Saint Louis College

City of San Fernando, La Union

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

INTRODUCTION

Soil- is defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic matter
along with the liquid gas that occupy the spaces between the solid particles

In general, soils are formed by weathering of rocks. The physical properties of soil are dictated
primarily by the minerals that constitute the soil particles and, hence, the rock from which it is
derived

I. SOIL FORMATION

 On the basis of their mode of origin, rocks can be divided into three basic types: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic
a) Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of molten magma ejected from
deep within the earth’s mantle
b) Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediment grains deposited by water, wind
or ice. They are always formed in layers, called “beds” or “strata”, and quite often
contain fossils.
c) Metamorphic rocks were once igneous or sedimentary rocks, but have been
changed (metamorphosed) as a result of intense heat and/or pressure within the
Earth’s crust. They are crystalline and often have a “squashed” (foliated or
banded) texture.

Figure 1. Rock Cycle

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  Weathering - is the process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and chemical
processes into smaller pieces.
a) Mechanical weathering may be caused by the expansion and contraction of rocks
from the continuous gain and loss of heat, which results in ultimate disintegration
b) In chemical weathering, the original rock minerals are transformed into new
minerals by chemical reaction. Water and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
form carbonic acid, which reacts with the existing rock minerals to form new
minerals and soluble salts.
 The mineral grains that form the solid phase of a soil aggregate are the product of rock
weathering. The size of the individual grains varies over a wide range. Many of the
physical properties of soil are dictated by the size, shape, and chemical composition of the
grains.

Three Major types of Soil according to Size

1. Gravel
2. Sand
3. Clay

Transportation of Weathering Products

The products of weathering may stay in the same place or may be moved to other places
by ice, water, wind, and gravity.

The transported soils may be classified into several groups, depending on their mode of
transportation and deposition:
1. Glacial soils—formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers
2. Alluvial soils—transported by running water and deposited along streams
3. Lacustrine soils—formed by deposition in quiet lakes
4. Marine soils—formed by deposition in the seas
5. Aeolian soils—transported and deposited by wind
6. Colluvial soils—formed by movement of soil from its original place by gravity, such as
during landslides

II. MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOIL

Mechanical analysis is the determination of the size range of particles present in a

soil, expressed as a percentage of the total dry weight. Two methods generally are used to
find the particle-size distribution of soil:

a) Sieve analysis—for particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm in diameter

b) Hydrometer analysis—for particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm in diameter.

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 Sieve Analysis consists of shaking the soil sample through a set of sieves that have
progressively smaller openings. U.S. standard sieve numbers and the sizes of
openings are given in Table 2.5

Particle Size Limits:

Gravel greater than 4.75mm

Sand 0.075mm to 4.75mm
Silt and Clay smaller than 0.075mm

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 Hydrometer analysis is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in
water. When a soil specimen is dispersed in water, the particles settle at different
velocities, depending on their shape, size, weight, and the viscosity of the water. For
simplicity, it is assumed that all the soil particles are spheres and that the velocity of
soil particles can be expressed by Stokes’ law, according to which
𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑤 2
𝜐= 𝐷
18𝜂

Where: 𝜐-velocity
𝜌𝑠 -density of soil particles
𝜌𝑤 -density of water
𝜂-viscosity of water
𝐷-diameter of soil particles

𝐿(𝑐𝑚) 18𝜂
𝐷(𝑚𝑚) = 𝐾√ 𝐾=√
𝑡(min) (𝐺 −1) 𝑠 ϒ𝑤

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 When a hydrometer is placed in the soil suspension at a
time t, measured from the start of sedimentation it
measures the specific gravity in the vicinity of its bulb at a
depth L

R = hydrometer reading corrected for the meniscus.

Sieve analysis gives the

intermediate dimensions of a
particle; hydrometer analysis
gives the diameter of an
equivalent sphere that would
settle at the same rate as the soil
particle.

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III. PARTICLE SIZE OF DISTRIBUTION CURVE

A particle-size distribution curve can be used to determine the following four parameters for a
given soil:
1. Effective size (D10): This parameter is the diameter in the particle-size distribution
curve corresponding to 10% finer. The effective size of a granular soil is a good
measure to estimate the hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil.
2. Uniformity coefficient (Cu): This parameter is defined as
𝐷60
𝐶𝑢 =
𝐷10

where D60 =diameter corresponding to 60% finer.

3. Coefficient of gradation (Cc): This parameter is defined as
𝐷2 30
𝐶𝑢 =
𝐷60 𝑥 𝐷10
4. Sorting coefficient (S0): This parameter is another measure of uniformity and is
generally encountered in geologic works and expressed as:

𝐷75
𝑆0 = √
𝐷25
SOIL COMPOSITION
Generally, soil in its natural occurrence are composed of the soil solids and the voids,
which can be occupied by air or water

 Volume Relationships
a) Void ratio, e
 Ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of soil particles.
𝑉𝑣
𝑒=
𝑉𝑠
b) Porosity, n
 Ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume

𝑉𝑣
𝑛=
𝑉

c) Degree of Saturation, S
 Ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids
𝑉𝑤
𝑆=
𝑉𝑣
 Weight Relationship
d) Moisture Content, w
 Ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids

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 𝑊𝑤
𝑤= × 100
𝑊𝑠
 Unit Weight, γ
 Defined as the weight per unit volume
e) Dry unit weight

γ𝑠
γ𝑑 =
1+𝑒
f) Wet unit weight
1+𝑤
γ𝑚 = γ𝑠 =
1+𝑒
 Void Ratio and Porosity Relationship

𝑒
𝑛=
1+𝑒
Other Relations

Dry unit weight

G𝑠
γ𝑑 = γ𝑤
1+𝑒

Moist or Total unit weight

1+𝑤
γ𝑚 = γ𝑤 G𝑠
1+𝑒

Degree of Saturation

𝑆𝑒 = 𝑤G𝑠

Unit weight for fully saturated soils

𝑒 + G𝑠
γ𝑠𝑎𝑡 = γ𝑤
1+𝑒

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