Chapter Four

Drainage System
Introduction

Definition: Land drainage is the removal of excess surface & subsurface water from the land to enhance
crop growth, including removal of soluble salts from the soil. In many irrigated areas, the water table rises
and causes increasing damage to land crops. Harmful salts may accumulate and saline or alkaline
conditions may develop where the water table is near the surface. Drainage is the first step in the
improvement of much of wet land
The source of excess water may be from
1) Precipitation
2) Irrigation water
3) Over land flow
4) Underground seepage from adjacent areas
5) Artesian flow from deep aquifers
6) Flood water from channels etc.
Surface drainage, the oldest drainage practice, was defined as “the diversion or orderly
removal of excess water from the surface of the land by means of improved natural or
constructed channels, supplemented when necessary by shaping and grading of the land
surface to such channels”. Surface drainage has been regarded as a farmer’s practice. With
introduction of sub-surface drainage and farm mechanization & their related high investment
costs, surface drainage become the subject of scientific and engineering research.
Surface drainage is applied primarily on flat lands, where slow infiltration, low permeability or
restricting layers in the profile prevent the ready absorption of high intensity of rainfall. The
surface drainage system is therefore intended to eliminate ponding & prevent prolonged
saturation by accelerating flow to an out-let without causing siltation or soil erosion
Subsurface drainage aims at controlling the water table - a control that can be achieved by tube
well drainage, open drains, or subsurface drains (pipe drains or mole drains). The
implementation of subsurface drainage that should result in a long lasting system, functioning
according to design

Most Common Techniques Used to Drain Excess Water

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1. Surface drainage: Can be described as “the removal of excess water from the soil surface in
time to prevent damage to crops and to keep water from ponding on the soil surface. Surface
drainage is a suitable technique where excess water from precipitation can not infiltrate into
soil and move through soil to a drain or can not move freely over the soil surface to a
channel.

2. Subsurface Drainage: is the “removal of excess soil water in time to prevent damage to
crops because of high ground water table. Subsurface field drains can be either open ditches
or pipe drains. Pipe drains are installed underground at depth varying from 1.0 to 3.0 m.
Excess ground water enters the perforated field drain and flows by gravity to the open or
closed collector.

3. Tube Well Drainage: Can be described as the “control of an existing or potential high
ground water table or artesian ground water condition “. Most tube well drainage installations
consist of group of wells spaced with sufficient overlap of their individual cones of
depression to control the water table at all points in the area

DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

The Components of a Drainage System

A drainage system can be divided into three components: the field drainage system, the main
drainage system and an outlet (Figure 1). A field drainage system is used to avoid ponding water
and/or to control the watertable in the field, the main drainage system is used to convey the water
away from the farm area and an outlet is the point of safe disposal of the drainage water. In the
following we will briefly discuss the three components.
The field drainage system is a network that gathers the excess water from the land by means of
field drains, possibly supplemented by measures to promote the flow of excess water to these
drains.
For the farmers the field drainage system is the most important part of a drainage system. A field
drainage system controls ponding and/or waterlogging. It can be a surface drainage system (to
remove ponding water from the surface of the land) or a subsurface drainage system (to contr ol
the watertable in the soil). In surface drainage, field drains are shallow graded channels, usually
with relatively flat side slopes. In subsurface drainage, field drains are open or pipe drains. Open
and pipe drains have the same function, the difference is the way they are constructed: an open

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drain is a ditch with an exposed watertable and a pipe drain is a buried pipe. The length and
spacing of field drains is determined by a wide variety of factors such as topography, soil type,
depth of the impermeable layer, root depth, drainage requirement and farm size. In Section 2.2
we will discuss the field drainage systems in more detail.
The main drainage system is a water conveyance system that receives water from the field
drainage systems, surface runoff, and groundwater flow, and transports it to the outlet point.
The main drainage systems consists of collector drains and a main drain. A collector drain is a
drain that collects water from the field drains and carries it to the main drain for disposal. As
field drains, collector drains may be either open or pipe drains. The main drain is the principal
drain of an area, it receives water from collector drains, diversion drains, or interceptor drains (=
drains intercepting surface or groundwater flow from outside the area), and conveys this water to
an outlet for disposal outside the area. The main drain is often a canalized stream which runs
through the lowest parts of the agricultural area.
The outlet is the terminal point of the entire drainage system, from where it discharges into a
river, lake, or sea.

