PRACTICAL ONE

Rocks and Minerals as Parent Materials of Soils

1. Definition of Rocks and Minerals: A rock may be defined as an aggregate of

one or more minerals called as rocks, and rocks have no definite chemical
composition or mineralogical composition or do they possess any definite
symmetrical form e.g. sand, marble, coal and building stone are all called rocks
although they are so much unlike.

A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic element or compound having an

orderly internal structure and characteristic chemical composition, crystal form,
and physical properties.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS AND MINERALS: Rocks are commonly

divided into three major classes according to the processes that resulted in their
formation. These classes are;
 Igneous rocks
 Sedimentary rocks
 Metamorphic rocks

1. Igneous rocks: Igneous rocks are those rocks which have solidified from molten
material called magma. These rocks were the first to be formed when the molten
mass cooled and consolidated into solid rock. These rocks are massive and
crystalline. They constitute nearly 95% of the earth’s crust .etc. Igneous rocks are
grouped into two groups.
1)Intrusive or plutonic rocks: The Igneous rocks, which are formed by the
cooling of the original magma beneath the surface, are called intrusive rock e.g.
granite. They occur at greater depth in the earth’s crust and are very compact.
2)Extrusive and Volcanic rocks: Extrusive rocks are those that were formed
when the molten mass was poured out on the surface of the earth where it is
consolidated on cooling. They contain many gas cavities. The rocks, which
contain gas cavities or vesicles are known as vesicular rocks. These cavities may
be embedded by some minerals. Hence, such rocks are known as amygdaloidal
rocks. The minerals so embedded are quartz, calcite, zeolite, glauconite.

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2. Sedimentary rocks: Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks or piece
of once-living organisms. They form deposits that accumulate on the Earth’s
surface. Sedimentary rocks often have distinctive layering or bedding and are
classified as Arenaceous or sandy rocks, Argillaceous rocks, Calcareous rocks,
Calcareous rocks.
3. Metamorphic rocks: Metamorphic rocks started out as some other type of rock, but
have been substantially changed from their original igneous, sedimentary, or
earlier metamorphic form. Metamorphic rocks form when rocks are subjected to
high heat, high pressure, hot mineral-rich fluids.

Gabbro Granite

Limestone Shale

Gneiss Rock Quartzite Rock

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 A. In the diagram above, identify these rocks based on their classifications and
mineral’s.
TYPES OF ROCKS CLASSES OF ROCKS MINERIALS
Granite
Quartzite
Gneiss
Limestone
Gabbro
Shale

B. Draw and name any two type of rock not in the above diagram and give its
minerals

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 PRACTICAL TWO
Physical characteristics of Soil

2.1. Definition of Soil: Soil is the thin layer of material covering the earth's surface
and is formed from the weathering of rocks. It is made up mainly of mineral
particles, organic materials, air, water and living organism, all of which interact
slowly yet constantly. Soil can be categorized into sand, clay, silt and loam types
of soil based on the dominating size of the particles within a soil.
Sandy soil: Sandy Soil is light, warm, dry and tend to be acidic and low in
nutrients, and are often known as light soils due to their high proportion of sand
and little clay (clay weighs more than sand). These soils have quick water drainage
and are easy to work with. They are quicker to warm up in spring than clay soils
but tend to dry out in summer and suffer from low nutrients that are washed away
by rain.

Clay soil: Clay Soil is a heavy soil type that benefits from high nutrients as the soil
remain wet and cold in winter and dry out in summer. These soils are made of over
25 percent clay, and because of the spaces found between clay particles, clay soils
hold a high amount of water.

Silt soil: Is a light and moisture retentive soil type with a high fertility rating,
compromising of medium sized particles they are well drained and hold moisture
well. As the particles are fine, they can be easily compacted and are prone to
washing away with rain.

2.2. Soil texture: The particles that make up soil are categorized into three groups by
size –sand, silt, and clay. Sand particles are the largest and clay particles the
smallest. Most soils are a combination of the three. The relative percentages of
sand, silt, and clay are what give soil its texture. A clay loam texture soil, for
example, has nearly equal parts of sand, slit, and clay.
Sand– 2.0 to 0.05 mm
Silt – 0.05 to 0.002 mm
Clay– less than 0.002 mm

There are 12 soil textural classes represented on the soil texture triangle in the
figure below. This triangle is used so that terms like “clay” or “loam” always have

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the same meaning. Each texture corresponds to specific percentages of sand, silt,
or clay. Knowing the texture helps us manage the soil.

Soil Structure: Soil structure is the arrangement of soil particles into groupings.
These groupings are called peds or aggregates, which often form distinctive shapes
typically found within certain soil horizons. For example, granular soil particles
are characteristic of the surface horizon. The various types of soil structures are
provided in the figure below.

