Irrgation Engineering II

Faculty of Civil and Water Resource Engineering
Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering
Irrigation Engineering II
(HWRE4171 and WRIE4171)
By: Zigiybel F
2022/23
Chapter One
Land Leveling
24 November 2022
Land clearing and Grading

• Land clearing consists of removing of some
or all the trees, bushes, vegetation’s, trash
and boulders from the area specified for
land grading.
• Land grading is reshaping of the field surface to a
planned grade. It is necessary in making a suitable
field surface to control the flow of water, to check
soil erosion and provide surface drainage.
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• A properly graded land surface ensures

unobstructed smooth flow of water into the land,
without eroding the soil and ensuring uniform
distribution of water throughout the filed.
• Land leveling operations may be grouped into
three phases:
o Rough grading
o Land leveling
o Land smoothing
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• Rough grading-is the removal of abrupt irregularities

such as mounds, dunes and rings, and filling of pits,
depressions and gullies.
• Land leveling => land grading => land forming => land shaping
It requires moving large quantities of earth over
considerable distance
• Land smoothing
Leveling operations leaves irregular surfaces due to
dumping the loads. These irregularities are removed and a
plane surface obtained by land smoothing which is the final
operation in land leveling.
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Criteria for land leveling

Land leveling is influenced by :
the characteristics of the soil profile,
prevailing land slope,
rainfall characteristics,
cropping pattern,
methods of irrigation,
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Land levelling design methods

The basic methods of land leveling design are:
1. plane method
2. profile method
3. plan-inspection method and
4. contour adjustment method
• This chapter deals with the plane method in more
detail and other methods can be referred from
literatures.
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Plane Method
• The plane method is the most commonly used method of
land leveling design.
• Its use, however, is restricted to those fields where it is
feasible to grade the field to a true plane.
• The following is the procedure for land leveling design.
 Determining the centroid of the filed
 Determining the average elevation of the field
 Compute the slope of the plane of best fit
 Compute the formation levels, cuts and fills
 Determine the cut-fill ratio
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1. Determining the centroid of the filed

• The centroid of a rectangular field is located at the point of intersection of
its diagonals.
• The centroid of a triangular field is located at the intersection of the lines
drawn form its corners to the mid-points of the opposite sides.
• To determine the centroids of irregular field, the area is divided into
rectangles and right angled triangles. The centroid is located by computing
moments about two reference lines at right angles to each other.
• The distance of the centroid of the field from any line of reference is equal
to the sum of the products obtained by multiplying the area of each part
times the distance from the line of reference to its centroid, divided by the
area of the entire field.
• By computing the distance to the centriod from two lines of reference
perpendicular to each other, the exact point of the centriod can be
determined.
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2. Determining the average elevation of the field

• This is obtained by adding the elevations of all grid points in
the field and dividing the sum by the number of points
3. Compute the slope of the plane of best fit

The slope any line in the x or y direction on the plane
which fits the natural ground surface, can be determined by
the least squares method. The plane equation can be written
as:
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E(x,y) = AX+BY+C
• Where: E = elevation of the X,Y coordinate
A,B = regression coefficients
C = elevation of the origin or reference point from the
calculations of field topography using Eq. above
• The slope of the best fit line through the average X-
direction elevation (Ej) is A and is found by:
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• For the best fit slope in the Y-direction, the slope, B, is
• Finally, the average field elevation, EF, can be found by summing

either Ei or Ej and dividing by the appropriate number of grid rows.
• This elevation corresponds to the elevation of the field centroid
(X,Y). Thus, the following equation can be solved for C as
follows.
C= EF - AX –BY
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• The differences are the necessary cuts and or fills.

• The slope of the plane can be determined on both x and y axes, and
the elevation of any point calculated from the elevation of the
centroid.
4. Compute the formation levels, cuts and fills
• With the elevation of the centriod determined, the formation
level of any point (the elevation which the point should attain
after land grading operation) may be determined, using the
computed or assumed values of Sx and Sy.
• For convenience in computation, a grid point close to the
centroid is selected and its elevation computed with reference
to centriod elevation, using the vales of Sx and Sy.
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5. Determine the cut-fill ratio

σ 𝑐𝑢𝑡
Cut-fill ratio = σ 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙
Cut-fill ratio≅ 1 or 100%

Example
The field shown in Fig. below is to be leveled to a
downfield gradient of 0.4 per cent and a cross slope
of 0.02 per cent. The following additional provisions
may be made while designing the land leveling work:
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• A farm road is to be constructed along the boundary ab.

The dimensions of the road are: bottom width 4.2m, top
width 3.5m, and average height of embankment 30cm.
the entire earth fill for the farm road is to be taken from
the field.
• A drainage canal is to be dug outside the field along the
side cd. The canal is 1.5m deep, 1m wide at the bottom
and has side slopes 1.5:1. The excavation from the canal
is to be spread in the field.
• An allowance of 1cm may be provided to account for the
shrinkage of the cut and fill areas. Determine the design
elevation of each grid point. Compute the cut and fill at
each grid point and the cut/fill ratio.
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Chapter Two
Surface Irrigation Design
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What is surface irrigation system?
• Surface irrigation is the application of water

by gravity flow to the surface of the field.
• Either the entire field is flooded (basin
irrigation) or the water is fed into small
channels (furrows) or strips of land
(borders).
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Surface irrigation Design inputs

(System Parameters and System Variables)
• Required amount of application (Zr)
Zr = MAD = TAW * f
• Maximum allowable flow velocity (Vmax)
range of 8 m/min for erodible silt to 13 m/min SP
• Manning’s roughness coefficient (n).
• Channel bed slope (So).
• Infiltration parameter (I).
• Channel geometry
• Channel length (l).
• Unit inlet flow rate (Qo). SV
• Cutoff time (tco).
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Surface irrigation event or process

• There are three general phases in a surface
irrigation event: (1) advance; (2) wetting or
ponding; and (3) recession.
• These are illustrated graphically in below.
• The advance phase occurs between when water is
first introduced to the field and when it has
advanced to the end.
• Between the time of advance completion, or simply
advance time, and the time when water is shutoff or
cutoff, is the period designated as the wetting or
ponding phase.
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• The wetting or ponding phase will not be present if the

inflow is terminated before the advance phase is completed
– a typical situation in borders and basins but a rarily in
furrows.
• The wetting phase is accompanied by tail water runoff from
free-draining systems or by ponding on blocked end
systems.
• After the inflow is terminated, water recedes from the field
by draining from the field and/or into the field via
infiltration.
• This is the recession phase. All numerical models of surface
irrigation attempt to simulate these processes.
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Surface Irrigation
• Application of surface irrigation water can be
accomplished by: wild flooding, basins, borders and
furrows.
1) Furrow irrigation
• It refers to water that is discharged into and runs
down small sloping channels (called furrows or
corrugations) which are cut or pressed into the soil.
• The two most common furrow irrigation systems are
the straight furrow irrigation and graded furrow
irrigation.
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Design of furrow irrigation System

• Non erosive stream size
• To maintain proper furrow shape and reduce sediment loss
from the head of the field and deposition at the tail of the
field or adjacent water way, it is desirable to operate the
furrow at a velocity that is non erosive.
• The empirical relation developed by USDA-SCS for the
maximum non-erosive stream size is
Qmax = C/S
• Where S = ground slope down the furrow in %
C = empirical constant (= 0.6l/s )
This relationship doesn’t account for soil type and therefore limited in
accuracy
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• The average intake over the length of the furrow is given by

1
I =( )* (Vin - V0ut – Vs)
𝐿𝑃
• Where I = equivalent depth infiltrated over wetted surface area of field,
mm
L= distance between inflow and outflow measurements, m
P = adjusted wetted perimeter, m
V = volume of water (inflow, outflow, storage) in liter.
• The adjusted wetted perimeter in given by the following equation
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• Where Q= volumetric inflow rate,

N =Manning’s roughness coefficient
S = furrow slope or hydraulic gradient,
• In most cases, after the flow has stabilized and gets uniform, the hydraulic
gradient is equal to the furrow slope. A roughness coefficient of 0.04 is
normally used for design of furrow irrigation system.
• The volume of channel storage is given by
• The required depth of infiltration for a furrow system must be expressed as an

equivalent depth over the total field area. Infiltration depth is given by:
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Intake family a b c F g
0.05 0.5334 0.618 7.0 7.16 1.088*10-4
0.10 0.6198 0.661 7.0 7.25 1.251*10-4
0.15 0.7110 0.683 7.0 7.34 1.414*10-4
0.20 0.7772 0.699 7.0 7.43 1.578*10-4
0.25 0.8534 0.711 7.0 7.52 1.741*10-4
0.30 0.9246 0.720 7.0 7.61 1.904*10-4
0.35 0.9957 0.729 7.0 7.70 2.067*10-4
0.40 1.064 0.736 7.0 7.79 2.230*10-4
0.45 1.130 0.742 7.0 7.88 2.393*10-4
0.50 1.196 0.748 7.0 7.97 2.556*10-4
0.60 1.321 0.757 7.0 8.15 2.883*10-4
0.70 1.443 0.766 7.0 8.33 3.209*10-4
0.80 1.560 0.773 7.0 8.50 3.535*10-4
0.90 1.674 0.779 7.0 8.68 3.862*10-4
1.00 1.786 0.785 7.0 8.86 4.188*10-4
1.50 2.284 0.799 7.0 9.76 5.819*10-4
2.00 2.753 0.808 7.0 10.65 7.451*10-4
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• The advance time for stream of water moving down the

furrow is given by
Where Tt = advance time, min

x = distance down the furrow, m
f = advance coefficient (Table)
g= advance coefficient
Q= volumetric inflow rate,
S = furrow slope,
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• The infiltration opportunity time is equal to the time of water

application minus the advance time plus the recession time.
To = Tco – Tt + Tr , min
• The cut-off time, Tco, reflects an irrigation management
decision made by the farmer and designer.
• Tco is normally set equal to the time to advance to the end of
the furrow plus the required net infiltration time less
recession time.
• Letting in equal the desired net depth of infiltration, the net
infiltration time is determined by
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• The recession time is assumed Zero for open- ended gradient

furrows (i.e for furrows whose slope is not equal to zero) with
out loss of accuracy.
• For gradient furrows, To = Tco – Tt but Tco = Tt + Tn
• Where Tt = advance time required to reach end of the field at
distance L, min.
• The average infiltration opportunity time over distance x

down the furrow is given by:
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• The gross depth of water application, ig, is defined as the

required net depth of irrigation, In, divided by the product of
the application and distribution pattern efficiencies.
In
Ig =
Ea Ed
• If evaporation is neglected, Ea is assumed to be equal to 100%
in
Ig =
Ed
• The equivalent gross depth of application as a function of
inflow rate and field geometry, is
Ig= gross depth of application in mm
Q = inflow rate,
W = furrow spacing, m
The equivalent depth of deep percolation, ddp
Ddp = iavg – in
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2.Design of Border Irrigation