Figure 1 Schematic lay-out of a drainage system

The outlet can be a gravity outlet structure or a pumping station. A gravity outlet structure is a
drainage structure in an area with variable outer water levels, where drainage can take place by
gravity when outside water levels are low. In delta areas, drainage by gravity is often restricted to
a few hours per day during low tide. In the upstream regions of a river, drainage by gravity can

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be restricted for several weeks, during periods of high river discharges. A pumping station is
needed in areas where the required water levels in the drainage system are lower than the water
level of the river, lake or sea.
Drainage requirements Determined by crops:
Different crops have widely differing tolerances for excess water both as to amount and time.
Saturation of root zone results an oxygen deficiency and accumulation of toxic gases. A short
term of oxygen deficiency can reduce water uptake, nutrient uptake and root respiration and
build up toxins which lead to death of cells and roots. Therefore, the drainage requirement is
based on:
1. The maximum duration and frequency of surface ponding
2. Maximum height of the water table
3. The minimum rate at which water table is lowered.
The water table may be defined as the upper surface of the saturated zone of free, unconfined
ground water
Development of Drainage - Design Criteria
Criteria for drainage design system - is to have the optimum level of water control required by
the kind of agriculture to be practiced. The criteria consists of:
1. The rate of water removal necessary to provide certain degree of crop protection
2. The optimum depth to water table
The rate of water removal often referred to Drainage Coefficient. Optimum depth to water table
is that depth required for best plan-soil-water-air relationship, and which is feasible to maintain
under existing conditions
Elements of Drainage design: The principal elements of drainage design are
1. Crop requirements
2. Site investigations
3. Design criteria
4. Plans & specifications
Drainage Coefficient :
It is the depth of water to be removed in a particular period, usually 24 hours. Normally a
drainage coefficient of 10 mm to 50 mm may be adopted for surface drainage. In case of sub-
surface drainage, it is little bit less i.e 6 mm to 25 mm

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 Discharge rate Q = Dc x A A -- Area in ha , Dc = Drainage coefficient
Q -- Discharge from the field
The agricultural requirement of drainage is generally expressed in terms of Drainage Intensity.
The drainage intensity under steady state conditions is converted into a drain discharge rate or
depth discharge (Drainage Coefficient ) at a particular water table elevation. This is an input of
Agricultural requirement in the drain spacing equations.
The rate of drainage is key factor in establishing the needed capacity of a drainage system. This
rate, expressed as depth in cms of water drained off from a given area, in 24 hours , is called
Drainage Coefficient. It may also be expressed in terms of flow rate per unit area, as cum/
sq.km per 24 hrs.. The D.C varies with
1. Geographical locations
2. Land use
3. Size of area to be drained
The drainage coefficient for a particular drainage system should be based on the 1) water
tolerance of crops to be grown and 2) physical characteristics of the area. Climate, soils,
topography and crops are always important factors to consider. Where irrigation is practiced, the
quantity and quality of irrigation water and irrigation water management practices must also be
considered.
In humid areas, the rate of removal specified is usually uniform large areas, but in arid & semi
arid irrigated areas, the rate of flow per unit of area decreases as the size of the area increases,
because of the rotation of irrigation within large project areas and non-uniformity of other
sources of excess water.
In irrigated areas, where there is in sufficient experience to establish acceptable drainage
coefficients for general use, they can be computed from the following formula based on
irrigation application.

q = { ( p + c )/100 x i }/ 24 F where q = D.C in inches/hr

p = deep percolation from irrigation including leaching requirement,%
( based on consumptive use studies)
c = field canal losses, %
i = irrigation application, inches

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 F = Frequency of irrigation, days