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 PRACTICAL THREE

Chemical Properties of Soil

3.1. Soil pH: Soil pH is an indication of the acidity or the basicity of the soil and is
measured in pH units. Soil pH can be easily determined and it gives an indication
about other soil properties. Certain soil properties (e.g. Cation exchange capacity,
structure) and processes (e.g. Nutrient dynamics, soil formation) are directly or
indirectly pH dependable.
PH value could be determined by using a glass electrode/ pH meter system.
Glass Electrode/ pH Meter Method:
1.Weigh two; 10g of air-dried soil samples in to two different 50ml beakers.
2.Add 25 ml of distilled water to one sample and 25 ml of 0.01M Calcium chloride
(CaCl2) to other sample.
3.Stir the suspension for 20 minutes with 1-minute interval and take the reading
displayed on the pH meter (Standardize the PH meter against a pH buffer solution
before measuring the pH)

Interpretation:
Interpret the pH of the soil using the interpretation given below.

pH 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Extreme
Strong Strong Moderatel Weakly Weakly Moderate
Acid Acidic Acidic y Acidic Alkaline ly
Acidic Alkaline

ACIDIC NEUTRAL ALKALINE

Soil pH is important because it influences:

1.Availability of soil nutrients.
2.Solubilityof toxic ions in the soil.
3.Physical breakdown of root cells.
4.Cation exchange capacity in soils whose colloids (clay/humus) are pH-dependent.
5.Biologicalactivity.
PRACTICAL FOUR
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 Soil Characteristics

The soil types determine how and what we can grow and are the basis for all farming.
Here is a quick guide to the characteristics of each soil type.

1. Sandy soils

Sandy soils are often dry, nutrient deficient and fast-draining. They have little (or no)
ability to transport water from deeper layers through capillary transport. Therefore, tillage
of sandy soils in the spring should be kept to a minimum in order to retain moisture in the
seedbed. The nutrient- and water-holding capacity of sand soils can be improved through
adding organic material.

2. Silt soils, 0-10% clay

These soils differ from sand soils by having a greater tendency to form a crust, which is
often very hard. If they are over-tilled, they can become compact and this decreases their
ability to infiltrate water in wet periods. In dry conditions they can become hard and
difficult to till. However, they are generally easy to till and can store considerable
amounts of water. They require good reconsolidation, but tillage in wet conditions should
be avoided.

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3. Clay soils with 10-25% clay

These soils differ from those described above in that crusting can be very severe. The
crust is often so hard that it has to be broken up. With low contents of clay and organic
material, aggregate formation is often poor.

4. Clay soils with 25-40% clay

These soils have a good ability to transport water by capillary action from deep layers but
the rate is slow, so plant water requirements are not met through capillary water. These
soils are darker in color and must be tilled at the correct water content in order to be
easily cultivated.

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5. Clay soils with 40% clay

Heavy clays have a very high water-holding capacity, but most of the water is
tightly bound and not available to plants. The humus content is often higher than
in other mineral soils as they do not form a crust when they dry. In the water-
saturated state these soils can be sticky and very impermeable to water. Due to the
high clay content, the nutrient content is very high. The risk with tilling them in
wet conditions is that it leads to soil compaction.

Experiment: Determine the effect of Clay soils, Sandy soils, Silt soils and Loamy
soils on plant Germination and growth.

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 PRACTICAL FIVE

Soil Moisture and it Importance

 soil moisture: Soil moisture is the water that is held in the spaces between soil
particles and is a key variable in controlling the exchange of water and heat energy
between the land surface and the atmosphere through evaporation and plant
transpiration. As a result, soil moisture plays an important role in the development
of weather patterns and the production of precipitation. soil moisture content could
change the concentration of minerals or substances in the water and cause shifts in
pH as soil wets and dries and In lower rainfall, the soil moisture reserve should be
taken into account when choosing fertilizer rates.
Determination of soil moisture
soil moisture determination is of major significance as Soil moisture influences
crop growth not only by affecting nutrient availability, but also nutrient
transformations and soil biological behavior. Therefore, soil moisture is routinely
measured in most field trials. While it can be assessed in the field by neutron
probe, the gravimetric approach is more flexible, as samples can be readily taken
from any soil situation. All analyses in the laboratory are related to an air-or oven-
dry basis. And therefore must consider the actual soil moisture content.
From this later sampling, one can obtain soil water content as well as bulk
density. Knowing the bulk density, the total porosity can be calculated and used to
determine the percent saturation and the depth of water in the soil.

Methods to determine soil water content:

1.Feel method
2.Gravimetric.
3.Tensiometers.
4.Gypsum blocks.
5.Granular matrix sensors.
6.Pressure plate

Equipment and material:

Container or Beaker, Spatula, Oven maintain the temperature between 105 OC to
110 OC, Desiccator, Balance.