• Border irrigation makes use of parallel earth rides to guide a
sheet of flowing water across a field. The land between two
levees is called a border strip, simply called a border.
• Border strips, like basins, can be described as rectangular
channels (narrow or wide) in which the width of flow plays a
dominant role in affecting the geometric elements of the
channel
• Graded border systems are most applicable to soils with
moderately low to moderately high in take rates. This method
is best suited to lands with slopes less than 0.5%.
• It can be used on lands of slopes up to 2% for non-grassy crops
and up to approximately 4%for sod crops.
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• Borders can be grouped into three major categories depending

on the management strategy adopted:
• Fixed flow: a system in which the inlet flow rate remains
constant throughout the duration of irrigation, the method is
simple and less expensive but generally of low efficiency.
• Cutback: this is a system in which irrigation begins with a
maximum or near maximum non erosive inlet flow rate,
which continues for a part of the irrigation period and then
reduced to a level just above what is needed to wet the entire
length of the border.
• Tail water reuse: this is a system in which excess surface
runoff from the downstream end is collected in a sump and
then pumped back into the same field to open up more
borders or used to irrigate another field.
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Hydraulic Relationships
• Graded border systems are designed on the principle that any
point in the field should have water applied to it for a time
equal to that required to infiltrate the net depth of irrigation.
• Recession lag time: The time between cut- off of water at the
head of the field and the disappearance of water at the head
of the field.
Time to cut- off, Tco = Tn - Trl
The term high gradient borders is used to denote borders with a surface slope
greater then approximately 0.004m/m. In such borders, the water surface slope is
assumed equal to the field slope and the normal flow depth, that is, the depth of
flow under conditions of uniform flow is assumed equal to the depth of flow at the
head of the border. Under such conditions, the recession lag time is given by:
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0 .2
Qu n1.2
Trl 
120S 1.6
• Where Trl = recession lag time, min
• Qu = unit flow rate, m2/s
n = Manning’s roughness coeff.
S = surface slope, m/m
- For low gradient borders with surface slopes less than 0.004m/m
• Where Tn = net
infiltration
time, min
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• The inflow rate per unit width of border strip is given by
where: in = net depth of irrigation

L = border length, m
ed= distn. efficiency, %
• The maximum depth of flow in the In the border strip is

determined by the border ridge height.
• The border ridge height is normally established at 1.25 times
the maximum flow depth.
• Maximum flow depths of less than 150 mm are generally
acceptable. In erosion resistant soil, flow depths in the range
of 200mm may be acceptable.
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• Normal depth for uniform flow, (mm)
-------for high gradient border.
• The maximum flow rate criterion has been established to have

a non – erosive stream size.
42
• A minimum depth of flow criterion is required to ensure that

the water stream is large enough to spread over the entire
border.
• The theoretical relationship for maximum slope is given by
• The theoretical relationship for maximum length is given by

ed in %
3. Design of Basin irrigation

• Basin irrigation uses generally a level area surrounded by ridges (bounds,
dikes) to guide water as it flows from one end to the other to prevent
from leaving the field.
• A basin is typically square in shape but exists in all sorts of irregular and
rectangular (small or large) configurations.
• The flow rate must be large enough to cover the entire basin
approximately 60 to 75 percent of the time required for the soil to absorb
the desired amount of water.
Hydraulic relationships
• The hydraulic relationships described in this section are based on design
procedures developed by the soil conservation service and will use the
intake family concept the equations in this section can be derived by
application of the continuity, infiltration and Manning’s equations with
limited depth of flow.
• The net time of infiltration, Tn, in a level basin system is computed using
equation
• The required advance time, Tt, is determined by multiplying the net

infiltration time by the fractional advance ratio, Tt/Tn , which is a function
of distribution pattern efficiency.
• Ratio of Tt to Tn for various distribution efficiency values.

Distribution pattern Efficiency (Ed) Ratio Tt to Tn or 
Tt 

 

%

 T 
95 0.16   n

90 0.28
85 0.40
80 0.58
75 0.80
70 1.08
65 1.45
60 1.90
55 2.45
50 3.20
• The relationship between the advance time, basin length, and inflow rate
will apply the unit inflow rate concept.
Where Qu= Q/W , W = basin width

• The time to cut-off, Tco, is the time required to put the gross depth of
irrigation, ig on to the basin is given by
Where: Tco = time to cut-off, min

in = net depth of irrigation, mm
ed = distribution pattern efficiency, percent.
• The maximum depth of flow in the basin, dmax, is an

important parameter in basin design in that it
governs the minimum ridge height. The ridge height
should be equal to 1.25 times the maximum depth of
flow and the ridge should have a maximum side
slope ratio of 2.5:1
Difference b/n Basin and Border Irrigation

• Basin and border irrigation systems are similar in that both
involve a uniform sheet of water flowing over the soil.
• The general difference is that basin irrigation involves
applying water to a nearly level field and may include
ponding for extended time periods.
• With border irrigation, water flows between dikes that divide
a sloping field into rectangular strips with free drainage at the
end.
• The purpose of the dikes is to contain water as it flows across
the field, unlike basin irrigation where the dikes pond the
water
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Examples
1. In a basin irrigation system, infiltration
equation is Z=6T0.5 (T as min and Z as
millimeter), discharge in width unit is 0.000286
cubic meters per second per meter, available
discharge for irrigation is 0.00283 cubic meters
per second, there is not runoff, basin width is 6
meters, requirement effective storage in root
depth is 100 millimeters, and final infiltration after
4 hours (when water reach to the end of basin) is
10 millimeters per hour. Determine length of
basin, irrigation time, and average deep
percolation.
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2. In a border irrigation system, readily available

water is 100 millimeters, length of border is 200
meters, width of border is 0.6 meters, input discharge
is 30 liters per minute, and infiltration and advance
functions are Z=0.124t^0.75 (t as minute and Z as
centimeter) and x=5.67tx^0.72 (tx as minute and x as
meter), respectively. Determine deep percolation,
runoff, and application efficiency. In addition, if
advance time is quarter of infiltration time, determine
irrigation time.
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3. In a border irrigation system, equation of infiltration rate into

the soil is I=20t^-0.5 (I in mm/day), net irrigation requirement is
5 centimeters, and advance time is 48 minutes. Determine amount
of infiltrated water in beginning of border. The advance time is at
the quarter of net infiltration time.
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Chapter Three
Pressurized Irrigation System Design
Pressurized Irrigation System

(Sprinkler and Drip Irrigation system)
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Why called pressurized irrigation?

• Water moves through the pipes under
pressure,
• it is not exposed to the atmosphere as in the
open channels,
• Energy is required,
• In both sprinkler and drip irrigation
mechanical Energy is added.
24 November 2022
Major components of pressurized system

Water sources
Energy sources
Distribution Network
Distribution network includes pipe system
and emission devices
Emission Devices:
Laminar, turbulent or pressure compensating
Sprinkler Irrigation
• Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water
which is similar to natural rainfall.
• Water is sprayed into the air through sprinklers so that it
breaks up into small water drops which fall to the ground.
• The pump supply system, sprinklers and operating conditions
must be designed to enable a uniform application of water.
• Sprinkler irrigation- an artificial rain
Uses of Sprinkler Irrigation

• lightly wet the soil surface after seeding to improve germination
• Frost protectin
• Application of fertilizers , pesticides and soil amendments
• Crop cooling
Adaptability of Sprinkler irrigation

Conditions that favour Sprinkler
Irrigation
– Soils too porous for good distribution by surface
methods.
– Shallow soils the topography of which prevents proper
leveling for surface irrigation methods.
– Land having steep slopes and easily erodable soils.
– Irrigation stream too small to distribute water
efficiently by surface irrigation.
– Undulating land too costly too level sufficiently for
good surface irrigation.
Suitability of sprinkler irrigation
Crops : suitable for most row , field and tree
crops. Water can be sprayed over or
under the canopy, But large sprinklers are
not good for delicate crops.
Slopes:- Adaptable in any farmable slopes – uniform
or undulating. The lateral should be laid along
the contour line to minimize pressure changes.
Soils:- Best suited to sandy soils with high infiltration rates.
- The average application rate of the sprinkler must be
less than the basic soil infiltration rate. Why ???
- not good for soils which easily form a crust – apply
light fine sprinkler irrigation if it is an inevitable case.
Suitability of Sprinkler …
Irrigation water:-
• Clean supply of water,
• Free of suspended sediments
Limitation of sprinkler Irrigation
• Wind distorts sprinkler pattern and causes
uneven distribution of water
• Ripened soft fruits may be affected by spraying
water.
• Water must be clean and free of sand, debris
and large amount of dissolved salts.
• High initial investment as compared to surface
irrigation.
• High power requirements
• Fine textured soils with slow infiltration rate can not be
irrigated efficiently in hot windy areas
Sprinkler irrigation in Ethiopia (examples)

Zeway
Tanabeles
Kobo valley
Fincha sugar factory.
• The undulating topography of wide arable areas of the country, calls
application Sprinkler irrigation System.
• Marginal soils of peripheral regions of the country , shallow soils.
• Water scarce areas- save water
• Small supplies to distribute water efficiently
…in Ethiopia (ctd)