4.2 Salt Problems in Irrigation Agriculture

The application of irrigation water means an input of salts. Irrigation water even of excellent
quality, it is a major source of soluble salts. If soil salinization is to be avoided, those salts have
to be leached out of the root zone by water percolating to the subsoil. The percolation water will
cause the water table to rise and has to be drained off because; a second source of salinization in
irrigated areas is capillary rise from a water table. As ground water is somewhat saline, even
small amount of capillary rise can add greatly to the salinity of the root zone. Drainage, either
natural or artificial is necessary compliment to irrigation. Where as the aim of drainage in humid
areas, is to control soil water for better aeration, higher temperatures and easier workability.
Whereas the primary aim of drainage in irrigated land is to control salinity. Due to presence of
salts in the soil layers
 crop yield is considerably low
 Gradually oils become unsuitable for cultivation
Salinity
The presence of soluble salts in the soil solution can affect plant growth, depending on the salt
concentration and susceptibility of plant or crop. Soil salinity is appraised by measuring the
electrical conductivity or salt concentration in soil water extracts*. Salinity is mostly
associated with a near neutral, slightly alkaline soil reaction, unless appreciable amounts of
sodium are present, then the soil reaction is pronouncedly alkaline.
The soil salinity is measure with Electrical conductivity. Because of strong relationship between
the electrical conductivity (EC) of a soil extract and the soil’s salt concentration, the salt content
of soil is expressed by deciseimen per meter (dS/m). The old unit for EC which is still
frequently used is mmhos/cm (1 mmho/cm = 1 dS/m). The salt concentration of a solution is
expressed in mg / l (=ppm), meq /lit. Similarly, the ion concentration is expressed in meq/lit. A
milli equivalent is the mass of an ion or compound that combines with or replaces 1 mg of
hydrogen and equals the atomic weight of the ion divided by its Valency. The most reliable
appraisal of soil salinity is obtained by measuring the salt concentration in soil water at field
capacity. This method yields real salt concentration in soil water under field conditions. In
laboratory, it is difficult to obtain sufficient amount of soil water from samples at field capacity.

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Therefore, the other and most commonly used appraisal of soil salinity is the soil saturation
extract. We prepare a saturated paste by adding water to dry soil and then obtain saturation
extract by applying suction to the saturated paste. The paste contains about 2 times the water at
field capacity. It is over saturated paste compared with saturation under undisturbed field
condition (Soil water extracts of 1:1 i.e., 100 gm soil to 100 gm water or 2:1 or higher dilutions
are prepared for routine purposes). The soil for which shows EC of saturation extract is more
than 4 mmhos/cm at 25 0C, Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) is < 15 and P H is usually less
than or equal to 8.5. The soluble salts present in the soils are mainly chlorides, sulphates and
sometimes nitrates of Na, Ca, Mg and K. Small amounts of bicarbonates of these elements may
also occur, but soluble carbonates usually are absent. In addition to readily available salts, saline
soils may contain relatively insoluble salts such as calcium sulphate (gypsum) and calcium and
magnesium carbonates. These salts present in saline soils, usually appear in the form of white
efflorescent crust on the soil surface, hence, saline soils are called as white alkali soils. In order
to reclaim saline soils, it is necessary to reduce soluble salt concentration to acceptable limits and
this can be done by leaching, provided there is adequate drainage either natural or artificial
Sodicity
Sodicity refers to the presence of sodium (Na) ions on the exchange complex and in the soil
solution. When sodium is present, the soil aggregates are unstable and are likely to disperse.
The lack of stability can cause open drains to collapse or pipe drains to silt-up. Other major
effects are a reduction in soil permeability, a disturbance of nutrient equilibrium and toxicity to
plants. Sodicity usually expressed by ‘ Exchangeable Sodium Percentage ‘(ESP) or the ‘
Sodium Absorption Ratio(SAR) ‘. The slaking of soil aggregates when wetted can indicate
Sodicity. As remarked earlier, the presence of columnar structure points to high Sodicity.
Sodicity is associated with an alkaline soil reaction. When PH of soil solution is higher than 8.2,
appreciable amounts of sodium are likely to be present. These soils are also termed as black
alkali soils, because black crust forms on the surface if organic matter is present. In sodic soils,
the main objective is to reduce ESP and to remove the released sodium salts. The difficulty with
these soils are usually become almost impermeable. It is difficult to get water & salts into the
soil. Once in, it is more difficult to get them out.. to replace the sodium, chemicals such as
gypsum(calcium sulphate) % sulphur are introduced to increase the concentration of soluble
calcium, so that it replaces exchangeable sodium. These chemical are mixed mechanically into

