March 1, 2020

INTRODUCTION
 The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to
physical properties of soils.
 You will learn some basic descriptions of soils
which is used for any geotechnical work in the
future.
 One of the primary tasks of a geotechnical
engineer is to collect, classify and investigate the
physical properties of soils.
 In this chapter we will deal with descriptions of
soils, tests to determine the physical properties of
soils, and soil classification systems.
2
When you complete this chapter you should
be able to:
⇰ Describe and classify soils.
⇰ Determine particle size distribution in a
soil mass.
⇰ Determine the proportions of the main
constituents in a soil.
⇰ Determine index properties of soil.
⇰ Determine colors, texture, structure,
specific gravity, relative density,
consistence limits etc…
3
Definition of Key Terms:
Now let us define some basic terms which are used in
this chapter:
⋟ Soils: is a material naturally obtained from
weathering or decomposition of rocks.
⋟ Water Content (ω): is the ratio of the weight of
water to the weight of solids.
⋟ Void ratio (e): is the ratio of the volume of void
space to the volume of solids.
⋟ Porosity (n): is the ratio of the volume of void to
the total volume of soil.
⋟ Degree of saturation (Sr): is the ratio of volume of
water to the volume of void.
4
 Defin… Terms Cont…

⋟ Bulk unit weight (): is the weight of a soil per

unit volume (or weight density).
⋟ Saturated unit weight (sat): is the weight of a
saturated soil per unit volume.
⋟ Dry unit weight (d): is the weight of a dry soil
per unit volume.
⋟ Effective unit weight (' ): is the weight of soil
solids in a submerged soil per unit volume.
⋟ Relative density (Dr): is an index that quantifies
the degree of packing between the loosest and
densest state of coarse-grained soils.

5
 Defin… Terms Cont…

⋟ Effective particle size (D10): is the average

particle diameter of the soil at 10 percentile; that
is, 10% of the particles are smaller than this size
(diameter).
⋟ Average particle diameter (D50): is the average
particle diameter of the soil.
⋟ Liquid limit (LL): is the water content at which a
soil changes from a plastic state to a solid state.
⋟ Plastic limit (PL): is the water content at which a
soil changes from a semisolid to a plastic state.
⋟ Shrinkage limit (SL): is the water content at
which the soil changes from a solid to a semisolid
state without further change in volume.

6
 Origin/Composition of Soils
Soil Formation:
• In general, soils are formed by weathering of rocks.
• The physical properties of soil are dictated primarily by
the minerals that constitute the soil particles and the
rock from which it is derived .
• The mineral grains that form the solid phase of a soil
aggregate are the product of rock weathering. Their size
varies over a wide range.
• Many of the physical properties of soil are dictated by
the size, shape, and chemical composition of the grains.
• To better understand these factors, one must be familiar with
the basic types of rock that form the earth’s crust, the rock-
forming minerals, and the weathering process.
7
 Origin/Compos. . . Cont...
• On the basis of their mode of origin, rocks can be divided into three
basic types:
i. Igneous Rocks: are formed by the solidification of molten magma
ejected (by either fissure eruption or volcanic eruption) from deep
within the earth’s mantle.
Their type is depend on factors such as the composition of the magma and
the rate of cooling.
ii. Sedimentary R: here we have; Detrital SR: formed by compaction
& cementation of the deposits of gravel, sand, silt, & clay formed
by weathering, And Chemical SR: formed by chemical processes.
iii. Metamorphic Rock: formed by metamorphism process.
Metamorphism is the process of changing the composition and
texture of rocks (without melting) by heat and pressure.
During metamorphism, new minerals are formed, and mineral
grains are sheared to give a foliated-texture to metamorphic rock
8
9
10
 Origin/Compos. . . Cont
• On the basis of their mode of origin, rocks can be divided into
three basic types:
i. Igneous Rocks: are formed by the solidification of molten
magma ejected (by either fissure eruption or volcanic eruption)
from deep within the earth’s mantle.
Their type is depend on factors such as the composition of the
magma and the rate of cooling.
ii. Sedimentary Rock:
iii. Metamorphic Rock: formed by metamorphism process.
Metamorphism is the process of changing the composition and
texture of rocks (without melting) by heat and pressure.
During metamorphism, new minerals are formed, and mineral
grains are sheared to give a foliated-texture to metamorphic rock