The major bottlenecks were:
• No or little domestic production of system components- pumps,
quick couplers, light weight pipes, hose etc. Most components
are imported.
• Individual farmers can not afford the installation costs.
• Poor infrastructure and market chains which could support
production of paying perishable crops and vegetables for export
and domestic consumption.
• Lack of skilled manpower for project identification, planning,
design and implementation.
Sprinkler Classification
1. Classification Based on the arrangement

for spraying irrigation water
i) Fixed Nozzle:
Parallel pipes are installed at about 15 meters apart and
supported on rows of posts. Water is discharged at right angles
perpendicularly from the pipe line. The entire 15 m width
between pipe lines may be irrigated by turning the pipes
through about 135°.
1350
ii) Perforated sprinkler
• Generally
application rates
exceeding 20 mm/hr
and pressure heads
less than 25m, often
as low as 7m . They
do not cover a very
wide strip.
iii) Rotating sprinklers:

• Extensively used due to its
ability to apply water at a
slower rate. It uses relatively
large nozzle openings which
are favorable in water
containing silt and debris
since less blockage of
sprinklers is experienced.
• Application rates less than 2
mm/hr are possible.
• Advantageous for soils with
low infiltration rates.
2. Classification based on the method of

developing pressure:
• Pump powered system
• Gravity sprinkler system
• Hybrid systems (Pumps + Gravity)
3. Classification according to portability and make up of units
• Conventional systems (periodic move & fixed)

Permanent system
Solid system
Portable system
Hand move system
•Mobile sprinkler machines
Big gun sprinkler
Centre pivot system
Linear move system
Boom sprinkler system
Side roll system
Hand move sprinkler system
Hand move sprinkler system-position 2

sprinklers
Single sprinkler
• Gun sprinkler • Linear move system
• Center pivot • Periodical moved

Center pivot and linear move at Wonji Shoa

Pressure Heads
Sprinklers operate under a wide range of pressure
Variation.
(3.5m to over 70m)
The desirable pressure head depends up on power costs, area
to be covered, type of sprinkler used, sprinkler spacing and
crop being irrigated
Low pressure head sprinklers- cover small area, high
sprinkling rates, good for soils whose infiltration rate
exceeds 12mm/hr
High Pressure heads –covers large area , high sprinkling
rate than medium pressure heads, good distribution pattern
but disrupted by wind due high trajectories.
Sprinkler System Components

A typical sprinkler irrigation system consists of
the following components:
• Pressure generating units(Pump unit)
• Water carrier units (Mainlines , sub mainlines,
Laterals)
• water delivery units (riser pipes and Sprinklers)
• Quality improvement sub units ( Screens ,
Desilting basins)
• Ancillary units ( Fertilizer and other chemical
applicator)
Components of sprinkler systems

• pump unit is usually a centrifugal pump which

takes water from the source and provides adequate
pressure for delivery into the pipe system.
• Mainline: a line between the source of pressurized
water and the point at which water is delivered to
the field is the next component. Mainline can be
buried pipe or above-ground pipeline. In linear
move system the mainline can be an open channel
and requires a pressurizing device, pump.
• Lateral line: This comes out of the mainline to

deliver water to the sprinkler nozzles.
– The position of the lateral may be permanent, as in a solid
set, or moveable as in the hand move and side- roll
systems.
– The spacing between the successive positions of the lateral
along the mainline is designated as Sl.
– The distance between sprinkler nozzles along a lateral is
termed as the sprinkler spacing and designated as Ss.
The spray area which is wet by each sprinkler nozzle

at a particular operating pressure is designated as
the wetted diameter, Dw. The wetted diameters are
overlapped along the lateral to promote a more
uniform distribution of water application
Other components
Fertilizer applicator:
Desilting basin (Settlement Reaches):
Debris screen:
Booster pumps:
System components
Fertilizer Applicator
• Soluble chemical fertilizers can be injected in to the
sprinkler system;
• The two operations, irrigation and fertigation, are
done simultaneously – save the labour requirement.
• Fertilizer can be applied via the suction side of the
pipe or by fixing a venturi on the mainline or by
creating separate injection pump in some cases.
• Introducing fertilizers through the suction side of

the pump via the pipe is simpler but pump
impellers are likely to be corroded due to the
fertilizer solution, unless the impellers are made of
corrosion resistant materials
• After injection, operate the system for 20 -30
minutes to flush it out from toxic effects.
• The Quantity of fertilizer to be injected,
Sl * S m * N s * Pn *W f
WF 
10,000
where:WF = Amount of fertilizer per setting , Kg.

Ss = Distance between sprinklers , m.
Sl = Distance between laterals , m.
Ns = Number of sprinklers
Pn = Number of positions a given sprinkler can
serve
Wf = recommended fertilizer dose, Kg /ha
Desilting Basin
To trap suspended silts when the water comes from streams,
open ditches or well water having silt.
Some times desilting basins and debris screen are built as a
combined structure.
Debris Screen Faculty of Civil and Water Resource Engineering
• needed when surface water is used as the source of
irrigation.
• keep the system free of trash that might plug the
sprinkler nozzles.
• Screens should be fine enough to catch weed seeds and
other small particles.
• The accumulated trash must be removed.
Booster pumps
• used when additional pressure is required
• They could be used to provide adequate pressure for
small areas that lie at elevation considerably above the
principal area to be irrigated.
Operating sprinkler system

• To apply water as uniformly as possible to fill the root
zune water deficit.
Wetting pattern
• The wetting pattern from a single rotating sprinkler is not very
uniform.
• Normally the area wetted is circular. The heaviest wetting is
close to the sprinkler.
• For good uniformity several sprinklers must be operated close
together so that their patterns overlap.
• For good uniformity the overlap should at least be 65% of the
wetted diameter. This in turn determines the maximum spacing
between the sprinklers.
•
Wetting pattern (Top &side View)
Wetted depth
Note: Compare the wetted depth at the centre and at the ends
• The uniformity of sprinkler applications can be affected by

wind and water pressure
• To reduce the effects of wind, the sprinklers can be
positioned more closely together
Overlapping Pattern
• Too low pressure

-pumps and pipes wear
-water jet does not break up and all the water tends
to fall in one area
• Too high pressure
A fine spray develops which falls close to the sprinkler.
Application rate:
This is the average rate at which water is sprayed onto

the crop and is measured in mm/hour.
Application rate depends up on:
sprinkler nozzles.
operating pressure.
distance between sprinklers.
• Make sure that the average application rate is

less than the basic infiltration rate of the soil.
• Sprinkler nozzle size:

-varies from 0.5 to 4mm.
- drop size is also controlled by pressure and
nozzle size.
Design of Sprinkler
Irrigation System
Design of sprinkler system

Step-by-step procedure in planning and design of
sprinkler system:
• Inventory of available resources and operating
conditions
• Topographic map of the area
• Water supply – source, availability and
dependability
• Climatic Condition
• Power source.
• Crop Selection
Detail design steps

• Determine water requirement and irrigation intervals for the critical dates
• Maximum and minimum intervals of irrigation
• Determine the area of the land to be irrigated
• Selection of type of sprinkler method
• Determine the layout of the mains, sub mains and the laterals
• Selection of sprinklers: pressure and application rate
• Determine the duration of applications based on the volume required and the
rate of application
• Determine maximum number of laterals operating simultaneously: Can be
determined by divining the total available flow for the plot divided by the lateral
discharge
• Determine the duration of application, number of daily applications, number of
lateral required per day, and number of lateral operating simultaneously using
design interval, net depth, gross depth, and spacing between the sub mains.
• Schedule applications: opening and closing of the valves
• Design the mains and sub mains. Consider economics, topography
Sprinkler characteristics
• Discharge of Sprinkler nozzle (q)
q  ca 2 gh
q = nozzle discharge, m3/s
a = cross sectional area nozzle, orifice, m2
h = pressure head at the nozzle, m
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/sec2
c = coefficient of discharge (0.75- 0.98)
• Distance of throw
The radius of wetted area: R = 1.35 dh
R = radius of wetted area,
d = diameter of nozzle, m
h = pressure head at the nozzle, m.
The design of sprinkler system is aimed at replacing

the water used by the plant during the peek period of
the growing season to avoid crop stress.
The required depth of application is dependent up on
the peak period evapotranspiration rate, the water
holding capacity of the root system and the
management allowed depletion.
In addition to the CWR , sprinkler system is designed in
balance with the intake rate of the soil.
Measure soil intake rate and select sprinkler nozzle
accordingly.
Sprinkler application rate = f (D, H, Ss)
• The maximum reasonable uniformity of application is

required to minimize losses due to deep percolation.
• The uniformity of application will partially depend on
– velocity of wind,
– sprinkler spacing,
– pressure variations along the lateral line.
• Pressure variations will be influenced by the system
design criteria, topography and pump selection.
• The final design must balance the physical requirements
of the system with a reasonable economic cost and
convenience for the cultivator
Adequacy of application
NIR =CWR– Effective rainfall
• No sprinkler system is perfectly uniform; some parts of the field receive

greater depths than others due to superposition of sprinklers.
•Adequacy- what portion of the field received the net irrigation requirement.
A portion of the field received an amount equal or greater than the net
irrigation requirement is said to be adequately irrigated and the remaining
portion is under irrigated
Any depth of applied water equal to more than the net irrigation
requirement goes to deep percolation
If 25 % of the field receives at least the net depth of irrigation then a =
25%
Adequacy + Uniformity  Determines deep percolation
Losses in sprinkler irrigation system

o Wind drift and evaporation losses ( 5-10%)
o Interception ( about 2%)
o Percolation losses :The distribution depends on the quality of
the sprinklers , their spacing , pressure ,application rate and
especially the wind velocity. An increase in wind velocity of 1 m/s will
decrease the uniformity coefficient by about 4%.
o Other losses
Wind drift and evaporation losses
o Vapour pressure deficit, es - ea
 17.27T 
es  ea  0.61exp   1  RH 
 T  237.3 
es  ea  vapor pressure deficit, KPa

