Chapter 1

Description and Classification

of Soils

Instructor:
Associate Prof. Ts. Dr. Mohamad Yusri Aman
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Built Environment

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 INTRODUCTION

What is…
1. Soil Mechanics?
2. Geotechnics?
3. Geotechnical Engineering?

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Soil Mechanics and Geotechnics.
 A sub-set of Geotechnical Engineering.
 Also known as ‘Geomechanics’ or ‘Geotechniques’.
 Defined as “the application of engineering
mechanics to problems with soils as a foundation
and a construction material”.
 Used to understand and interpret the properties,
behaviour and performance of soils.

Geotechnical Engineering
defined as “the application of soil mechanics, geology
and hydraulics in the analysis and design of geotechnical
systems (e.g. dams, tunnels, foundations, roads, etc.)”

3
Early Geotechnical Engineering Successes
• The Pyramids in Egypt
• Ancient Roman Roads and Aqueducts
• The Great Wall of China
• The Erie Canal
• The Panama Canal
• Druid Lake Dam
• Brooklyn Bridge

4
Some Important Person In Soil Mechanics

C. A. Coulomb W. J. M. Rankine

 Added cohesion to  Lateral earth

the friction concept. pressures
 Passive and active  Civil engineer and
earth pressures educator

5
K. Terzaghi
Other important
persons:
 Father of theoretical
1) Arthur Casagrande
and applied soil 2) Ralph B. Peck
mechanics 3) A. W. Skempton
 Effective stress law 4) Laurrits B jerum
 Consolidation theory 5) Nilmar Janbu

6
Soil Description
 It is necessary to adopt a formal
system of soil description and
classification.
 to describe the various materials
found in ground investigation.

 Such a system must be comprehensive (covering

all but the rarest of deposits), meaningful in an
engineering context (so that engineers will be able
to understand and interpret) and yet relatively
concise.

7
Differences between description and
classification

Description
 A statement describing the physical nature and
state of the soil.
 It can be a description of a sample, or a soil in situ.
 Uses visual examination, simple tests, observation
of site conditions, geological history, etc.

8
Classification
 The separation of soil into classes or groups each
having similar characteristics and potentially
similar behaviour.
 A classification for engineering purposes should be
based mainly on mechanical properties, e.g.
permeability, stiffness, strength.
 The class to which a soil belongs can be used in
its description.

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1.1 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS
 Soils consist of grains (mineral grains, rock
fragments, etc.) with water and air in the voids
between grains.
deposition, cementation,
cristalisation

Sedimen
tery rock Sedimen
tation

Metamorphic Transportation,
process erosion, weathering

Metamorphic
rock Igneous
rock

liquidation magma
10
 PROPERTIES CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

THE ROCK CYCLE

11
we
1.1 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS

 The water and air contents are

readily changed by changes in
conditions and location:
 soils can be perfectly dry (have
no water content) or be fully
saturated (have no air content) or
be partially saturated (with both
air and water present).

12
 Although the size and shape of the
solid (granular) content rarely
changes at a given point, they can
vary considerably from point to
point.
 Soil as a engineering material- it is
not a coherent solid material like
steel and concrete, but is a
particulate material.
 Particle size, shape and Fig. 1 Soil matrix.
composition- determine a soil's
internal structure or fabric.

13
 Soil as a Civil Engineering Material
 Soils are NOT continuous,
homogenous, isotropic, linear
and elastic materials.
 Soil masses consist of
multiphase components (i.e.,
they consist of a solid phase
and voids which may be filled
by air, water or other types of
fluids)

14
 Soil as a Civil Engineering Material
 Soil response is inherently time-
dependent (i.e., soils continue to
deform with time under constant
loading conditions).
 We only know the nature of a soil
deposit via a relatively few samples
(which can be subjected to
sampling disturbance), via proving
(using in situ field tests), via
geophysical surveys, and from the
geology of an area.