11
 Origin/Compos. . . Cont…
 ‘The conversion, decomposition or disintegration of intact
mass of rock Mechanically or Chemically in to small pieces is
called Weathering’
⇰ Mechanically weathering involves reduction of size w/t any
change in the original/chemical composition of parent rock.
 The three action that happen in mechanical weathering are
Grinding, Abrasion & Shattering
 The main agents responsible for this process are
exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing and thawing etc.
⇰ Chemical weathering causes both reduction in size and
chemical alteration of the original parent rock.
 The main agents responsible for chemical weathering are
hydration, carbonation, nitration, oxidation and leaching
by organic acid etc.
12
 Origin/Compos. . . Cont…
 The products of weathering may stay in the same place or
may be moved to other places by ice, water, wind, &
gravity
 According to the origin we have two types of soil;
a) Residual soils: are soils which remain in place directly
over the parent rock and relatively shallow in depth.
Its important characteristic is the gradation of particle
size. Fine grained soil is found at the surface, and the
grain size increases with depth. At greater depths, angular
rock fragments may also be found.
b) Transported soils: are soils which taken away to other
place after decomposition or disintegration.
Transporting agents are: ice, water, wind, & gravity.
13
 Origin/Compos. . . Cont…

 The transported soils may be classified into several groups,

depending on their mode of transportation & deposition:
› Alluvial soils: also called fluvial soils: transported
by running water and deposited along streams
› Glacial soils: formed by transportation and
deposition of glaciers (large body of ice moving
slowly down a slope).
› Lacustrine soils: formed by deposition in quiet lakes
› Marine soils: formed by deposition in the seas
› Aeolian soils: transported and deposited by wind
› Colluvial soils: formed by movement of soil from its
original place by gravity, such as during landslide.
• Water formed, transported soils are termed as
Alluvial, Marine or Lacustrine 14
 Comp… soil Cont…
Soil Type:
 According to Grain Size there three main groups of soils
⤅ Coarse grained soils : feel gritty and hard
⤅ Fine grained soils: feel smooth
⤅ Organic Soil:
Coarse grained soils:- or cohesion less soil.
- Here the particles have large size and don't have any
intermolecular attractive forces.
- These particles can be seen with naked eye w/t using any
instrument. Are formed due to physical disintegration of rocks
- It is further subdivided into:
⇒ Gravel particles: there size is in a range = 75mm - 4.75mm
⇒ Sand Particles: there size is in a range = 4.75mm - 0.075mm

15
 Comp… soil Cont…
Fine grained soils:- or cohesive soil.
- Here the particles are small in size and have any
intermolecular force of attraction.
- These particles can not be observed with naked eye.
- It is further subdivided into:
⇒ Silt: there particle size is in range = 0.075mm - 0.002mm
⇒ Clay: there particle size is smaller than 0.002mm
Organic soils:- these soils are formed from decomposition of
Organic matter.
- The organic matter may include vegetable or animal.
- It very poor soil having low bearing capacity.
- It isn’t good for construction purpose but ideal for agriculture
- The example is Peat

16
 Comp… soil Cont…
Soil Type:

17
 Comp… soil Cont…

Comparison of Coarse Grained And Fine Grained

Soils For Engineering Use:
⇰ Coarse grained soils
› Have good load bearing capacities and good
drainage qualities.
› Its strength and volume change characteristics
not significantly affected by change in moisture
conditions.
› They are practically incompressible when
dense, but significant volume change can occur
when they are loose.

18
 Comp… soil Cont…

⇰ Fine grained soils

› Have poor load bearing capacities compared with
coarse-grained soils.
› Poor drainage qualities
› Are practically impermeable and change strength
and volume with variations in moisture conditions.
› The engineering properties of fine-grained soils are
controlled by mineralogical factors rather than grain
size.
› Fine grained soils, are responsible for many
geotechnical failures and therefore you need to pay
special attention to fine-grained soils.
19
 Phase Relationship

Soil is composed of solids, liquids and gases

(Fig.Below). The solid phase may be mineral,
organic matter, or both. We will not deal with the
organic matter in this course. The spaces between the
solids (soil particles) are called voids and are filled
with liquids or gases or both.
solid

Air
Water

A 3-Phase Material
20
 Phase Relationship
Soil Constituents:
 A soil mass is commonly considered to consist of solid
particles, enclosed voids or interspaces. Thus there are two
constituents of soils:
⇰ Soil or Solid Particles
⇰ Voids (air and/or water)
 If we take a sample of soil and compress it we will get
voids which may be filled with air, with water, or partly
with air and partly with water and solid particles.