T  air temperatutre , o c
RH  Relative humidity in fraction
Evaporation and wind drift is given by


Ls  1.98D 
 0.72
 0.22es  ea 
0.63
 3.6 * 10 4
h 
1.16
 0.14U  
0.7 4.2
Ls = evaporation and wind drift , percent

D = nozzle diameter , m
h = nozzle operating pressure, Kpa
U = wind velocity , m/s
Efficiency is the volume of water stored in the root

zone compared to the volume delivered to the
application devices
• The combined efficiency must account for both deep

percolation and evaporation and wind drift.
Ec  1  Ld 1  Ls 
Where Ec = combined application and distribution pattern efficiency, fraction

Ld = Deep percolation, fraction
Ls = evaporation and wind drift, fraction.
Components system Design

Application rate
• The application rate to the soil surface must therefore be less
than the intake rate of the soil
where dg = gross application rate , cm/h
360 * q
dg  q = nozzle discharge l/s
Sl = lateral spacing, m
Sl .S m Sm= sprinkler spacing, m
The net application rate,

d a  d g (1  Ls )
where da = net application rate

Ls = evaporation and wind drift, fraction
• Sprinkler nozzle discharge is a function of nozzle diameter,

model and operating pressure.
q  KP 0.5
where q = nozzle discharge , l/s

p = nozzle operating pressure
k = non linear proportionality constant dependent
on nozzle model and diameter
• Tables for nozzle characteristics are given by manufacturers
CWR and Irrigation interval

 The total allowable depletion, TAD:
TAD=TAM*MAD*Dr
Where TAM = total allowable moisture mm/m
MAD =management allowed depletion, fraction
Dr = depth of active root zone
TAM= FC- PWP

where FC= field capacity, mm/m
PWP= Permanent wilting point , mm/m
 Guidelines for the total available moisture:

light sandy soil, AM = 80mm/m
Medium loam soil, AM=140mm/m
Heavy clay soil, AM=200mm/m
Guidelines for management allowed depletion:
• High value- shallow rooted crop----MAD=33%

• Medium value – Medium rooted crop—MAD = 50%
• Low value- deep rooted crop-----MAD =67%
The irrigation interval T is given by:
TAD
Ti 
ETcrop
Sprinkler Nozzle selection Criteria

•The equation q = KP0.5 indicates that there is a relation ship between nozzle
operating pressure and discharge.
•A nozzle operating with low pressure:
reduced operating costs
smaller wetted diameter
lower discharge rate
Single nozzle sprinklers tend to perform better in high wind conditions than double
nozzle sprinklers
In other than high wind conditions, double nozzle sprinklers generally have a
higher uniformity coefficient than single nozzle system.
The nozzle selection process is one of balancing the operating characteristics of the nozzles
with the physical requirements of the irrigation system
• Nozzle selection is always a trial-and-error procedure
in which previous experience is helpful in making
decisions regarding nozzle diameter, operating
pressure, and sprinkler spacing.
System Capacity
 The capacity of the system is the continuous flow rate
required to irrigate the specified area within the
selected operating schedule.
2.778 ig . A
Q
N op .TOP
Where Q= continuous flow rate required, l/s

ig= gross irrigation requirement, mm
A= total irrigated area
Nop= number of days of operation per irrigation interval, d
Top= hours of operation per day, h/d
The required number of sprinklers
Q
N
q
N= number of sprinkler
q= design discharge per nozzle
The final solution for the number of sprinklers will be decided

based on the lateral and sprinkler spacing
• The number of nozzles to be operated simultaneously times

the design discharge per nozzle will determine the final
system capacity.
Distribution (pipeline) system Design and Lay out
 The water to the sprinkler system is conducted through
pipelines from the source, where the pressure is applied, to
the fields
 Mainline, Sub mainline , lateral , Hydrants
 As water moves a substantial part of the energy is lost
because of the friction between water and the pipes, fittings,
tanks etc through which it passes.
 These friction losses occurring in the pipe network should
stay with in the limits to assure proper operation of
sprinklers.
• The purpose of pipeline and sprinkler system design is to

properly determine frictional energy losses so as to move the
design flow through the system, by conserving energy at
some points and by burning it off (through friction) at other
points.
• This is accomplished by a thorough understanding of the

water demand , a detailed survey of the local topography , a
careful selection of the pipe and pump sizes and a strategic
lay out of the whole system.
Pipeline Hydraulics
• Head
Static or elevation or datum head:
Pressure / peizometric head:
Velocity head
Friction head
• Static Equilibrium (Water at rest)

Water pressure at any particular point is directly related to the
vertical distance of that point to the free water surface and is not
affected by variations in the horizontal direction.
• In a pipeline where no water is flowing, the system is
termed as being in static equilibrium.
•Static water level (SWL) & Static Head
Dynamic Equilibrium (Moving water)

• If there is a flow of water through a pipeline, and as a result of
friction loss in the pipe line, the water pressure or dynamic
head in the pipe will be less than the static head.
• This head in moving water is called Dynamic head.
• More Q more friction loss occurs.
Hydraulic Grade line:
 The Hydraulic grade line (HGL) represents the energy
level as a result of friction losses in the pipeline .
 For any constant flow through a pipe, there is a specific and
constant HGL
SWL
V12/2g
TEL
hf
h1
V22/2g
h2
Z1
Z2
• The HGL any pipeline’s outlet is called the residual head and
represents the excess water pressure over the atmospheric pressure.
The residual pressure at the nozzle outlet in sprinkler system is called
the operating pressure.
Hf
Hn
Ho
He
Hr main
Lateral
Pressure profile in lateral Sloping downhill
• If Ho is the pressure at the sprinkler in the farthest

end:
Ha = Ho +1/4hf
• Where the lateral is on nearly level surface or on

the contour , the head Hn on the main is:
Hn = Ho + H f
¾ Hf
Hf
Hn Ho
Ha
He
Hr
¾ He
lateral
Ha = Ho +1/4hf
main
Pressure profile in lateral laid uphill
Head loss in laterals

Head loss along laterals

• Head loss along lateral , Hf is
Hf= Hb*F
where:
• Hf is the pressure head loss along a multi-outlet lateral;
• Hb is the pressure head loss along a "blind" pipe
calculated by a flow equation (e.g eq.[2.10]; and
• F is a coefficient of pressure head loss along a multi-
outlet pipe as a function of the number of outlets.
0.350<F<0.470
Head loss along lateral
• Once Hf has been computed, it can be used

to determine the pressure head required at
the inlet of the lateral, Ho
Inlet Head, Ho
Where:
• Hs is the pressure head of the selected sprinkler;
Hr is the height of the risers on the lat.er-aI ;
and
• z is the maximal elevation difference along
the lateral;
• +  Z is the adjustment for upward sloping
lateral; and
• - Z is the adjustment for a downward sloping
20 percent rule
• Sprinkler Q is variable along the laterals
• In designing a lateral, common practice requires
limiting the discharge differences between the
sprinklers in order to obtain satisfactory
– uniformity and
– efficiency of water application.
• The discharge of a nozzle of an emitter is

proportional to the square root of the pressure
head,
20 percent rule
Example: A level field, 360m x 360m, is irrigated at

night with hand moved aluminum laterals
(CHW=140) fed from a submain running through
the center. The selected sprinkler has nozzles:
4.4mx2.5mm, applies Qs = 1.44 m3/hr at Hs =
25m.
• The sprinklers are spaced 12 meters apart along a
lateral, and the first sprinkler is located 6 meters
from the lateral inlet. The riser, 3/4" in diameter,
is 0.8 meters high. What is the appropriate lateral
diameter?
• In that case the pressure-head variation

along the lateral amounts to
• 1.6 m + 2.4= 4.0 m (HO = 28.8 m; Hn =
24.8 m).
• With only 5.0 m - 4.0 m = 1.0 m
remaining
Friction Head loss

Darcy –Weisbach Equation:
• This equation states the actual headloss, (hf) as a
function of the pipe diameter, roughness, length of
the pipe and flow velocity
L V2
hf = f. D 2g
where hf = head loss due to friction ,m
f = friction factor, which among others, dependent on the viscosity of the
fluid and the roughness of the inside of the pipe, dimensionless
L = length of pipe or tubing over which head loss is evaluated, m
D = Diameter of piping or tubing, m
V2
= velocity head of flow, m
2g
• Doubling the diameter of the pipe reduce hf by 32.

How ? hf
f
 L  V 
= 2
  
 D  2 g 
How to Estimate The Value of f ?
1. Go to Moody Chart ( RN , €/D)
2. Use approximate Equations
f = 64/ RN for Laminar flow
 
1  D 2.51 
 2 log   
3.7 Re f  For turbulent flow
f 
 
1 D
 2 log    1.14 For fully turbulent flow.
f 
Hazen – William’s equation

• Doesn’t consider the fluid properties
No Viscosity parameter as in the Darcy –Weisbach equation
Even though widely used method
1.852
Q
KL 
Hf  C 
D 4.87
Where: hf =friction loss expressed as head, m
K = conversion constant = 1.22*1010
L = length of pipe, m
Q = Volumetric flow rate, l/s
C = Hazen – William friction coefficient (C= 135 for Al pipes)
D = Pipe diameter, mm
Sprinkler Lateral System Design

Lateral Design
• The equation q = kp0.5 indicates that nozzle
discharge is a function of the square root of
the nozzle operating pressure.
• In all but the rarest conditions, it is not
possible to have the same operating pressure
available for every nozzle on a lateral.
• The concept of lateral design is therefore
based on limiting pressure differences along a
lateral
Allowable Discharge and Pressure Criteria

• The usual criterion applied for the design
of laterals is that the difference in nozzle
discharge along a single lateral is less than
±10%.
• To accomplish this goal, the difference in
nozzle operating pressure is typically
constrained to a variation of less than ±
20% along the lateral.
The procedure for lateral design - balance between

• The length of the lateral,
• The head loss due to friction in the lateral,
• The change in elevation head due to
topographic effects.
– These factors are kept in balance so the
pressure variation between the two critical
sprinklers on a lateral is limited to ±20 % of
selected pressure.
The maximum allowable head loss due to friction between the two
critical sprinklers:
 H a   H e
HL 
l
H L  max imum allowable headloss due to friction,m/m
  max. allowable pressure difference , fraction.
H a  nozzle design pressure expressed as head, m
H e  increase in elevation in the direction of water
flow between the two criical sprinklers, m
l  distance between the two sprinklers, m
Note : H e is negative for downhil slopping laterals.