15
 SOIL PARTICLES AND SHAPES

 Soil particles coarser than 0.075 mm are visible to

the naked eye or may be examined by means of a
hand lens. They constitute the coarser fractions of
the soils.
 Grains finer than 0.075 mm constitute the finer
fractions of soils.
 It is possible to distinguish the grains lying between
0.075 mm and 2 μ, (1μ, = 1 micron = 0.001 mm)
under a microscope.

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 Grains having a size between 2 μ and 0.1 μ can be
observed under a microscope but their shapes
cannot be made out.

 The shape of grains smaller than 1 μ can be

determined by means of an electron microscope.

 The molecular structure of particles can be

investigated by means of X-ray analysis.

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Shapes of Soil Particles

Rounded: Water- or air-worn; transported

sediments

Irregular: Irregular shape with round edges;

glacial sediments (sometimes sub-divided
into 'sub-rounded' and 'sub-angular')

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Angular: Flat faces and sharp edges;
residual soils, grits

Flaky: Thickness small compared to

length/breadth; clays

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Elongated: Length larger than breadth/thickness;
scree, broken flagstone

Flaky and Elongated:

Length>Breadth>Thickness; broken schists
and slates

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21
Particle size classification by various
systems

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Specific Surface

 Soil is essentially a particulate system- the particles

are in a fine state of subdivision or dispersion.

 In soils, the dispersed or the solid phase

predominates and the dispersion medium, soil water,
only helps to fill the pores between the solid
particles.

 The significance of the concept of dispersion

becomes more apparent when the relationship of
surface to particle size is considered.

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 In the case of silt, sand and larger size particles the
ratio of the area of surface of the particles to the
volume of the sample is relatively small.

 This ratio becomes increasingly large as size

decreases from 2 μ which is the upper limit for clay-
sized particles.

 A useful index of relative importance of surface

effects is the specific surface of grain.

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 Specific surface- the total area of the surface of the
grains expressed in square centimeters per gram or
per cubic centimeter of the dispersed phase.

 The amount of surface per unit mass or volume

varies with the shape of the particles.

 Moreover, the amount of contact area per unit

surface changes with shape.

 It is a fact that a sphere has the smallest surface

area per unit volume whereas a plate exhibits the
maximum.
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 The surface activity depends not only on the specific
surface but also on the chemical and mineralogical
composition of the solid particles.

 Since clay particles are the active portions of a soil

because of their high specific surface and their
chemical constitution, a discussion on the chemical
composition and structure of minerals is essential.

26
 Soil is essentially a particulate system- the particles
are in a fine state of subdivision or dispersion.

 In soils, the dispersed or the solid phase

predominates and the dispersion medium, soil water,
only helps to fill the pores between the solid
particles.

 The significance of the concept of dispersion

becomes more apparent when the relationship of
surface to particle size is considered.

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Composition and Structure of Clay Minerals

 Clay soils:

Fine-grained; but NOT all fine-grained soils are clay.

Particle size distribution has negligible effect on
behaviour.

Water has significant effect on clay particles-

cohesiveness and plasticity.

Very active electrochemically.

Clay content  50 %, sand and silt simply float in the clay

matrix- little effect on engineering behaviour.
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 Clay minerals- very tiny crystalline substance evolved
primarily from chemical weathering of certain rock-forming
minerals.
 Colloidal-sized crystals, < 1mm.
 Individual crystals look like tiny plates or flakes- consisting
many crystal sheets with repeating atomic structure.
 ALL clay minerals are built from 2 fundamental crystal
sheets: 1.tetrahedral or silica and 2.octahedral, stacked in
different ways, together with different bonding and metallic
ions in the crystal lattices:

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1. Tetrahedral / Silica Sheets
 A combination of silica tetrahedral units- 4 oxygen atoms at
corners, surrounding a single silicon atom (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Tetrahedron and tetrahedral sheet (Holtz and Kovacs

1981).
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2. Octahedral sheets
 A combination of octahedral units- 6 oxygen or hydroxyls
enclosing an aluminium (alumina sheet- gibbsite),
magnesium (magnesia sheet- brucite), ferum, or other atom
(Figure 3).