Solid Particles
Volume
Voids (air or water)

The Mineral Skeleton 21

 Phase Rela… Cont…
 On the basis of constituents the soil types are:
1. Dry soil:- occurs when only air is present in the voids of
the compressed soil
2. Saturated soil:- occurs when only water is present in the
voids of the compressed soil.
3. Partially Saturated soil:- occurs when water along air is
present in the voids, also called as 3 Phase Soil System.

Air

Solid

Mineral Skeleton Dry Soil

22
 Phase Rela… Cont…

Water

Solid

Mineral Skeleton Fully Saturated

Air

Water

Solid

Mineral Skeleton Partly Saturated Soils 23

 Simple Soil Properties
1) Unit Weight:- it is defined as the weight of substance
per unit of its volume. It is also called Specific Weight and is
represented by ‘’

Va Air Wa~0
Vv
Vw
Water Ww
VT
WT

Vs Solid Ws

Volume VT  Vs  Vw  Va  Vv  Vs Weight WT  Ws  Ww

Fig. Idealized three phases of soil

 … Soil Proper … Cont…

 The following definitions have been established to describe the

proportion of each constituent in soil. Each equation can be
represented with different variables. The most popular and
convenient ones are given here. You should try to memorize
these definitions and equations.
a) Bulk Unit Weight, ‘b’:- it total weight divided by total
volume. Include the weight & volume of water and air.
total weight of soil mass WT
b  
total volume of soil mass VT

b) Unit Weight of Soil Solids, ‘s’:-

weight of soil solids W

S   S
total volume of soil solids VS
 … Soil Proper … Cont…

c) Dry Unit Weight of Soil, ‘d’:-

weight of soil solids W W
d   S  d
total volume of soil solids V V

d) Saturated Unit Weight ‘Sat’:-

total weight of saturated soil W
 Sat   Sat
total volume of saturated soil V

• The first one and last one are same only difference is
that the first contains air where as in last saturated
soil only water.
• Units:- the unit of all of the above are lb/ft3 or Kg/m3
 … Soil Proper … Cont…

Table: Typical values of unit weight for soils

Soil type sat (kN/m3) d (kN/m3)

Gravel 20 – 22 15 – 17
Sand 18 – 20 13 – 16
Silt 18 – 20 14 – 18
Clay 16 – 22 14 – 21
 … Soil Proper … Cont…

c) Dry Unit Weight of Soil, ‘d’:-

weight of soil solids W W
d   S  d
total volume of soil solids V V

d) Saturated Unit Weight ‘Sat’:-

total weight of saturated soil W
 Sat   Sat
total volume of saturated soil V

• The first one and last one are same only difference is
that the first contains air where as in last saturated
soil only water.
• Units:- the unit of all of the above are lb/ft3 or Kg/m3
 … Soil Proper … Cont…

2) Specific Gravity ‘G’:- it is the ratio of weight of

given volume of substance to ratio of weight of equal
volume of distilled water.
weight of given volume of subs tan ce  s
G 
weight of equal volume of water w

a) Bulk or Apparent or Mass Specific Gravity ‘Gm’:-

Bulk unit weight of soil solid  b
Gm  
Bulk unit weight of water w
b) Specific Gravity of soil solid or Absolute Specific
Gravity, ‘Gs’:-
unit weight of soil solids  s
GS  
unit weight of water w
 … Soil Proper … Cont…

2) Specific Gravity ‘G’:- it is the ratio of weight of

given volume of substance to ratio of weight of equal
volume of distilled water.
weight of given volume of subs tan ce  s
G 
weight of equal volume of water w

a) Bulk or Apparent or Mass Specific Gravity ‘Gm’:-

Bulk unit weight of soil solid  b
Gm  
Bulk unit weight of water w
b) Specific Gravity of soil solid or Absolute Specific
Gravity, ‘Gs’:-
unit weight of soil solids  s
GS  
unit weight of water w
 … Soil Proper … Cont…
3) Volume Ratios :-
a) Void Ratio, ‘e’
Volume of Voids V
e  V  100 Va Air
Volume of Soil Solids Vs Vv
VT Vw Water
b) Total Porosity, ‘ηT’:-
Total Volume of Voids VV Vs
T    100 Solid
Total Volume of Soil Mass VT
c) Effective Porosity, ‘ηeff’:-
Volume of int erconnected Voids VVef f
ef f    100
Total Volume of Soil Mass VT
d) Degree of Saturation, ‘Sr’:- is the ratio of water to the
volume of voids in a given soil sample.
Volume of water Vw
Sr    100
Volume of Voids Vv
 … Soil Proper … Cont…

e) Air Content, ‘ac’:- is defined as the ratio of volume of air

to the volume of voids.
Va V  Vw V
ac   v  1  w  1  Sr
Vv Vv Vv

4) Weight Ratios :-
a) Water Content , ‘ω’
Wa Air
Weight of Water Ww
   100
Weight of Soil Solids Ws WT Ww Water
b) Moisture Content, ‘ω’:-
Weight of Moisture Ww Ws Solid
   100
Weight of Soil Solids Ws
 … Soil Proper … Cont…