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the soil for the improvement of intake rates and permeability of soil. soil permeability can also
be increased by converting sodic soil to saline-sodic soil by irrigating with saline water, which
improves the soil structure, in turn, the soil permeability increases.. Once the soils are permeable,
chemical can easily be introduced to replace the sodium by controlled leaching and drainage.
The chemical used are either calcium salts themselves or chemicals have the capacity for
converting the calcium already in the soil to a form suitable for ion exchange. The quantity of
amendment depends on
 exchangeable sodium to be replaced
 soil cation exchange capacity
 proportion of additive which is likely to enter the reaction
Soil acidity & Alkalinity
Acidity is general term that refers to the amount of hydrogen ions in the soil solution. Acidity is
indicated by P H, which is negative logarithm of hydrogen ion(H-ion) concentration. A neutral
solution has PH =7.0, an acid solution a P H<7.0 and an alkaline solution a P H > 7.0. The PH of
the soil strongly affects the availability of nutrients to plants. Near neutrality ( 6< P H < 7.5 ),
there are seldom problems. At P H < 4.5 and at P H > 8.5, there are always problems with the
availability of some nutrients or with the toxicity of other elements. P H is generally measured in
laboratory with PH meter.
Soil Salinity & Sodicity
A soil which shows electrical conductivity(EC) of the saturation extract > 4 mmhos / cm at 25 0
C, the ESP > 15 and P H of the saturated paste is usually about 8.5. When reclaiming saline-alkali
soils, the objectives are to replace the exchangeable sodium with calcium or another soluble ion
and then leach out the replaced sodium and other soluble salts. It is important that the products
be removed in that order, other wise, if the soluble salts are removed first, soil structure may
deteriorate and then it become exceedingly difficult to do any thing. If there is a deterioration,
then it will be necessary to add chemical amendments to replace exchangeable sodium. An
indication of rate of change in ESP can be obtained from the leaching test.
Crop growth affected by Salinity & Sodicity
1. Effect of Salinity on Crop growth.
 Osmotic effect: As salinity of solution increases, its osmotic potential increases too and
reduces the availability of water for crop.

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  Specific ion effect: This causes an imbalanced ion intake, deficiencies in certain
elements and yield depression. Some ions are toxic causing characteristic injury
symptoms associated with the accumulation of a specific ion in the plant. Leaf burn of
many fruit trees due to an excessive intake of sodium and chloride are well known.
Crop’s Salt Tolerance
Literature contains many data on plant tolerance to salinity. In general, these tolerances agree
fairly well, not withstanding differences in climate, variety and cultural practices. Climate has an
effect on salt tolerance. Crops grown during cooler period of the year are more tolerant than
growing during periods of higher temperature and lower humidity.

2. Effect of Sodicity on Crop Growth

Exchangeable sodium affects plant growth in two ways
 It causes nutritional problems
 Poor soil structure
The soil solution of sodic soils often contains more sodium than calcium. The nutritional
problems encountered on sodic soils are related to an unbalanced uptake of cations. Plants
grown on sodic soils usually have higher sodium content and lower calcium content than those
grown on non-sodic soils. Some crops are extremely sensitive to sodium Citrus and nut trees). In
soils with ESP of 5-10, these tree crops may be accumulate toxic amounts of sodium. At an ESP
value of 10, the second effect i.e., poor soil structure may become apparent. With the breakdown
of soil structure, plant growth is effected by
 Poor aeration in the root zone
 Reduced water movement
 Water logging in the root zone or on the soil surface
Therefore, the root growth is restricted, upon the alternating effect of being moistened by
irrigation water or rain and then drying, these soils form a dense and hard surface crust,
which hinders the emergence of seeds and retard the development of young seedlings.. An exact
value of ESP, which the soil structure is likely to deteriorate cannot be given. From the
reclamation point of view, the critical ESP-level ranges from 5 in fine textured soils that
contains swelling clay minerals to 25 in coarse textured soils.
Causes for Salt build-up in Irrigated Soils