Figure 3: Octahedron and octahedral sheet (Holtz and Kovacs

1981). 31
Common clay minerals encountered in clay soils

Kaolinite
 Consists of repeating layers of 1
tetrahedral (silica) sheet and 1
octahedral (alumina or gibbsite)
sheet- 1:1 clay mineral.
 The 2 sheets are held together such
that the tips of the silica sheet and
one of the layers of the octahedral
sheet form a single layer-  0.72 um
(Figure 4).
Figure 4: Schematic diagram of
kaolinite (after Lambe,1953).

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 Extends indefinitely in the
breadth direction.
 Successive layers are held
together by hydrogen bonds
between hydroxyls of the
octahedral sheet and
oxygens of the tetrahedral
sheet.
 Very strong bond- prevents
hydration and allows the
layers to stack up to form a
Figure 5: Atomic structure of
large crystal- typically 70 – kaolinite (after Grim, 1959).
100 layers thick.

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 Length of light bar 5 m.

Figure 6: Scanning electron micrograph of kaolinite from

Georgia (Holtz, 1981).

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Halloysite
 1:1 mineral.
 When formed,
somehow hydrated
between the layers-
causing distortion or
random stacking in the
crystal lattice- tubular
shape (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Scanning electron micrograph of

hallo site from Colorado (Holtz, 1981).

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 Water can be easily driven out from between the layers by
oven-drying or heating- irreversible (i.e. cannot rehydrate).
 This property can cause classification and compaction
results to vary with air-dried or natural samples.
 Not very common though.

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Montmorillonite
 Also known as smectite.
 An important mineral of 2 silica sheets and 1 alumina
(gibbsite) sheet- 2:1 mineral (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Schematic diagram

of the
montmorillonite.
(after Lambe, 1953).

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 The octahedral sheet is between the 2 silica sheets, with
the tips of the tetrahedrons combining with the hydroxyls
of the octahedral sheet to form a single layer-  0.96 nm
(Figure 9).
 Like kaolinite, extends infinitely in the breadth directions.
 Bonding between tops of silica sheets- weak van der
Waals’ forces- net negative charge deficiency in the
octahedral sheet  water and exchangeable ions can
enter and separate the layers.
 Therefore montmorillonite crystals are very susceptible to
swelling as the water content increases- swelling
pressures developed can damage light structures and
road pavements.
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Figure 9: Atomic structure of montmorillonite (after Grim,
1959).

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Figure 10: Scanning electron micrograph of Na-montmorillonite
from Wyoming (Holtz, 1981).

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Illite
 Crystal structure similar to that of mica minerals, but with
less potassium and less isomorphous substitution.
 Thus chemically more active than other micas.

Figure 11: Schematic diagram of

illite (after Lambe,
1953).

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Figure 12: Scanning electron micrograph of illite from Illinois
(Holtz, 1981).
42
Figure 13: Synthesis pattern for clay minerals (Mitchell and Soga
2005). 43
Soil Structure
 Soil structure- the 3-D geometrical arrangement of pores
(voids) and particles of various sizes.
 May be referred to as “soil fabric”- as in rock fabric, describes
the arrangement of mineral grains in the volume of a rock.
 In clays (cohesive material)- inter-particle forces greatly
affects the arrangement of clay particles.
 In sands (cohesionless material)- relative density (DR)
strongly affects the behaviour; stress history must also be
considered.

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a. Dispersed- face-to-face
arrangement due to net
repulsion in resultant
forces (transported and
remoulded).

b. Flocculated- edge-to-face
arrangement due to net
attraction in resultant
forces (deposited in fresh
or salty water).

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c. Aggregations- dispersed
type

d. Aggregations- flocculated
type

Both have face-to-face

structures; little or no
attraction between mineral
units.

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 e. Honeycomb- depends on
velocity of water in which the
particles settle the
aggregations; contains large
amounts of voids bridged by
assemblage of aggregations.

clay

sand f. Honeycomb- an example of

clayey sand.
organic
materials

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g. Idealised dense sand or
coarse-grained soil.

h. Idealised loose sand or

coarse-grained soil.

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1.2 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

 Particle sizes vary considerably, from those

measured in microns (e.g. clays) to those measured
in meters (e.g. boulders).