5) Relative Density, ‘Dr’:- is an index that

quantifies the degree of packing between the loosest
and densest possible state of coarse-grained soils as
determined by experiments:
emax  e
Dr  where emax = the maximum void ratio (loosest
emax  emin condition),
emin = the minimum void ratio (densest
condition), and
e = is the current void ratio.

 The maximum void ratio is found by dry sand.

 … Soil Proper … Cont…

Table: Description of soil based on relative density

Dr (%) Description
0 – 15 Very loose
15 – 35 Loose
35 – 65 Medium dense
65 – 85 Dense
85 – 100 Very dense
 … Soil Proper … Cont…
Relationships:
1. Relation Between Void Ratio & Porosity:
Void Ratio = e = Vv / Vs
as we known VT = Vv + Vs ⇒ ∴ Vs = VT - Vv
Replace, Vs we get
VV V V
VV
e  , e VT

VT
VT  VV VT  VV V T VV

VT V T VT
as we known the porosity = η = Vv / VT


e
1 
 … Soil Proper … Cont…
Relation…
2. Relationship between Porosity & Void Ratio:
Porosity = η = Vv / VT = Vv / (Vv + Vs)
VV VV
Vs Vs
  
Vs  VV V s VV

Vs V s Vs

as we known the Void Ratio = e = Vv / Vs

e

1 e
 … Soil Proper … Cont…
Relation…
3. Relationship between Water Content ‘ω’, Void Ratio ‘e’, Degree
of Saturation ‘S’ and Specific Gravity ‘Gs’:
↦ Water content = ω = Ww / Ws . . . . . . . . . . . (a)
As, γw = Ww / Vw ⇒ Ww = γw Vw . . . . . (i)
And γs = Ws / Vs ⇒ Ws = γs Vs . . . . . (ii)
↦ Putting eqn. (i) & (ii) in eqn. (a) yields:
ω = γw Vw / γs Vs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (b)
As we Know Gs = γs / γw ⇒ γs = GS γw . . . . . (iii)
As we Know S = Vw / VV ⇒ Vw = S VV . . . . . (iv)
↦ Putting eqn. (iii) & (iv) in eqn. (b) yields:
  S  VV S VV
  w  
 w  G s  Vs G s Vs As we Know that e = Vv / Vs

eS
 or Se  G s
Gs
 … Soil Proper … Cont…
Relation…
4. R/nship b/n Bulk Unit Weight‘γb’, Unit Weight of water‘γw’, Void
Ratio ‘e’, Water Content‘ω’ and Specific Gravity of soil ‘Gs’:
↦ γb = W / V . . . . . . . . (a)
W = Wa + Ww + Ws = Ww + Ws . . . (i) and V = VV + VS . . (ii)
↦ Putting eqn. (i) & (ii) in eqn. (a) yields:
W W 
Ws  w  s 
Ww  Ws  Ws Ws  Ws W  s
b   
Vv  Vs  Vs Vs V V 
Vs  v  s 
 Vs Vs

b  s
  1
e  1 . . . . . . . . . . (b)
↦ Gs = γs / γw ⇒ γs = GS γw & putting in eqn. (b) yields:
  1
b   wG s
e  1
 … Soil Proper … Cont…
Relation…
5. R/nship b/n Bulk Unit Weight‘γb’, Unit Weight of water‘γw’,
Void Ratio ‘e’, Degree of Saturation‘S’ and Specific Gravity of
soil ‘Gs’ :
  1
↦ First drive the eqn. ⇒ b   wGs . . . . . . (a)
e  1
↦ As derived before,
eS
 . . . . . . . . .(i)
Gs