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Procedure:
1.Clean the containers with lid dry it and weigh empty (W1).
2.Take the wet soil sample in the container and weigh with lid (W2).
3.Keep the container in the oven with lid removed. Dry the specimen to constant weigh
maintaining the temperature between 105 to 110 OC for a period varying with the type of
soil but usually 16 to 24 hours.
4.Remove the sample from oven: Cool in a desiccator for at least 30 minutes and weight
of the container with dried soil sample, (W3)

Calculations:
Calculate the moisture content of the soil as a percentage of the dry soil weight.

w 2−w 3
% Soil moisture ¿ ( )
w 3−w 1
∗100

Where: W1 = Weight of empty container (g)

W2 = Weight of wet soil + container (g)
W3 = Weight of dried soil + container (g)

Where chemical analyses are performed on moist (air-dry) samples, it is convenient to

correct the results to an oven-dry basis by use of an appropriate Moisture Factor
(MF) calculated as follows:

W 2−W 1
MF= ( W 3−W 1 )

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 PRACTICAL SIX

Soil organic matter and its importance

Soil organic matter (SOM) is the organic component of soil, consisting of three
primary parts including small (fresh) plant residues and small living soil organisms,
decomposing (active) organic matter, and stable organic matter (humus). Soil organic
matter serves as a reservoir of nutrients for crops, provides soil aggregation, increases
nutrient exchange, retains moisture, reduces compaction, reduces surface crusting, and
increases water infiltration into soil.

Soil organic matter impacts the rate of surface applied herbicides along with soil pH
necessary to effectively control weeds. Soil organic matter impacts the potential for
herbicide carryover for future crops, and amount of lime necessary to raise pH. Several
methods can be used to enrich soil and increase its fertility, for example through the use
of compost and farm yard manure.

Preparation of Compost as a soil Organic matter.

MATERIALS: - Organic materials used for compost should include a mixture of

brown organic material (dead leaves, twigs, manure) and green organic
material (lawn clippings, fruit rinds, etc.). Brown materials supply carbon, while green
materials supply nitrogen. The best ratio is 1-part green to 1-part brown material.

PROCEDURE: Chop the materials into small pieces and put the first layer. Pile up to
45cm then sprinkle 10 liters of water. Add a second layer of cuttings to about 20cm and
sprinkle water. Place a third layer of animal, poultry waste or slurry, this provides micro-
organisms that are essential for decomposition.

Preparation of Farmyard Manure as a soil Organic Matter.

MATERIALS: Cow dung, cow urine, waste straw, and other dairy wastes

PROCEDURE: Prepare a pit 1.5 m long x 1.5 m wide x 1 m deep and line the sides and
bottom with plastic sheeting, fill that pit with degradable waste and cover with dung for a
month. After a month microorganism decompose the waste and farm yard manure is
prepared.

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 PRACTICAL SEVEN

Soil organisms and their impact on nature of soils

Soil organism, any organism inhabiting the soil during part or all of its life. Soil
organisms, which range in size from microscopic cells that digest decaying organic
material to small mammals that live primarily on other soil organisms, play an important
role in maintaining fertility, structure, drainage, and aeration of soil. They also break
down plant and animal tissues, releasing stored nutrients and converting them into forms
usable by plants. Some soil organisms are pests. Some soil organisms cause rots, some
release substances that inhibit plant growth, and others are hosts for organisms that cause
animal diseases.
Since most of the functions of soil organisms are beneficial, earth with large numbers of
organisms in it tends to be fertile; one square meter of rich soil can harbor as many as
1,000,000,000 organisms.

Soil organisms are commonly divided into five arbitrary groups according to size, the
smallest of which include bacterial, actinomycetes, and algae. Next are the microfauna,
which are less than 100 microns in length and generally feed upon other microorganisms.
The microfauna include single-celled protozoans, some smaller flatworms, acarien,
rotifers, and tardigrades (eight-legged invertebrates).

Acarien – Bdellodies longirostris by Philippe Garcelon

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 macrofauna are quite diverse, the most common example is the potworm, a
white, segmented worm that feeds on fungi, bacteria, and decaying plant material. The
group also includes slugs, snails, and millipedes, which feed on plants, and centipedes,
beetles and their larvae, and the larvae of flies, which feed on other organisms or on
decaying matter.

Oligochaeta – potworm

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References:

Engr.Salmon Tomaizeh 2015 – Soil acience manual lab

2012 - Farm yard manure and waterhyacenth cpmpost appications to enhance

organic matter.

United state of Agriculture – Soil organic matter

2020 – Soil overview provided by the soil science society of America

College of tropical agriculture and human resourses – Soil nutrient

management for maui county

www.boughton.co.uk/products/topsoil/soil-types/

www.britannica.com/sceience/soil-organism/

www.vanderstand.com/en/know-how/basicagronomy/soil-
basics/characteristics-of-different soil types

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