 Most natural soils are composite soils: a mixture of

different particles size and the distribution.

 Natural soils may be assigned names such as silty

clay, clayey sand and sandy gravel, if the amounts
of various constituent sizes are known.

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 Two methods are generally used to determine particles size
distribution of soils:
1. Sieve analysis
- for particles sizes larger than 0.075mm in diameter.
2. Hydrometer analysis
- for particles sizes smaller than 0.075mm in diameter.

50
 Purpose of particles size analysis of soils:

1. For soil classification.

2. For designing inverted filters for dams, levees, etc.
3. For estimating permeability of granular soils.
4. For establishing the susceptibility to frost damage of
soils.

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 Classification of soils based on particle size:

USCS

ASSHTO

MIT

ASTM

USDA

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)

United State Department of Agriculture (USDA)
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
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American Association of State Highway and Transportation (AASHTO)
Sieve Analysis
 Sieve analysis consists of shaking the
soil sample through a set of sieves that
have progressively smaller openings.
 To conduct a sieve analysis, one must
first oven-dry the soil and then break all
lumps into small particles.
 The soil is then shaken through a stack
of sieves with openings of decreasing
size from top to bottom and the pan is
placed below the stack.
 After the soil is shaken, the mass of soil
retained on each sieve is determined.
53
 When cohesive soils are analyzed, breaking the
lumps into individual particles may be difficult.
 In this case, the soil may be mixed with water to make
slurry and then washed through the sieves.
 Portions retained on each sieve are collected
separately and oven-dried before the mass retained
on each sieve is weighed.

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55
 Uniformly graded- approximately
one size, Cu < 4.

Gap graded- absence of

certain particle size, Cc > 3.

Well graded- a mixture of particle

sizes, Cu > 4, 1 < Cc < 3.

Figure 14: Typical particle size distribution chart.

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Effective Size- D10
 The diameter D10 is called the effective size of the soil.
 The diameter through which 10 % of the soil mass is
passing.
 Established by Allen Hazen (1893) in connection with his
work on soil filters.
 Is the diameter of an artificial sphere that will approximately
produce the same effect of an irregular shaped particle.
 The higher the D10 value, the coarser the soil and the better
the drainage characteristics.

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Coefficient of Uniformity- Cu or UC
 Soil that has Cu<4 contains particles of uniform size
(approximately one size).
 Minimum value of UC is 1, and corresponds to an
assemblage of particles of the same size.
 Higher values of UC (>4) indicate a wider assortment of
particle sizes.
 Soil that has a UC >4 is described as a well-graded soil
and is indicated by a flat curve.

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Coefficient of Curvature- Cc
 Also known as coefficient of gradation and the coefficient of
concavity.
 The Cc is between 1 and 3 (1 < Cc < 3) for well-graded
soils.
 The absence of certain grain sizes, termed gap-graded, is
diagnosed by a Cc outside the range 1 to 3 and a sudden
change of slope in the particle size distribution curve.

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Coefficient of Uniformity - Cu :
Cu 𝐷 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 60% 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟

Where:

Coefficient of Gradation - Cc
2

Cc

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Hydrometer Analysis
 Conducted by taking a small
quantity of a dry fine-grained soil
(approximately 10 grams) and Hydrometer

thoroughly mixing it with distilled

water to form a paste.

Increasing density
 The paste is then placed in a 1 liter
glass cylinder and distilled water is Soil
suspension
added to bring the level to the 1
liter mark.
 The glass cylinder is then
repeatedly shaken and inverted
before being placed in a constant-
temperature bath.
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 A hydrometer is finally placed in the glass cylinder and a
clock is simultaneously started.
 Based on Stoke’s law:
Dispersed soil particles of various shapes and sizes fall
freely in water under their own weight as non-
interacting spheres.
Particles settle at different velocities, depending on
their shape, size, and weight, and the viscosity of the
water.
 Designed to give the amount of soil, in grams, that is still
in suspension.