• The allowable head loss due to friction computed in

the above manner must be compared with the actual
head-loss in the lateral.
H Lac  F. H LP
H L - ac  actual headloss due to friction,m/m
F  friction factor to account for decrease
in flow along the lateral (Christeansen friction factor)
H L - P  Equivalent headloss due to friction(h f )
The headloss per unit length is:

hf
H L P 
L
The Christeansen friction factor for the first sprinkler at Sl
from the mainline is:
1 1 m 1
F  
m 1 2N 6N 2
Where N = Number of sprinklers along the lateral

m = exponent of velocity related term in friction headloss eq.
= 1.852 , for Hazen- William equation
= 2.0 , for Darcy Weisbach equation
• If the first sprinkler is at distance S l from the

main line then, 2
2N  1 m-1
F   2 
2 N  1  m  1 6N 
Where N = Number of sprinklers along the lateral

m = exponent of velocity related term in friction headloss eq.
= 1.852 , for Hazen- William equation
= 2.0 , for Darcy Weisbach equation
Mainline System Design

• Design procedures and friction calculations for
mainline similar to pipeline system.
• Adequate pressure must be available at mainline

take-out for the lateral to provide the correct
operating pressure for the selected nozzle.
• The required pressure should also account for

elevation difference, height of the riser
• The pressure requirement at the mainline entrance to

the lateral is calculated by the following equation.
Hm = Ha + [0.75( Hf +He) + Hr ]*9.807 ,Kpa
Where: Hm = required entrance pressure at the mainline, KPa

Ha = Design nozzle operating pressure , KPa
Hf = Total friction head loss in the lateral , m
He = Increase in elevation of lateral from inlet to position of critical
sprinkler, m
0.75 = factor to produce the average operating pressure near the
mid point of the lateral
The H r = Height of the sprinkler riser, m

critical sprinkler is that with the minimum operating pressure,
i.e . It s actual pressure requirement is high.
Economic pipe diameter

Critical Pressure Requirement on the mainline
• The pressure required at any point of interest on the

mainline is the sum of the following quantities.
1. Pressure required at the next point on the mainline in

direction of flow.
1. Friction head loss between the point of interest and the

next point on the mainline.
2. Increase in elevation head between point of interest and
the next point on the mainline.
3. Increase in velocity head between point of interest and
the next point on the mainline.
The pressure required at any point of interest on the

mainline:
Hi = Hn + hf-in + He-in + Hv-in
Where: Hi = pressure head required at point i , m

Hn = Pressure head required at point n , m
hf-in = Friction headloss from point i to n , m
He-in = increase in elevation head from point i to n , m
Hv-in = increase in velocity head from point i to n , m
2
Vi
Velocity head  H V -in 
2g
The pressure head required at the pump (total dynamic head) is

equal to the sum of the following components:
1. Pressure head required at the critical point in the

mainline.
2. Total friction head loss from the pump to the critical
point in the mainline.
3. Elevation head from the water source to the critical
point in the mainline.
4. Friction head loss from the pumping water level to the
centerline of the pump (suction side headloss).
5. Velocity head at the critical point in the mainline.
Total Dynamic Head (TDH)

• The total dynamic head (TDH) required must
theoretically be calculated for each point in the
mainline, and the point with the highest
requirement is the critical point.
• Total dynamic head,
Vi 2
TDHi = Hi + hf-pi + He-si +Hf-s + 2 g
Where : TDH = Total dynamic head required for point i , m
hf-pi = Friction headloss from pump to point i , m
He-si = increase in elevation from source to point i , m
Hf-s = friction headloss on suction side of pump , m
Hi = Hn + hf-in + He-in + Hv-in

Group work
 H a   H e q=0.5*Ha0.5
HL  & q =sprinkler(nozzle) discharge, l/s
l
• Using 20% pressure variation, the maximum
distance between two sprinklers with the
uphill slope of 0.01m/m is 30m. The System
discharge (Q) and number of sprinklers on
the field are 100l/s and 100 respectively.
Determine the maximum allowable head loss
due to friction (HL in m/m)
24 November 2022
Drip/Trickle/Micro-irrigation System
Drip or trickle irrigation is a method of watering plants
frequently and with a volume of water approaching the
consumptive use of plants, thereby minimizing such
conventional losses as deep percolation, runoff and
evaporation.
 Water plants by low pressure drippers or emitters put
along the lateral.
Water spreads laterally and vertically by silo capillary
forces augmented by gravity force.
Wetted Area (Aw)

The wetted area depends up on:
– flow rate,
– soil type,
– soil moisture,
– vertical and horizontal permeability of the soil.
Drip system is one of the latest methods and popular
in areas where there is scarcity of water and soil
salinity problem.
High efficiency can be achieved.
Wetting pattern – Drip system

Wetting pattern – Drip system

Wetting patterns
Sand soil Clay soil

Advantages of drip Irrigation

1.High degree of control of water application
• Field application efficiency: Drip system – 90% efficiency,
Sprinkler system : 60-80 %,Surface methods :50- 60 %.
• The application efficiency for drip irrigation is based on the
water desired in the root zone and is not based on the whole
area as sprinkler and surface methods.
2. Considerable water saving
3. Advantages related to partial wetting (weed
control, accessible farm, reduced fungus&insect
problems, less crusting of soils).
Advantages…
4. To irrigate marginal soils
5. Requires lower line pressure- save energy
requirement
6. High water potential , so that available to plants all the time.
7.Fertilizer application with high precision
9.Elimination of the need for Drainage.
10. Hydraulics: Water control is more easy and
complete
11. Less labour
Limitations
High initial investment
Requires clearer water
Salt accumulation at the periphery- no
continuous leaching
No change to the microclimate like sprinkler…
Pipes are liable to mechanical damages
Limited root development- localized to the
wetted area.
Trickle system Components

• Main line, sub main and lateral. The mainline has a
pump to pressurize the system and possibly a chemical
injector to conveniently apply nutrients through the
distribution system.
• Primary filter- for coarser materials
• Primary pressure gauge
• Discharge control valves
• Flow meters
• Secondary filter- for finer materials
• Solenoid valve- for pressure automation.
Drip System components
Drip Irrigation system layout

Typical drip irrigation in field

Emitters
• An emitter (dripper) is a device which applies
water to the soil from the distribution system.
• Different types of emitters are often classified
according to:
i. The mechanism to dissipate pressure: long path, small
orifice, vortex.
ii. The way they are connected to the lateral: in-line, on-line,
multiple-outlet.
iii. Whether or not they are regulated.
iv. Their discharge rate. (Usually from 2 to 20 l/s).
Emission devices - Emitters

Emitter flow regime

• A turbulent flow vortex emitter increases pressure loss
through the orifice compared to that operating in a laminar
flow regime.
• A pressure compensating emitter, aims at maintaining a
constant distribution system.
• The flexible membrane or diaphragm responds to pressure
changes and keeps discharge constant with in the design
specifications.
• A trickle line may be designed to operate under operating
pressure as low as 0.4 atm and as high as 1 to 1.75 atm.
• A pressure drop of 0.5 to 1.0 atm. may be anticipated

in the head of the drip system, including the filter.
• There is a further drop of pressure in the lateral
• In the emitters the pressure is reduced to nil so that
the water leaves the emitter at atmospheric pressure as
a drip, at a flow rate of 2 to 10 litters per hour.
Emitter discharge and its variation
• Average discharge or nominal discharge @ 1atm.
and 20oc , this varies w.r.t pressure.
• Manufacturer’s variation- coefficient of

variation (cvf) and it varies between 0.02 and 0.5
of the nominal discharge.
• All pressure at the inlet should be dissipated to a
level nearly equal to the atmospheric pressure, at the
outlet. This is so by using:
• Long narrow flexible PVC or PE tubes (Micro tubes/capillary tubes)
• Nozzles or orifices of small size, varying between 0.4 to 0.6mm.
• Smaller perforations on the tricklerline.
• Spiral water paths (Coiled Microtubes or Screw threads)

Types of emitters w.r.t flow regimes

1.Orifice drippers:
-The low discharge rate and pressure reduction are achieved by
relatively small hole of 0.4 to 0.6 mm in diameter
-The orifice dripper is relatively cheap but has the drawback that
the small hole easily is clogged up by dirt .
- orifice should be situated at the entrance –reduce clogging.
- Orifice discharge equation:
Q  KA 2 gh
Checked against manufacturers Discharge variation.