↦ Putting eqn. (i) in eqn. (a) , we get:

 eS   G s  eS 
1  G   w G
 s
 
 b   wG s  s  
G
 s
e  1 1  e
b  w
G s  eS
1  e
 … Soil Proper … Cont…
Relation…
6. R/nship b/n Dry Unit Weight‘γd’, Unit Weight of water‘γw’,
Void Ratio ‘e’, and Specific Gravity of soil ‘Gs’ :
1  
↦ First drive the ⇒ b
eqn.   wGs
1  e
↦ For dry soil, ω = 0, and γb = γd

d   b   wGs
1  0
1  e

 wG s
d 
1 e
 … Soil Proper … Cont…
Relation…
7. R/nship b/n Dry Unit Weight‘γd’, Bulk Unit Weight‘γb’’, and
Water Content of soil‘ω’
↦ Water content = ω = Ww / Ws
↦ Add 1 in both side of the above eqn.
1 + ω = Ww / Ws + 1 ⇒ 1 + ω = (Ww + Ws ) / Ws
↦ As we know that, W = Wa + Ww + Ws = Ww + Ws
↦ Thus; 1 + ω = W/ Ws ⇒ Ws = W/ (1 + ω)
↦ Divide both side by total volume, V
 W  W
   
Ws  1   
 d   
V

V V 1 

b
d 
1  
 Comp… soil Cont…

Clay Mineral: Write short note on it.

Assignment
› Clay make up minerals
› Bond b/n soil minerals
› Soil Fabric

42
 Example: Volumetric Ratios
 Determine void ratio, porosity and
degree of saturation of a soil core
sample
Data:
 Weight of soil sample = 1013g
 Vol. of soil sample = 585.0cm3
 Specific Gravity, Gs = 2.65
 Dry weight of soil = 904.0g
 Example
134.9cm3 Wa~0
Air
W =1.00
243.9cm3
Water 109.0g
109.0cm3
585.0cm3 1013.0g
s =2.65
341.1cm3 Solid 904.0g

Volumes Weights
 Example

134.9cm3 Air
W =1.00
243.9cm3
109.0cm3 Water
585.0cm3
s =2.65
341.1cm3 Solid
Vv 243.9
e   0.72
Vs 341.1
Volumes
Vv 243.9
n(%)   100%   100  41.7%
VT 585.0
Vw 109.0
S (%)   100%   100  44.7%
Vv 243.9
Typical Unit weights
Determination of Particle Sizes of Soils
 The range size of soil particles and their proportions are
determined by the process known as:
⇰ Mechanical Analysis (Sieve Analysis)
⇰ Sedimentation Analysis (Hydrometer Test)
 The first stage is meant for Coarse-grained soils only
↪ Particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm (No. 200
sieve).
 The second stage is for Fine-grained soils
↪ Soil materials finer than 0.075 mm (No. 200 sieve).
 The results of grain size analysis determined by these
two methods is presented in Semi-logarthmic Plot is
known as Grain Size Distribution Curve.
47
  Two kinds of soil in this
world…
 COARSE
 FINE

 Basis for division is...

48
 . . . Particle Sizes . . . Cont. . .
Particle Size of Coarse-Grained Soils (Sieve Analysis):
 The distribution of particle size or average grain diameter of
coarse-grained soils (gravels and sands) is obtained by
screening a known weight of the soil through a stack of
sieves of progressively finer mesh size.
 The sieve analysis is the true representative of grain size
distribution, since the test is not affected by the temperature.
 Each sieve is identified by a number that corresponds to the
number of square holes per linear inch of mesh.
U.S. Standard Sieves:
Sieve No. #4 #10 #20 #40 #60 #100 #140 #200
Sieve Opening
4.76 2.00 0.84 0.42 0.25 0.149 0.105 0.075
(mm)
49
. . . Particle Sizes . . . Cont. . .

ASTM Standard Sieves:

50
 . . . Particle Sizes . . . Cont. . .

Larger sizes
on top

 “No. 200 sieve

means: a sieve
has 200 aperture
per linear inch”
... which means

51
Figure: Stack of sieves
 . . . Particle Sizes . . . Cont. . .
 Sieving is performed by the following procedure:
1. Assemble various sieves from large aperture to small one
from top to bottom, & place at bottom the a receiver pan.
2. A known weight of dry soil is placed on the largest sieve(the
top sieve), and keep a cover on the top of whole assembly.
3. The nest/assembly of sieves is then placed on a vibrator and
shake for 10 minutes.
4. Then the nest of sieves is dismantled,(one sieve at a time)
5. The soil retained on each sieve is weighed and the
percentage of soil retained on each sieve is calculated.
Let Wi be the weight of the soil retained on the ith sieve from
the top of the nest of sieves and W be the total soil weight. So
Wi
% Retainedon i th seive   100
W 52
 . . . Particle Sizes . . . Cont. . .

6. Calculate percentage of passing/finer:

i
% Finer than i seive  100   (% Retainedon i th seive)
th
i 1

7. Finally Plot the grain size distribution curve sieve size, D

versus the adjusted percent finer on the semi-logarithmic sheet.