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 Based on Stoke’s law:
𝜌 𝜌 distance 𝐿
𝜐 𝑥𝐷 𝜐
18𝜂 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡

Where:
𝜐 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜂 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐷 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝜌 𝐺𝜌 18𝜂 𝐿
Note that : 𝐷 𝑥
𝐺 1 𝜌 𝑡

63
If the unit of ƞ are (g.sec/cm2), ρw is in g/cm3, L in in cm, t is
in min, and D is in mm

𝐷 𝑚𝑚 18𝜂 𝑔. sec /𝑐𝑚 𝐿 𝑐𝑚

𝑥
10 𝐺 1 𝜌 𝑔/𝑐𝑚 𝑡 min 𝑥60

30𝜂 𝐿
𝐷 𝑥
𝐺 1 𝜌 𝑡

Assuming ρw to be approximately equal to 1 g/cm3, we have:

𝐿 𝑐𝑚 30𝜂
𝐷 𝑚𝑚 𝑘 Where: 𝑘
𝑡 min 𝐺 1

The value of k is function of Gs and ƞ which dependent on the

temperature of the test. 64
65
66
67
1.3 ATTERBERG LIMITS OF FINE-GRAINED
SOILS

Consistency of cohesive soils

 Water has significant effects on the clay minerals in a
fine-grained soil.
 In 1911, Atterberg (Sweden) introduced a method for
describing the limit consistency of fine-grained soils
based on the water content.
 Limit consistency- the limiting water content before a soil
transforms from one state to the other.
 Known as the Atterberg limits: liquid limit, plastic limit,
shrinkage limit.
68
 Liquid limit (LL)
• The water content, at which the soil changes from liquid
to plastic state.
• Tests: Fall cone test or Casagrande’s method.
 Plastic limit (PL)
• The water content, at which the soil changes from
plastic to semi-solid state.
• Test: Rolling of soil sample into threads.
 Shrinkage limit (SL)
• The water content, at which the soil changes from semi-
solid to solid state.
• Test: Drying of soil paste and filling with mercury. 69
 Drying

SL PL LL

Figure 15: Soil states as a function of volume and water content.

70
 The Atterberg limits (LL, PL and SL) are affected by the
amount and type of clay minerals, and the type of absorbed
cations.
 Plasticity index, PI = LL - PL
 Liquidity index, LI = (w - PL) / PI, where w is the natural
water content.
 For a soil in plastic state, PL < w < LL, and so 0 < LI < 1.

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 If w > LL, then LI > 1.
In undisturbed condition, the soil is stable. However slight
disturbance (sudden vibration) can change it to a liquid
state- sensitive clays.
 Skempton (1953) observed that PI is directly proportionate
to the percentage of clay-size fraction:
Activity, A = PI/C, where C = percent of clay-size
fraction by weight

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Typical Atterberg Limits for Soils

Soil Type WLL(%) WPL(%) Ip(%)

Sand Non plastic

Silt 30 – 40 20 – 25 10 – 15

Clay 40 – 150 25 – 50 15 - 100

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1.4 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

Why ‘classify’ the soils?

 The main purpose of soil classification systems is to
provide a uniform convention for naming different soil
types, such that there is less ambiguity and confusion
between practitioners on the usage of terminologies.
 Over the years, through their constant and consistent
use, the soil classification systems have provided the first
indication of the behavior of a particular soil.
 Soil classifications have evolved from using general
terms to empirical systems that are developed to serve a
specific need of a particular engineering work.
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Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
 Co-developed by the US Bureau of Reclamation (USBR)
and the Army Corp of Engineer in1952 following the
airfield classification system developed by Casagrande
(1932).
 This is the most widely used soil classification system in
geotechnical engineering.
 The system uses grain size as the first level of classifying
soils to divide coarse-grained and fine-grained soils.
 For fine-grained soils, the Atterberg limits and the
Casagrande plasticity chart are used to classify silts and
clays.

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 Essentially uses 2 letters to describe a soil- the first
indicates the main soil type, the second denotes the
qualifying subdivision .