Single-exit orifice type emitter

2. Long straight flow path tricklers - Microtubes

• In this type of dripper polyethylene microtubes are used.
• Resistance to flow is proportional to tube length.
• In calculating the discharge of a micro tube dripper it is
supposed that the pressure in the tube is reduced to nil and the
flow is laminar.
• In long path trickler: Q  KH
• The drawback of micro tube drippers is that the tolerable
pressure variation in trickle line is lower than for orifice
drippers – larger diameter pipes are required ,
• efficiency falls rapidly for small variation in pressure.
Remedy: select appropriate tube length.
Single-exit long path emitter

Multi-exit long path emitter

• Suitable for undulating topo., where pressure variation is

inevitable condition along the flow direction.
• Susceptible to rodents
• Suction problem – then clogging.
3. Long spiral flow path trickles

• A micro tube wound be in the form of a coil
Can be - Pre - coiled micro tubes
- Labyrinth emitters (internal spiral emitters) – whose

principle is similar to that of long path emitters, they are
called inline emitters.
• The spiral flow in tricklers produces centrifugal forces

and a greater resistance to the flow.
• Temperature has much influence on the discharge of
long flow path drippers. As far as the flow is laminar,
the discharge is inversely proportional to the viscosity
of the water.
• The increase of the discharge is the consequence of
the fact that the flow becomes more and more
turbulent under higher discharges, resulting in a
decreasing influence of the viscosity of the fluid
Vortex drippers
• The vortex dripper is an improved orifice dripper.
• Attempts have been made to increase the orifice diameter of orifice drippers,
in order to reduce the tendency of clogging, by increasing the flow resistance
by a spiral construction of the inlet.
• The water enters tangentially to the circumference of a circular
chamber and causes a fluid to whirl around - centrifugal forces
comes into operation and these forces produce greater
resistance to the flow.
• The advantage of a vortex dripper is that its diameter (for same q and H)
can be approximately 1.7 times larger than that for a simple orifice type.
However, low discharge as 2.4 lt/hr at 10m of water pressure is difficult to
obtain.
Orifice –vortex type emitter

Hydraulics of the emitter

• Experiments showed that the general flow equation for emitters is:
Where:
• q discharge of the emitter, [l/hr];
• Kd is the discharge coefficient dependent on the emitter;
• H is the working pressure head, [m]; and
• x is a discharge coefficient that depends on the flow regime.
• The lower the value of x the less discharge will be affected by
variations in pressure.
Orifice emitters
Where:
• q is the discharge ,[l/hr];
• A is the area of the opening, mm2
• Kq is the discharge coefficient= 0.6 (sharp) - 1.0 (tapered);
• K is a conversion constant = 3.6;
• H is the working pressure [m];
Selection of emitters
• Depends on
– soil factors,
– plant requirements for water,
– quality of water and
– management limitations and preferences.
Selection of discharge
• The first decision variable regarding the design is

the nominal or the average discharge of the
emitter.
• Generally emitters are specified according to their
average discharge at some standard pressure,
usually 10m.
• The lighter the soil the higher the discharge rate
used.
• The most common discharge is 4 l/hr.
The Lateral
• The design of a lateral for drippers will be handled same as
to the one for sprinklers.
• It is a multiple outlet pipe along which discharge is
reducing.
• The decision variables connected to drip lateral are:
• If either diameter or length of a lateral is determined, the
other can be calculated.
• If the length has been fixed first, then the diameter from:
Length of laterals Faculty of Civil and Water Resource Engineering
• For trickle laterals the dimensionless friction loss equation is:
• Relation between discharges and pressures
Where:
– Hn is the minimum pressure head,[m];
– Ha is the nominal pressure head,i.e. the one that causes the nominal flow rate ,[m]; and
– X is the discharge coefficient.

• Example: A multiple-outlet pipe (lateral) has 100 emitters,

an inlet pressure of 10 m and a pressure head loss of 15% of
average pressure.
• Find the
– pressure at the farthest emitter,
– the average pressure
– and the average, minimum and maximum discharge.
• Assume that the lateral is leveled and the discharge-

pressure head relation is given.
Where x=0.685 and k=0.9
The manifold
A manifold is a multiple-outlet pipe, that receives water from a valve on
sub-main or main pipe, and supplies water to several laterals operated
simultaneously.
Length of manifold:
Where:
• Lm is the length of manifold,[m];
• Sl is the spacing between laterals,[m];
• Nt is the number of laterals on the manifold or no of segment b/n laterals; and
• Lb is a length of a blind pipe from the outlet on the main pipe until the first
lateral,[m]
Pipelines
• Most of the plastic pipelines used in irrigation are
composed of the following four kinds of materials.
-polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
-polyethylene, low density (PEl)
and high density ( PEh)
-polypropylene (PP)
-Acrylonitrile - Butadiene - Styrene (ABS)
• PVC, PEb and PEh are by far the most widely used in trickle irrigation.
• PVC is more economical in large sizes- higher hydrostatic design stress.
• PE’s for lesser size and where flexibility is the issue.
Criteria for the selection of plastic pipelines.

1. Pressure (class) rating (PR )
-This is the estimated maximum water pressure that pipe can withstand
continuously with a high degree of certainty that failure of the pipe will
not occur.
2. Maximum operating pressure (MOP) - which is the
maximum allowable operating pressure taking into account a
safety factor (higher than the one entering in the
determination of PR).
• Utmost PR could be equal to MOP. However this doesn’t

provide allowance for water-hammer pressures.
• PR & MOP = f ( Dia. , L , t) of pipe
3. SDR (Standard Dimension Ratio)- is the ratio of

the average pipe diameter to minimum wall thickness.
SDR = D / t
For PVC and ABS pipes , SDR = Dout / tmin.
For PE pipes , SDR = Din / t.
The overall application efficiency of trickle irrigation
Ea = ks.*Eu
Where:
ks = coefficient (<1) which express the water storage efficiency of the soil. deep
percolation , other losses
ks =
Average water stored in the root zone
average water applied
Eu = coefficient (<1), which reflects the uniformity of application (distribution),
discharge efficiency.
It estimates the percentage of average depth of application required by a

system to irrigate adequately the least watered plants.
• Emission uniformity, EU
Average of the
lowest 25% field
data of emitter
discharge
q
lq
EU  100  Average of the
q lowest 100%
field data
The variation in discharge rates between the

different emitters is a function of the unavoidable
pressure variations in the laterals, discharge
characteristics of emitters and manufacturing errors .
Emission
. uniformity
 CV q
EU  1001.0  1.27  min imum
f
 n  q
  average
q
EU  1001.0  1.27CV  min imum
 f (total )  q
average
CVf = coefficient of manufacturing variation of the emitter, obtained from the

manufacturer or by equation (CVf = /qav.),
CVf(total) = system coefficient of manufacturing variation,
N= minimum number of emitters per plant,
qminimum = minimum emission rate computed from the minimum pressure in
the system, based on the nominal flow rate-vs pressure curve,
qaverage = average or design emission rate.
Discharge Efficiencies in Drip Laterals (Baars, 1976)
Pressure Orifice Trickler Long spiral path Long straight path

variation trickler trickler
H1/Hn
Discharge Water Discharge Q1/Qn Water Eu Q1 Water Eu
variation losses Efficiency losses % Qn losses %
Q1/Qn % %
1.05 1.025 0.8 99.2 1.037 1.2 98.8 1.05 1.7 98.3
1.10 1.050 1.7 98.3 1.074 2.5 97.5 1.10 3.3 96.7
1.15 1.075 2.5 97.5 1.111 3.7 96.3 1.15 5.0 95.0
1.20 1.095 3.2 96.8 1.147 4.9 95.1 1.20 6.7 93.3
1.25 1.120 4.0 96.0 1.187 6.1 93.9 1.25 8.3 91.7
1.30 1.140 4.7 95.3 1.217 7.2 92.8 1.30 10.0 90.0
H1 = pressure at the first trickler
Hn = pressure at the end trickler
Q1 = discharge of the first trickler
Qn = discharge of the end trickler
Depth of application
The maximum net amount of water that can be applied per
irrigation :
P
D  ( FC  PWP ) * Drz * MAD *
100
P= the volume of soil wetted as a % of the total volume
Crop Drz(m)
As a general rule the allowable
Tomatoes 1-0 - 1-2 moisture deficit is often taken as 0.3
Vegetables 0-3 - 0-6 (30%) for drought-sensitive crops and
Citrus 1-0 - 1-2 up to 0.6 (60%) for non-sensitive
Deciduous 1-0 - 2-0 crops.
fruits
Grapes 1-0 - 3-0
Irrigation Interval
p
( FC  PWP ) * Drz * MAD *
T 100
ET * Kr  R  Lr
crop( peak )
Soil Available Holding

texture Moisture percentage capacity
by weight by volume
FC WP Available mm/m
Sandy 9 4 5 85
(6-12) (2-6) (4-6) (70-100)
Sandy 14 6 8 120
loam (10-18) (4-8) (6-10) (90-150)
Loam 22 10 12 170
(18-20) 98-12) (10-14) (140-190)
clay loam 27 13 14 190
(25-31) (11-15) (12-16) (170-220)
Silty clay 31 15 16 210
(27-35) (13-17) (17-18) (180-230)
Clay 35 17 18 230
(31-39) (15-19) (16-20) (200-250)
Chapter 4
Irrigation Drainage Engineering
24 November 2022
Introduction
• Drainage in Irrigated Areas: Need for Drainage?
• Water ponding
• Waterlogging
• Salinization
24 November 2022
Water ponding Waterlogging
• The accumulation of excess water • The accumulation of excess water

on the soil surface in the root zone of the soil.
24 November 2022
WATERLOGGING
the
accumulation
of excess
water in the
root zone of
the soil.
SALINIZATION
the accumulation of
soluble salts at the
surface, or at some
point below the surface
of the soil profile, to
levels at which they
have negative effects on
plant growth and/or
soils.
The source of excess water may be from

1) Precipitation
2) Irrigation water
3) Over land flow
4) Underground seepage from adjacent areas
5) Artesian flow from deep aquifers
6) Flood water from channels etc.
DEFINITION OF DRAINAGE
 Land drainage is the removal of excess surface &
subsurface water from the land to enhance crop growth,
including removal of soluble salts from the soil.
Advantages of Drainage
1. Drainage permits better timing of seasonal cultivation
2. Lowers the cost of cultivation
3. Water logging problems be eliminated
4. Lands can be protected from becoming saline & alkaline
5. Land value increases and crop production enhances
TYPES OF DRAINAGE
1. Surface drainage
2. Subsurface drainage
3. Tubewell drainage
1. SURFACE DRAINAGE
Surface drainage is the diversion or orderly
removal of excess water from the surface of the
land by means of improved natural or constructed
drains, supplemented when necessary by the
shaping and grading of land surfaces to such
drains.
2. SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE
Subsurface drainage is the removal of excess water

and dissolved salts from soils via groundwater flow
to the drains, so that the watertable and root zone
salinity are controlled.
3. Tube Well Drainage:

• Can be described as the “control of an existing or
potential high ground water table or artesian ground
water condition “. Most tube well drainage
installations consist of group of wells spaced with
sufficient overlap of their individual cones of
depression to control the water table at all points in the
area
LEACHING
The removal of soluble

salts by the passage of
water through soil.
COMPONENTS OF A DRAINAGE SYSTEM
1. Field drainage
system: control
2. Main drainage
system:
conveyance
3. Outlet: disposal
1. FIELD DRAINAGE SYSTEM

a network that gathers the excess water from the land by
means of field drains, possibly supplemented by
measures to promote the flow of excess water to these
drains
2. MAIN DRAINAGE SYSTEM
a water conveyance
system that receives
water from the field
drainage systems,
surface runoff, and
groundwater flow, and
transports it to the outlet
point.
3. OUTLET is the terminal point of the entire

drainage system, from where it
discharges into a river, lake, or sea
USBR formula for discharge
of collector drains:
Q = C . q. A
1. Above the barrier
𝐶.𝐴 8𝐾𝐷ℎ+4𝐾ℎ2
Q= x
86400 𝐿2
2. On the barrier
𝐶.𝐴 4𝐾ℎ2
Q= x 2
86400 𝐿
Where; D= d+h/2
Q (m^3/se
A (m2), c= discharge factor
L (M)
Drainage requirements Determined by crops:

• Different crops have widely differing tolerances for excess
water both as to amount and time. Saturation of root zone
results an oxygen deficiency and accumulation of toxic
gases.
• A short term of oxygen deficiency can reduce water uptake,
nutrient uptake and root respiration and build up toxins
which lead to death of cells and roots. Therefore, the
drainage requirement is based on:
1. The maximum duration and frequency of surface ponding
2. Maximum height of the water table
3. The minimum rate at which water table is lowered.
FACTORS RELATED TO DRAINAGE

AGRICULTURAL OBJECTIVES:
Objectives of drainage: Improving or optimizing

agricultural production by:
• Prevention or reduction of ponded and/or

waterlogged conditions
• Salinity control
• Land reclamation
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Soil and hydrological conditions:
• Drainage surplus
• Watertable
• Groundwater quality
• Hydraulic conductivity
• Drainable pore space
• Topography
• Impermeable layers
ENGINEERING FACTORS
Engineering factors
Surface  Length and slope of fields
drainage  Dimensions of beds, terraces and open
drains
Subsurface  Depth, spacing and dimensions of
drainage open or pipe drains
Tubewell  Depth, spacing and dimensions of wells
drainage  Pump capacity
Main drainage  Depth, width, cross-section and slope
of drains
 Density of drainage network
Development of Drainage - Design Criteria

• Criteria for drainage design system - is to have the
optimum level of water control required by the kind of
agriculture to be practiced. The criteria consists of:
1. The rate of water removal necessary to provide certain
degree of crop protection
2. The optimum depth to water table
• The rate of water removal often referred to Drainage
Coefficient. Optimum depth to water table is that depth
required for best plan-soil-water-air relationship, and
which is feasible to maintain under existing conditions
Elements of Drainage design:

The principal elements of drainage design are
• Crop requirements
• Site investigations
• Design criteria
• Plans & specifications
Drainage Coefficient :
• It is the depth of water to be removed in a particular
period, usually 24 hours. Normally a drainage
coefficient of 10 mm to 50 mm may be adopted for
surface drainage. In case of sub-surface drainage, it
is little bit less i.e 6 mm to 25 mm
Discharge rate Q = Dc x A
where, A -- Area in ha ,
Dc = Drainage coefficient
Q -- Discharge from the field
Salt Problems in Irrigation Agriculture

Source:
• The application of irrigation water means an input of salts.
• a second source of salinization in irrigated areas is capillary
rise from a water table.
• The soil salinity is measure with Electrical Conductivity
(EC) .
• The salt content of soil is expressed by deciseimen per meter
(dS/m).
• In order to reclaim saline soils, it is necessary to reduce
soluble salt concentration to acceptable limits and this can be
done by leaching, provided there is adequate drainage either
natural or artificial.
Sodicity
• Sodicity refers to the presence of sodium (Na) ions on the
exchange complex and in the soil solution. When
sodium is present, the soil aggregates are unstable
and are likely to disperse.
• Other major effects are a reduction in soil permeability, a
disturbance of nutrient equilibrium and toxicity to plants.
• Sodicity usually expressed by ‘ Exchangeable Sodium
Percentage ‘(ESP) or the ‘ Sodium Absorption
Ratio(SAR) ‘.
• When PH of soil solution is higher than 8.2, appreciable
amounts of sodium are likely to be present.
Soil acidity & Alkalinity

• Acidity is general term that refers to the amount of
hydrogen ions in the soil solution. Acidity is indicated
by PH, which is negative logarithm of hydrogen ion(H-
ion) concentration. A neutral solution has PH =7.0, an
acid solution a PH<7.0 and an alkaline solution a PH >
7.0. The PH of the soil strongly affects the
availability of nutrients to plants.
• At PH < 4.5 and at PH > 8.5, there are always problems
with the availability of some nutrients or with the
toxicity of other elements.
Crop growth affected by Salinity & Sodicity

Effect of Salinity on Crop growth.
• Osmotic effect: As salinity of solution increases,
its osmotic potential increases too and reduces the
availability of water for crop.
• Specific ion effect: This causes an imbalanced ion
intake, deficiencies in certain elements and yield
depression. Some ions are toxic causing
characteristic injury symptoms associated with the
accumulation of a specific ion in the plant. Leaf
burn of many fruit trees due to an excessive intake
of sodium and chloride are well known
Effect of Sodicity on Crop Growth

• It causes nutritional problems
• Poor soil structure
• Poor aeration in the root zone
• Reduced water movement
• Water logging in the root zone or on the soil surface
Water Logging and Land Reclamation Process

• Water logging is phenomenon associated with
rise in the ground water table. The rise of
water table beyond a critical limit (usually 1.5 m
to 2.0 m from ground surface ), owing to poor
drainage, and excessive surface irrigation
practices, give rise to water logging conditions.
Basic causes for water logging:

Factors responsible for water logging are broadly classified into
two groups.
A) Factors responsible for excess inflow:
1. Infiltration from excess rainfall - especially on flat areas
2. Flooding land - due to spills from river banks for a prolonged
period
3. Induced seepage - From storage reservoirs , rivers and
unlined canals
4. Over irrigation - Deep percolation losses owing to
uncontrolled application of irrigation water
5. Sub-Soil flow - from areas located at higher elevation
responsible for water logging of low lying areas.
Basic causes for water logging:

B. Factors responsible for poor outflows
1. Inadequate surface drainage - due to blockage of
natural drainage channels with weeds & vegetative
cover
2. Natural & artificial obstructions to subsoil & surface
out flow - Geological formations - owing to
impervious layers of clayey or rocky strata,
construction of high rise buildings, water tight
reservoirs and dams with massive grouting
3. Poor topography - Flat areas with low lying
depressions, in adequate land slope.
Effects of excess water on crops:
1. Evaporation - lowers soil temperature
2. Saturation or surface ponding stops air circulation in the soil and
prevents bacterial activity
3. Certain plant diseases and parasites are encouraged
4. High water table limits root penetration
5. Soil structure is adversely affected
6. Salts present in the soil or ground water, tend to be concentrated
in the root zone or at the soil surface and turn the soil saline/alkali
and make the soil unproductive
7. Wet spots in the field ,delay farm operations
8. Excess water on surface breeds mosquitoes, insects and
encourage weed growth
Reclamation of salt affected soils

Before any reclamation procedure is applied, it is essential to
determine
• Nature of the soil (Saline, Alkaline or Saline-Alkaline)
• Degree of salinity / Alkalinity in the soil profile
• Quality of irrigation water available for leaching out the salts
• Drainage characteristics of the soil
• Topography of the land
• Presence of any hard pan of lime or clay in the soil strata
Reclamation Procedures
(A) Reclamation on temporary basis can be done by
o By removing the salt crust from the surface of the soil
o By ploughing salt surface crust deep into the soil
o Neutralizing the effects of certain salts by adding other salts
(B) Permanent Reclamation Procedures
– By lowering water table ( if high )
– Improving the infiltration capacity of the soil
– Leaching of salts in saline soils by providing adequate sub-
surface drainage
– Replacing excessive exchangeable Na by Ca salts and removing
the replaced salts
– Suitable management practices
Drain-spacing equations
crop
soil surface
discharge depth of discharge

drain water table
depth water table
soil type
hydraulic conductivity
drain spacing
depth to the
impermeable layer
 Input: Agricultural, soil & hydrological parameters

 Output: depth & spacing of drains
DRAINAGE EQUATIONS : Approaches

Steady-state Approach Unsteady-state Approach
Recharge = Discharge Recharge  Discharge
 
Watertable constant Watertable = f (t)
e.g. Hooghoudt Equation e.g. Glover-Dumm equation

DRAINAGE EQUATIONS : Approaches
Watertable
fluctuation in:
- 1 day ?
- 1 week ?
- 1 season ?
- 1 year ?
DRAINAGE EQUATIONS - Assumptions (1)
 Two-dimensional
flow
 Uniform distribution
of the recharge
 Homogeneous and
isotropic soils
DRAINAGE EQUATIONS - Assumptions (2)

Dupuit-Forchmeimer:
two-dimensional flow

one-dimensional flow
q=R
When the recharge is
totally discharged in to
Qx= KiA, i=dy/dx the ground
Qx= r(L/2-x)
Steady State : Hooghoudt Equation

 The hooghoudt equation describes the flow of groundwater to
vertically walled drains reaching an impervious layer.
Where;
q discharge rate per unit horizontal surface area
(m/day)
L drain Spacing (m)
K hydraulic conductivity of the soil (m/day)
D elevation of the water level in the drain (m)
H elvation of the water table midway between
the drains (m)
h H-D (m)
8 KDh + 4 Kh 2
q=
L 2
1. If the water level in the drain is very low (D=0) the above
equation changes into
4 Kh 2
q= 2
L
 This equation shows the flow above the level of the water in
the drain.
2. If the impervious layer is far below this water level in the
drain (D>>h), the second term in the enumerator of
Hooghoudt equation can be neglected, giving
8 KDh
q= 2
L flow below the water level in the drain.
 This equation describes the
3. If the soil profile consists of two layers with different hydraulics
conductivity and if the water level in the drain is at the interface between the
soil layers, Hooghoudt Equation can be written as:
8 K b Dh + 4 K t h 2
q= 2
L
Where
Kt Hydraulic conductivity of the layer above drain level (m/day)
Kb Hydraulic conductivity of the layer below drain level (m/day)
• This situation is quite common, as the topsoil is often more permeable

than the subsoil because the soil structure has been improved by:
 The periodic drying and re-wetting of the soil resulting in the
formation of cracks
 The presecence of roots, micro –organisms, micro-fauna etc.