53
 . . . Particle Sizes . . . Cont. . .

Particle Size of Fine-Grained Soils (Hydrometer

Analysis):
 The screening process can not be used for fine-grained
soils (silts and clays) b/c of their extremely small size.
 The hydrometer test involves mixing a small amount of
soil into suspension and observing how the suspension
settles in time.
 Larger particles will settle quickly followed by smaller
particles.
 When the hydrometer is lowered into the suspension, it
will sink into the suspension until the buoyant force is
sufficient to balance the weight of the hydrometer.

54
 . . . Particle Sizes . . . Cont. . .
 The calibration of
hydrometer is
affected by
temperature and
specific gravity of
the suspended
solids.
 You must then
apply a correlation
factor to your
hydrometer reading
based on the test
temperatures
55
 . . . Particle Sizes . . . Cont. . .
 Hydrometer Test Procedure:
↬ A hydrometer test is conducted by taking a small quantity of
a dry fine-grained soil (approximately 10 grams) and
thoroughly mixing it with distilled water to form a paste.
↬ The paste is placed in a 1 liter glass cylinder and distilled
water is added to bring the level to the 1 liter mark.

56
 . . . Particle Sizes . . . Cont. . .

Also called Sedimentation Analysis

Stoke’s Law

Where Mp200 = Mass of dry soil passing sieve #200

Ph = percentage by mass finer calculated in the hydrometer analysis
Mtot = dry total mass in sieve analysis

Where t is in minutes, and D is given in mm.

57
58
 . . . Particle Sizes . . . Cont. . .
 On the basis of data obtained a graph is made having sieve
size along x-axis and percent of passing along y-axis.

59
Example
 EXAMPLE 2.2
A sample of saturated clay was placed in a container and
weighed. The weight was 6 N. The clay in its container
was placed for 24 hours at 1050C. The weight reduced to a
constant value of 5 N. The weight of the container is 1 N.
If Gs = 2.7, determine a) the water content, b) void ratio,
c) bulk unit weight, d) dry density, and e) effective unit
weight.
Exercise
 EXAMPLE 2.3
An embankment for a highway is to be constructed from a
soil compacted to a dry unit weight of 18 kN/m3. The clay
has to be trucked to the site from a borrow pit. The bulk
unit weight of the soil in the borrow pit is 17 kN/m3 and
its natural water content is 5%. Calculate the volume of
clay from the borrow pit required for 1 cubic meter of
embankment. Assume Gs = 2.7.
Characteristics of soils Based on Grain Size.
The grading curve is used for textural classification of
soils. Various classification systems have evolved over
the years to describe soils based on their particle size.
The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) – which
we will discuss in detail later is one of most common
methods. The USCS separates soils into two categories.
 Cont…
One category is coarse-grained soils that are delineated if
more than 50% of the soil is greater than 0.075 mm (No.
200 sieve).
The other category is fine-grained soils that are
delineated if more than 50% of the soil is finer than
0.075 mm.
Coarse-grained soils are subdivided into gravels and
sands while
fine-grained soils are divided into silts and clays. Each
soil type – gravel, sand, silt, and clay – is identified by
grain size as shown in table 2.3. The USCS does not
differentiate silts from clays. Clays have particle sizes
less than 0.002 mm

63
 Cont…
Real soils consist of a mixture of particle sizes. The
selection of a soil for a particular use may depend on the
assortment of particles it contains. Two coefficients have
been defined to provide guidance on distinguishing soils
based on the distribution of the particles. One of these is a
numerical measure of uniformity, called the uniformity
coefficient, UC, defined as:
D60
UC 
D10

64
 Cont…
where D60 is the diameter of the soil particles for which
60% of the particles are finer, and D10 is the diameter of
the soil particles for which 10% of the particles are finer.
Both of these diameters are obtained from the grading
curve.
The other coefficient is the coefficient of curvature, CC
(other terms used are the coefficient of gradation and the
coefficient of concavity), defined as:
( D30 ) 2
CC 
D10 D60

where D30 is the diameter of the soil particles for which

30% of the particles are finer
65
 Cont…
A soil that has a UC < 4 contains particles of uniform sizes
(approximately one size). The minimum value of UC is 1
and corresponds to an assemblage of particles of the same
size. The gradation curve for a uniform soil is almost
vertical (Fig. 2.8). Higher values of UC (> 4) indicate a
wider assortment of particle sizes. A soil that has a UC > 4
is described as a well-graded soil and has a flat curve (Fig.
2.8).
The CC is between 1 and 3 for well-graded soils. The
absence of certain grain sizes, termed gap-graded, is
diagnosed by a CC outside of the range 1 to 3 and a sudden
change of slope in the particle size distribution curve