Prefix Suffix
Coarse grained W = well graded
G = more than 50%* retained in #4 (4.75 P = poorly graded
mm) sieve M = containing silt
S = more than 50%* pass through #4 C = containing clay
(4.75 mm) sieve
Fine grained L = low plasticity
M = silts (LL < 50%)
C = clays H = high plasticity
O = organic (clay or silt) (LL > 50

PT = peat
76
Guide to the USCS.

77
Plasticity chart used in the USCS.

U-line

A-line

78
ASSHTO System
 The American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (ASSHTO) soil classification
system is specifically suited for classifying soils for
earthwork structures (subgrades, bases, sub-bases, and
embankments).
 The system has seven main soils groups (A1-A7).
 Similar to the USC system, data are tested by moving
from left to right, and by process of elimination, data are
tested into which category fit.

79
 In addition to the group and subgroup classifications, a
Group Index (GI) is calculated and incorporated in the
calculation to give an indication of the quality of a soil as
a highway subgrade material.
 GI is calculated using the particle size distribution and
the Atterberg limits according to the formula:

GI = (F200 -35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL-40)]+0.01(F200-15)(PI-10)

F200 = percentage passing though sieve #200

LL = liquid limit
PI = plasticity index

80
 However there are some rules for determining GI (Das,
1985):

1. If the equation gives a negative value, then GI is

taken to be zero.

2. GI is rounded off to the nearest whole number.

3. There is no upper limit to GI.

4. The GI of soils belonging to A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5

and A-3 is always zero.

5. The GI of soils belonging to A-2-6 and A-2-7 is

calculated as: GI = 0.01 (F200 -15)(PI -10)
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Description of Classification Groups in the ASSHTO system

Subgroup A-1a Includes those materials consisting predominantly of stone fragments or

gravel
Subgroup A-1b Includes those materials consisting predominantly of coarse sand, either with
or without a well-graded soil binder
Subgroup A-3 Fine beach sand or fine desert loess sand without silty or clay fines or with a
very small amount of nonplastic silt
Subgroup A-2-4 and Include various granular materials containing 35% or less passing the 0.075
A-2-5 mm sieve and with a minus 0.425 mm in having the characteristics of the A-4
and A-5 groups
Subgroup A-2-6 and Include material similar to that described under subgrades A-2-4 and A-2-5,
A-2-7 except that a fine portion contains plastic clay having the characteristics of the
A-6 or A-7 group
Subgroup A-4 The typical materials of this group are the nonplastic or moderately plastic silty
soils
Subgroup A-5 Similar to that described under group 2-4, except that it is usually of
diatomaceus or micaceous character
Subgroup A-6 Usually a plastic clay having 75% or more passing the 0.075 mm sieve
Subgroup A-7-5 Includes materials with moderate plasticity indexes in relation to liquid limit
Subgroup A-7-6 Includes materials with high plasticity indexes in relation to liquid limit
82
Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials

83
Similarities and Differences
between the USC and ASSHTO systems

Similarities
 Both systems are based on the texture and plasticity of
soils.
 Both systems divide the soils into coarse-grained and
fine grained, as separated by the No. 200 sieve.

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Differences
1. AASHTO system
The soil is considered fine-grained if > 35% passes
through the No. 200 sieve.

USC system
The soil is considered fine-grained if > 50% passes
through the No. 200 sieve.

A coarse-grained soil that has about 35% fine grains

will behave like a fine-grained material. This is because
enough fine grains exist to fill the voids between the
coarse grains and hold them apart. In this respect, the
AASHTO system appears to be more appropriate.
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 2. AASHTO system
The No. 10 sieve separates gravel from sand.

USC system
The No. 4 sieve separates gravel from sand.

From the viewpoint of soil-separate size limits, the No.

10 sieve is the more accepted upper limit for sand. The
limit is used in concrete and highway base-course
technology.

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3. AASHTO system
The gravelly and sandy soils are NOT clearly
separated.

USC system
The gravelly and sandy soils are clearly separated.

The A-2 group, in particular, contains a large variety of

soils.
Symbols like GW, SM, CH, and others that are used in
the Unified systems are more descriptive of the soil
properties than the A symbols used in the AASHTO
system.
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Example

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