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Extensive area of land in arid and semi-arid regions have gone out of cultivation due to rise of
water table and accumulation of salt
Chief causes for water logging
 Excessive Irrigation
 Poor Water Management Practices
The following factors either singly or in association with other factors are responsible for the
development of Salina and Alkaline soils
 Use of Saline Irrigation Water
 Deposition of salts on the soil surface from high sub-soil water table
 Seepage from canals
 Arid climate
 Poor drainage
 Back water flow / Intrusion of sea water
The major processes involved in the development of Salinity in irrigated areas are
 Transportation
 Evaporation and
 Poor drainage
The nature and extent of salt accumulation and the degree of soil Alkalinity, depend on quality of
irrigation water, frequency of irrigation, soil type and its permeability and salt tolerance
characteristics of plants. Generally, soils of light textured are less salanized than those of
medium and heavy textured soils. The soils irrigated with waters having higher proportion of
sodium and bi-carbonate ions develop more alkalinity. The presence of hard pan of lime or clay,
further enhance the degree of alkalinity. The situation becomes more complex to predict when
depth water table is high and quality of irrigation water is poor. The salt accumulation is also
associated with the relief of the land. In flood plains, deltas,, coastal belts and in areas of high
water table, the salt concentration is usually high. Saline ground water and high water table are
favoring soil salinity. The rate of salinization by capillary action decreases when the depth of
water table is low, say beyond 1.5 m and soil moisture content is also low. Salt problem in arid
and semi-arid regions having rainfall below 45 cm are spread along the coastal line and
thousands of hectares of land are salt effected by sea water intrusion.

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Accumulation of salts in the soils lead to
 Unfavorable Soil- Water- air relationships
 Decrease of crop production
4.3 Water Logging and Land Reclamation Process
Water logging is phenomenon associated with rise in the ground water table. The rise of water
table beyond a critical limit (usually 1.5 m to 2.0 m from ground surface ), owing to poor
drainage, and excessive surface irrigation practices, give rise to water logging conditions. The
other distress consequences of water logging is that land turn unproductive owing to salinity and
alkalinity effects arising principally out of water logged conditions. The land mass once spoilt by
the salinity - alkalinity effect, cannot be reclaimed easily and are mostly thrown out of
cultivation
Basic causes for water logging:
Factors responsible for water logging are broadly classified into two groups.
A) Factors responsible for excess inflow:
Infiltration from excess rainfall - especially on flat areas
1. Flooding land - due to spills from river banks for a prolonged period
2. Induced seepage - From storage reservoirs , rivers and unlined canals
3. Over irrigation - Deep percolation losses owing to uncontrolled application of
irrigation water
4. Sub-Soil flow - from areas located at higher elevation responsible for water
logging of low lying areas.
B) Factors responsible for poor outflows
1. Inadequate surface drainage - due to blockage of natural drainage channels with
weeds & vegetative cover
2. Natural & artificial obstructions to subsoil & surface out flow - Geological formations
- owing to impervious layers of clayey or rocky strata, construction of high rise
buildings, water tight reservoirs and dams with massive grouting
3. Poor topography - Flat areas with low lying depressions, in adequate land slope.
Effects of excess water on crops:
1. Evaporation - lowers soil temperature

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 2. Saturation or surface ponding stops air circulation in the soil and prevents bacterial
activity
3. Certain plant diseases and parasites are encouraged
4. High water table limits root penetration
5. Soil structure is adversely affected
6. Salts present in the soil or ground water, tend to be concentrated in the root zone or at
the soil surface and turn the soil saline/alkali and make the soil unproductive
7. Wet spots in the field ,delay farm operations
8. Excess water on surface breeds mosquitoes, insects and encourage weed growth
Reclamation of salt affected soils
The process and practices involved in bringing saline and alkali soils into productive condition
are known as reclamation measures. The efficiency of any reclamation measure depends on the
proper diagnosis of the problem soils.

