Fanwa, Michael

Geotechnical Engineering (soil mechanics)

PS 3 Physical Soil States and Soil Classification

A.1. What are the physical parameters that characterize a soil?

Soil physical properties include texture, structure, density, porosity, consistence,

temperature, and color.

Soil Texture

Soil texture (such as loam, sandy loam or clay) refers to the proportion of sand, silt and
clay sized particles that make up the mineral fraction of the soil. 

Soil Structure

Soil structure describes the arrangement and organization of soil particles in the soil,
and the tendency of individual soil particles to bind together in aggregates.

Soil Density

Soil density is related to the mineral and organic composition of a soil and to soil
structure. The standard measure of soil density is bulk density, defined as the proportion
of the weight of a soil relative to its volume. It is expressed as a unit of weight per
volume, and is commonly measured in units of grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). Bulk
density is an indicator of the amount of pore space available within individual soil
horizons, as it is inversely proportional to pore space.

Soil Porosity

Pore space is that part of the bulk volume of soil that is not occupied by either mineral or
organic matter but is open space occupied by either gases or water. 

Soil Consistence

Soil consistence refers to the ease with which an individual ped can be crushed by the
fingers. Soil consistence, and its description, depends on soil moisture content. 

Soil Temperature

Soil temperature is affected by climate, water content of a soil, soil color, soil cover (e.g.
presence or absence of mulch), depth in the soil profile, and air and water flow within a
soil.

Soil Color

Soil color is largely determined by the organic matter content, drainage conditions,
degree of oxidation, and in some cases, presence of specific minerals. Soil color is not a
widely used factor in stormwater applications.

  
2. What are some of the basic tests required to characterize soils?

Sieve Analysis. In sieve analysis, the particle size distribution of soil is determined by
mechanical sieving of soil samples through a series of graded sieves, Hydrometer Analysis,
Specific Gravity, Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and shrinkage limit.

3. What are the Atterberg limits?

The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the critical water contents of a fine-grained soil:
its shrinkage limit, plastic limit, and liquid limit.
Depending on its water content, a soil may appear in one of four states: solid, semi-solid, plastic and
liquid. In each state, the consistency and behavior of a soil is different and consequently so are its
engineering properties. Thus, the boundary between each state can be defined based on a change
in the soil's behavior. The Atterberg limits can be used to distinguish between silt and clay, and to
distinguish between different types of silts and clays. The water content at which the soils change
from one state to the other are known as consistency limits or Atterberg's limit.
These limits were created by Albert Atterberg, a Swedish chemist and agronomist in 1911.[1] They
were later refined by Arthur Casagrande, an Austrian-born American geotechnical engineer and
close collaborator of Karl Terzaghi (both pioneers of soil mechanics).
Distinctions in soil are used in assessing the soils that are to have structures built on them. Soils
when wet retain water, and some expand in volume (smectite clay). The amount of expansion is
related to the ability of the soil to take in water and its structural make-up (the type of minerals
present: clay, silt, or sand). These tests are mainly used on clayey or silty soils since these are the
soils that expand and shrink when the moisture content varies. Clays and silts interact with water
and thus change sizes and have varying shear strengths. Thus, these tests are used widely in the
preliminary stages of designing any structure to ensure that the soil will have the correct amount of
shear strength and not too much change in volume as it expands and shrinks with different moisture
contents.
4. What are the effects of water on the unit weight of the soil?
As water is added to a soil (at low moisture content) it becomes easier for the particles to move past
one another during the application of the compacting forces. As the soil compacts the voids are reduced
and this causes the dry unit weight (or dry density) to increase. Initially then, as the moisture content
increases so does the dry unit weight. However, the increase cannot occur indefinitely because the soil
state approaches the zero air voids line which gives the maximum dry unit weight for a given moisture
content. Thus, as the state approaches the no air voids line further moisture content increases must
result in a reduction in dry unit weight. As the state approaches the no air voids line a maximum dry unit
weight is reached and the moisture content at this maximum is called the optimum moisture content.
B.
1. A 40 mm diameter and 75 mm long cylindrical clay sample has a mass of 180.2 g. After
drying in the oven at 105°C for 24 hours, the mass is reduced to 148.4 g. Find the dry density,
bulk density, and water content of the clay.

2. Soil excavated from a borrow area is being used to construct an embankment. The void ratio
of the in situ soil at the borrow area is 1.4, and it is required that the soil in the embankment be
compacted to a void ratio of 0.80. With 500,000 m3 of soil removed from the borrow area, how
many cubic meters of embankment can be made?
3. A 500 m long section of a 15 m wide canal is being deepened 1.5 m by means of a dredge.
The effluent from the dredge has a unit weight of 13.6 kN/m3. The soil at the bottom of the canal
has an in situ unit weight of 18.7 kN/m3. The specific gravity of the soil grains is 2.72. If the
effluent is being pumped at a rate of 500 L per minute, how many operational hours will be
required to complete the dredge work?
4. The undisturbed soil at a borrow pit has a bulk unit weight of 19.1 kN/m3 and water content of
8.5%. The soil from this borrow will be used to construct a compacted fill with a finished volume
of 45,000 m3. The soil is excavated by machinery and placed in trucks, each with a capacity of
5.0 m3. When loaded to the full capacity, each load of soil weighs 70 kN. In the construction
process, the trucks dump the soil at the site, then the soil is spread and broken up. Water is
then sprinkled to bring the water content to 15%. Finally, the soil is compacted to a dry unit
weight of 17.1 kN/m3.
a. Assuming each load is to the full capacity, how many truckloads are required to construct the
fill?

b. What would be the volume of the pit in the borrow area?

c. How many liters of water should be added to a truckload?
5. An irregularly shaped, undisturbed soil lump has a mass of 4100 g. To measure the volume, it
was required to thinly coat the sample with wax (the mass and volume of which can be
neglected) and weigh it submerged in water when suspended by a string. The submerged mass
of the sample is 1995 g. Later, the water content of the sample and the specific gravity of the
soil grains were determined to be 12.4% and 2.75 respectively. Determine the void ratio and the
degree of saturation of the sample.
6. The results of a particle size analysis of a soil are given in the following table. No Atterberg
limit tests were conducted.
Sieve 9.53 mm 4 10 20 40 100 200
no. (3/8”)
% finer 100 89.8 70.2 62.5 49.8 28.6 4.1
(a) Would you have conducted Atterberg limit tests on this soil? Justify your answer.
(b) Classify the soil according to USCS, and AASHTO.
(c) Is this soil a good foundation material? Justify your answer.
7. The results of a particle size analysis of a soil are given in the following table. Atterberg limit
tests gave LL = 62% and PL = 38%. The clay content is 37%.
Sieve 9.53 mm 4 10 20 40 100 200
no. (3/8”)
% finer 100 90.8 84.4 77.5 71.8 65.6 62.8
(a) Classify the soil according to USCS and AASHTO.
(b) Rate this soil as a subgrade for a highway.