4. If the pipe or open drains do not reach the impervious

layer, the flow lines will converge towards the drain and
will thus no longer be horizontal. Consequently the flow
lines are longer and extra head loss is required to have the
same volume of water flowing into the drains.
• Hooghoudt found a solution that makes it possible to use

the concept of horizontal flow by introducing two
schematizations:
o He assumed an imaginary impervious layer above the real
one
o He replaced the pipe drains by imaginary ditches with their
bottoms on the imaginary impervious layer.
Hooghoudt: Equivalent Depth
8 KDh + 4 Kh 2 8 Kdh + 4 Kh 2
q=  q=
2
L2 L
Table values of the equivalent depth d of hooghoudt for r = 0.1,D and L in m

L 5m 7.5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
00Lÿ
D
0.5 m 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
0.75 0.60 0.65 0.69 0.71 0.73 0.74 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.76 0.76
1.00 0.67 0.75 0.80 0.86 0.89 0.91 0.93 0.94 0.96 0.96 0.96
1.25 0.70 0.82 0.89 1.00 1.05 1.09 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.14 1.15
1.50 0.70 0.88 0.97 1.11 1.19 1.25 1.28 1.31 1.34 1.35 1.36
1.75 0.70 0.91 1.02 1.20 1.30 1.39 1.45 1.49 1.52 1.55 1.57
2.00 0.70 0.91 1.08 1.28 1.41 1.50 1.57 1.62 1.66 1.70 1.72
2.25 0.70 0.91 1.13 1.34 1.50 1.69 1.69 1.76 1.81 1.84 1.86
2.50 0.70 0.91 1.13 1.38 1.57 1.69 1.79 1.87 1.94 1.99 2.02
2.75 0.70 0.91 1.13 1.42 1.63 1.76 1.88 1.98 2.05 2.12 2.18
3.00 0.70 0.91 1.13 1.45 1.67 1.83 1.97 2.08 2.16 2.23 2.29
3.25 0.70 0.91 1.13 1.48 1.71 1.88 2.04 2.16 2.26 2.35 2.42
3.50 0.70 0.91 1.13 1.50 1.75 1.93 2.11 2.14 2.35 2.45 2.54
3.75 0.70 0.91 1.13 1.52 1.78 1.97 2.17 2.31 2.44 2.54 2.64
4.00 0.70 0.91 1.13 1.52 1.81 2.02 2.22 2.37 2.51 2.62 2.71
4.50 0.70 0.91 1.13 1.52 1.85 2.08 2.31 2.50 2.63 2.76 2.87
5.00 0.70 0.91 1.13 1.52 1.88 2.15 2.38 2.58 2.75 2.89 3.02
5.50 0.70 0.91 1.13 1.52 1.88 2.20 2.43 2.65 2.84 3.00 3.15
6.00 0.70 0.91 1.13 1.52 1.88 2.20 2.48 2.70 2.92 3.09 3.26
7.00 0.70 0.91 1.13 1.52 1.88 2.20 2.54 2.81 3.03 3.24 3.43
8.00 0.70 0.91 1.13 1.52 1.88 2.20 2.57 2.85 3.13 3.35 3.56
9.00 0.70 0.91 1.13 1.52 1.88 2.20 2.57 2.89 3.18 3.43 3.66
10.00 0.70 0.91 1.13 1.52 1.88 2.20 2.57 2.89 3.23 3.48 3.74
∞ 0.71 0.93 1.14 1.53 1.89 2.24 2.58 2.91 3.24 3.56 3.88
• Since the drain spacing L depends on the equivalent depth d, which in turn is a
function of L, Hooghoudt Equation can be solved by iteration.
• Flow chart for the calculation of Hooghoudt’s equivalent depth using the exact solution.
Example
• An irrigated area is affected by a high watertable. A subsurface drainage
system will be installed to control the watertable under the following
conditions:
Agricultural drainage Criteria:
• Design discharge of 1 mm/day;
• The depth of the watertable midway between the drains is to be kept at
1.0 m below soil surface.
Technical criteria:
• Drains will be installed at a depth of 2 m;
• PVC drainpipes with a radius of 0.1 m will be used.
A deep boring has reveled that there is a layer of low conductivity at 6.8 m,
which can be regarded as the base of the flow region. The estimated value
of the hydraulic Conductivity of this layer is 0.14 m/day.
Given
q = 1 mm/d
h = 2.0-1.0 =
1.0m
r = 0.10 m
K = 0.14 m/d
D = 6.8-2.0 =
4.8 m
Solution
• Substitution the above values in Hooghoudt Equation Yields,
2
8𝐾𝑑ℎ + 4𝐾ℎ2 8 ∗ 0.14 ∗ 𝑑 ∗ 1 + 4 ∗ 0.14 ∗ 1.02
𝐿 = = = 1120𝑑 + 560
𝑞 0.001
𝑳𝟐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒅 + 𝟓𝟔𝟎
 As the equivalent depth d is a function of drain spacing, L, and actual drain

depth D, We can solve this quadratic equation in L by trial and error procedure.
First Trial, L=75 m
We can read the equivalent depth from (d) Table
d= 3.04+8/10(3.49-3.04) = 3.40
Thus, L2 = 1120*3.40+560 = 4368 m2. ≠ L2 = 752=5625 m2
Apparently The spacing of 75 m is too wide.
Second Trial: L=50 m

Value of equivalent depth d can be obtained from the table as
d= 2.71+8/10(3.02-2.71)=2.96
• Thus, L2=1120*2.96+560=3875 m2. this not agreement with

L2=502=2500 m2, a spacing of 50 m is too close.
Third trial: L= 62.5 m

Value of equivalent depth d can be obtained from the table as
d= (d75 + d50)/2 = 3.18 m
Thus, L2=1120*3.18+560=4121 m2.
This Sufficiently close to L2=62.52=3906 m2,
 so we can select a spacing of 63 m.

Surface drainage
𝟒𝑲𝒆𝒎(𝟐𝒉𝒐+𝒎)
Prove that q=
𝑳𝟐

Irrgation Engineering II

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Irrgation Engineering II

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Faculty of Civil and Water Resource Engineering

Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering

Land clearing and Grading

• A properly graded land surface ensures

• Rough grading-is the removal of abrupt irregularities

Criteria for land leveling

Land levelling design methods

1. Determining the centroid of the filed

2. Determining the average elevation of the field

3. Compute the slope of the plane of best fit

• For the best fit slope in the Y-direction, the slope, B, is

• Finally, the average field elevation, EF, can be found by summing

• The differences are the necessary cuts and or fills.

5. Determine the cut-fill ratio

Cut-fill ratio≅ 1 or 100%

• A farm road is to be constructed along the boundary ab.

What is surface irrigation system?

• Surface irrigation is the application of water

Surface irrigation Design inputs

Surface irrigation event or process

• The wetting or ponding phase will not be present if the

Design of furrow irrigation System

• The average intake over the length of the furrow is given by

• Where Q= volumetric inflow rate,

• The required depth of infiltration for a furrow system must be expressed as an

0.10 0.6198 0.661 7.0 7.25 1.251*10-4

0.15 0.7110 0.683 7.0 7.34 1.414*10-4

0.20 0.7772 0.699 7.0 7.43 1.578*10-4

0.25 0.8534 0.711 7.0 7.52 1.741*10-4

0.30 0.9246 0.720 7.0 7.61 1.904*10-4

0.35 0.9957 0.729 7.0 7.70 2.067*10-4

0.40 1.064 0.736 7.0 7.79 2.230*10-4

0.45 1.130 0.742 7.0 7.88 2.393*10-4

0.50 1.196 0.748 7.0 7.97 2.556*10-4

0.60 1.321 0.757 7.0 8.15 2.883*10-4

0.70 1.443 0.766 7.0 8.33 3.209*10-4

0.80 1.560 0.773 7.0 8.50 3.535*10-4

0.90 1.674 0.779 7.0 8.68 3.862*10-4

1.00 1.786 0.785 7.0 8.86 4.188*10-4

1.50 2.284 0.799 7.0 9.76 5.819*10-4

2.00 2.753 0.808 7.0 10.65 7.451*10-4

• The advance time for stream of water moving down the

Where Tt = advance time, min

• The infiltration opportunity time is equal to the time of water

• The recession time is assumed Zero for open- ended gradient

• The average infiltration opportunity time over distance x

• The gross depth of water application, ig, is defined as the

2.Design of Border Irrigation

• Borders can be grouped into three major categories depending

• The inflow rate per unit width of border strip is given by

where: in = net depth of irrigation

• The maximum depth of flow in the In the border strip is

• Normal depth for uniform flow, (mm)

-------for high gradient border.

• The maximum flow rate criterion has been established to have

• A minimum depth of flow criterion is required to ensure that

• The theoretical relationship for maximum slope is given by

• The theoretical relationship for maximum length is given by

3. Design of Basin irrigation

• The required advance time, Tt, is determined by multiplying the net

• Ratio of Tt to Tn for various distribution efficiency values.

Where Qu= Q/W , W = basin width

Where: Tco = time to cut-off, min