General considerations for reclamation :

Before starting the reclamation of salt affected soils, one need answer to several questions.
 Does the soil contain soluble salts and what is the exchangeable sodium percentage
 What is the cause of salinization. Is it due to presence of a shallow water table, poor
quality of irrigation water or presence of marine sediments.
 What are the physical characteristics of the soil. Is the soil coarse, medium or a fine
textured soil. What is the dominant clay mineral. What is the hydraulic conductivity in
the top soil, the subsoil and the substratum. What changes in soil physical behaviour are
to be expected during leaching.
 In salt affected soils, a water table is often present at shallow depth. If so, first measure
to be taken is to install a drainage system to control the water table. The second measure
is to apply irrigation water to leach the salts from the soil. Hence, other questions to be
answered are
(i) Is drainage technically feasible and economically justified
(ii) Is irrigation water available to leach the salts and more importantly, to enable
sustained agricultural production on the land once reclaimed

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  Another problem to be solved is the presence of excessive amounts of exchangeable
sodium, either in combination with poor soil structure or not. On this matter, the
following questions to be answered
(i) Is the application of chemical amendment needed, an amendment containing
calcium or a product of that enhances the solubility of calcium carbonate if
present in the soil
(ii) How much of the amendment is required
(iii) Is the amendment commercially or economically available
(iv) Which crops and what cropping pattern are to be selected for the reclamation
period
Adequate answers to the above questions will allow a decision to be made on whether or not to
reclaim the land, and if so, whether to install drainage, leach the soils and apply amendments. A
financial and economic appraisal is the part of the decision making process. It may turn out that,
for one or more specific reasons, not reclaiming the land is the best alternative, particularly
when unreclaimed land has at least some production i.e as meadows.
( An example of coastal valley of Peru was cited in the class whether the reclamation can
be taken up or not under the existing field conditions )

Before any reclamation procedure is applied, it is essential to determine

 Nature of the soil (Saline, Alkaline or Saline-Alkaline)
 Degree of salinity / Alkalinity in the soil profile
 Quality of irrigation water available for leaching out the salts
 Drainage characteristics of the soil
 Topography of the land
 Presence of any hard pan of lime or clay in the soil strata
Reclamation Procedures
(A) Reclamation on temporary basis can be done by
 By removing the salt crust from the surface of the soil
 By ploughing salt surface crust deep into the soil
 Neutralizing the effects of certain salts by adding other salts
(B) Permanent Reclamation Procedures

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  By lowering water table ( if high )
 Improving the infiltration capacity of the soil
 Leaching of salts in saline soils by providing adequate sub-surface drainage
 Replacing excessive exchangeable Na by Ca salts and removing the replaced salts
 Suitable management practices
Some preventive & curative measures that are usually considered in normal reclamation works
a) Anti-Water logging measures
 Providing surface drainage
 Sub-surface drainage, pumping & recycling (recycled for irrigation)
 Controlling seepage losses-- Uncontrolled seepage losses from open canal system in
irrigated areas
 Scientific Management of Irrigation Water
 Making conjunctive use of surface & ground water for irrigation
b) Use of proper quality of irrigation water
c) Leaching of soil salts
d) Choice of salt tolerant crops, rotation of crops
e) Chemical method: Chemical treatment of salt effected land can be done by addition of such
salts or acids which can neutralize harmful salts

Reclamation of Saline soils

It depends on the efficiency of removal of salts from the upper to lower layers.
The simplest procedure is to flood the field making ridges at the boundaries. The dissolved salts
move through soil profile below the root zone and drained away if adequate drainage is provided.
The quantity of water needed for leaching depends mainly on the severity of salinity and depth
& degree of reclamation desired. The lower the salt content in the irrigation, the greater is the
efficiency in reclaiming saline soils. In practice, if water is inadequate, or soils are low
permeable, it is desired to obtain partial reclamation and more salt tolerant crops (Barley) can
be grown. The rate of removal is fast in the beginning and later it slows down.

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