66
 Physical States and Index Properties of Fine-grained
Soils

 Further classification within fine-grained soils (i.e. soil

that passes #200 sieve) is done based on soil plasticity.
 Albert Atterberg, Swedish Soil Scientist (1846-
1916)…..series of tests for evaluating soil plasticity
 Arthur Casagrande adopted these tests for geotechnical
engineering purposes

67
 Atterberg Limits
 Consistency of fine-grained soil varies in
proportion to the water content

liquid (pea soup)

Liquid limit
Plasticity
Index plastic (pea nut butter)

Plastic limit
semi-solid (cheese)
Shrinkage limit
solid (hard candy)
Change of soil State as a function of soil
volume and water Content
Engineering Characterization of Soils
Soil Properties that Control its Engineering Behavior

Particle Size

coarse-grained fine-grained

Particle/Grain Size  Soil Plasticity

Distribution
Particle Shape
Clay Morphology
 Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM)
 Shows that clay
particles consist of
stacks of plate-like
layers
 Soil Consistency Limits
 Albert Atterberg (1846-1916)
Swedish Soil Scientist
….. Developed series of tests for
evaluating consistency limits of soil
(1911)

 Arthur Casagrande (1902-

1981)
……Adopted these tests for
geotechnical engineering purposes
 Arthur Casagrande (1902-1981)

 Joined Karl Terzaghi at MIT

in 1926 as his graduate
student
 Research project funded by
Bureau of Public Roads
 After completion of Ph.D at
MIT Casagrande initiated
Geotechnical Engineering
Program at Harvard
 Soil Plasticity and Soil
Classification (1932)
 Liquid Limit (LL or wL)

Empirical Definition
The moisture content at which a 2 mm-wide groove in a
soil pat will close for a distance of 0.5 in when dropped 25
times in a standard brass cup falling 1 cm each time at a
rate of 2 drops/sec in a standard liquid limit device

74
Casagrande Apparatus
Casagrande Apparatus
Casagrande Apparatus
Liquid Limit Determination
Plastic Limit (PL, wP)
 The moisture content at which a thread of soil just
begins to crack and crumble when rolled to a diameter
of 1/8 inches
Plastic Limit (PL, wP)
Plasticity Index ( PI, IP )
 PI = LL – PL
or IP=wL-wP
 Note: These are water contents, but the
percentage sign is not typically shown.
Liquidity Index (IL)
 A measure of soil strength using the Atterberg limits is
known as the liquidity index (IL) and is expressed as:

w  wPL
IL 
IP
 Cont…
 A fall cone test, popular in Europe and Asia, appears to
offer a more accurate (less prone to operator’s errors)
method of determining both the liquid and plastic limits.
In the fall cone test (Fig.below), a cone with apex angle
of 300 and total mass of 80 grams is suspended above,
but in contact with the soil sample.
Fall Cone Method to Determine WLL and PLL
of a soil
 The cone is permitted to fall freely for a period of 5
seconds. The water content corresponding to a cone
penetration of 20 mm defines the liquid limit. The sample
preparation is similar to the cup method except that the
sample container in the fall cone test has a different shape
and size .
Fall Cone Method to Determine WLL and PLL
of a soil
 Four or more tests at different water contents are also
required because of the difficulty of achieving the liquid
limit from a single test. The results are plotted as water
content (ordinate, arithmetic scale) versus penetration
(abscissa, logarithmic scale) and the best-fit straight line
(liquid state line) linking the data points is drawn.
Fall Cone Method to Determine WLL and PLL
of a soil
 The liquid limit is read from the plot as the
water content on the liquid state line
corresponding to a penetration of 20 mm. The
plastic limit is obtained by repeating the test
with a cone of similar geometry, but with a
mass of 240 grams.
Fall Cone Method to Determine WLL and PLL
of a soil
 The penetration depth in the soil for the
bigger cone mass at given water content
will be larger than the smaller cone mass
of 80 grams.
Fall Cone Method to Determine WLL and PLL
of a soil
 Thus the liquid state line for the 240 gram cone will be
below the liquid state line for the 80 gram cone and
parallel to it. The plastic limit is given as:

2 w
wPL  wLL   wLL  4.2w
log 10 ( M 2 M 1 )
Fall Cone Method to Determine WLL and PLL
of a soil
 Where w is the separation in terms of
water content between the liquid state
lines of the two cones, M1 is the mass of
80 grams cone, and M2 is the mass of the
240 gram cone.
Solved Example
80 gram cone
Best-fit straight line

w
240 gram cone

wLL=44%
Shrinkage Limit
 The shrinkage limit is calculated from:

 m1  m2 V1  V2  w 
wSL      100
 m2 m2 g 
Shrinkage Limit
 where m1 is the mass of the wet soil, m2 is the mass of the
oven-dried soil, V1 is the volume of the wet soil, V2 is the
volume of the oven-dried soil, and g is the acceleration
due to gravity (9.8 m/s2).
Examples
 EXAMPLE 2.6
A liquid limit test conducted on a soil sample in the cup device gave the
following results.
Number of blows10 19 23 27 40 Water content (%)60.045.239.836.525.2
Two determinations for the plastic limit gave water contents of 20.3% and
20.8%. Determine (a) the liquid limit and plastic limit, (b) the plasticity
index, (c) the liquidity index if the natural water content is 27.4 %, and
(d) void ratio at the liquid limit, if Gs = 2.7. If the soil were to be loaded
to failure, would you expect a brittle failure?
Solution :
Examples
 EXAMPLE 2.7
The results of a fall cone test are shown in the table below.

Parameter 80 gram cone 240 gram cone

Penetration 5.5 7.8 14.4 22 32 8.5 15 21 35
(mm)
Water content 39 44.8 52.5 60.3 67 36 45.1 49.8 58.1
(%)

Determine (a) the liquid limit, (b) the plastic limit, (c) the plasticity
index, and (d) the liquidity index if the natural water content is
36%.
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

* Why do we need to classify soils???????????

To describe various soil types encountered in the nature in a
systematic way and gathering soils that have distinct physical
properties in groups and units.

* General Requirements of a soil Classification System:

1- Based on a scientific method
2- Simple
3- Permit classification by visual and manual tests.
4- Describe certain engineering properties
5- Should be accepted to all engineers
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

* Various Soil Classification Systems:

1- Geologic Soil Classification System
2- Agronomic Soil Classification System
3- Textural Soil Classification System (USDA)
4-American Association of State Highway Transportation
Officials System (AASHTO)
5- Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
6- American Society for Testing and Materials System (ASTM)
7- Federal Aviation Agency System (FAA)
8- Others
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
 Of the number of classification systems proposed over
the past few decades, the Unified Soil Classification
System (USCS) and the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
system are the most widely used by current practitioners,
particularly in Developed Nations.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
1- Unified Soil Classification (USC) System:

 The main Groups:

 G = Gravel
 S = Sand
 M = Silt
 C = Clay
 O = Organic
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
 * For Cohesion less Soil (Gravel and
 Sand), the soil can be Poorly Graded or Well Graded
 Poorly Graded = P
 Well Graded = W

 * For Cohesive Soil (Silt & Clay), the soil can be Low
Plastic or High Plastic
 Low Plastic = L
 High Plastic = H
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
 Therefore, we can have several combinations of soils
such as:
 GW = Well Graded Gravel
 GP = Poorly Graded Gravel
 GM = Silty Gravel
 GC = Clayey Gravel
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
 Passing Sieve # 4
 SW = Well Graded Sand
 SP = Poorly Graded Sand
 SM = Silty Sand
 SC = Clayey Sand
 Passing Sieve # 200
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
 ML = Low Plastic Silt
 CL = Low Plastic Clay
 MH = High Plastic Silt
 CH = High Plastic Clay
 To conclud if the soil is low plastic or high plastic use
Gassagrande's Chart (plasticity chart)
Unified soil classification flowchart for coarse-grained soil.

103
Unified soil classification flowchart for fine-grained soil.
104
105
USCS Classification Chart

106
Plasticity Chart
IP = 0.9(wLL – 8)

I P  0.73 ( wLL  20) %

107
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
2 - American Association of State
Highway Transportation Officials System (AASHTO):

Soils are classified into 7 major groups A-1 to A-7

Granular soil less than 35% pass of the total mass on

sieve# 200
A-1 {A-1-a - A-1-b} (Gravel & Sand) A-2 {A-2-4 - A-2-5 -
A-2-6 - A-2-6}
 Cont…

A-3
More than 35% pass # 200
A-4 Fine A-5 (Silt & Clay) A-6
A-7
Group Index:
110
111
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
 3- Textural Soil Classification System (USDA)
 * USDA considers only:
 Sand
 Silt
 Clay
 No. Gravel in the System
 * If you encounter gravel in the soil Subtract the % of gravel
from the 100%.

 * 12 Subgroups in the system

113