbitolites
Large benthic foraminifers

Bolivinidae
Cibicidae
Lenticulina
Textulariidae
Rotalidae
foraminifers
Small benthic

Peneroplis
Miliolidae
Massive corals
Solitary corals
Ostracods
Bryozoans
Gastropods
Bivalves
Scaphopods
Serpulids
Red algae
Other faunic components

Echinoids
Planktonic foraminifers
Fecal Pellets
Facies association

Ap
Ch

Op
Op
Op

NB
supratidal to intertidal
inner platform
topographic high
proximal outer platform
Theoretic

distal outer platform

slope
carbonate platform profile

basin
Dernah 1 Dernah 2 Depositonal sequences
Sequence boundaries

SB2
Appendix 37: Section R, Wadi bin Jubàrah, NE Cyrenaica
Appendix