Chapter 2: Literature Review

In this project, our group carried out a study to determine the level of distress road in
the UTHM main campus which is Persiaran Tun Ghafar Baba. Along 1km which is about
five number of sample unit that has been inspected, there has several road defects such as
potholes, edge cracking, alligator cracking and patching.

For example, potholes are often located in areas of poor drainage. Potholes are
formed when the pavement disintegrates under traffic loading, due to inadequate strength in
on or more layers of the pavement, usually accompanied by the presence of water [1].
Furthermore, edge and alligator crack in flexible pavement sections may be load induced
fatigue, reflective (from cracks in the base), shrinkage or caused by a deficient mix design
[2]. Usually the defect starts from longitudinal crack and slowly transform to alligator crack.
Moreover, all flexible pavements require patching at some time during their service life [3].
Surface patching should be performed to a standard commensurate with resource availability
and the objective of retaining a smooth ride as long as possible. A patch is defined as a
portion of the pavement that has been removed and replaced. Patches are usually used to
repair defects in a pavement or to cover a utility trench. Patch failure can lead to a more
widespread failure of the surrounding pavement. Those are the causes why the road that has
been inspected are not in a good condition.

Hence, our group determine the Pavement Condition Index (PCI) on the road, whether
it is in a good rating or not. Numerical rating of the pavement condition that ranges from 0 to
100, with 0 being the worst possible condition and 100 being the best possible condition. A
country that is modern, depending on the rapid development. With the development, the need
for road infrastructure as the road is a link between one place to another place. When the
situation deteriorated pavement at a certain point, it must be repaired in order to maintain
service levels. The type of maintenance required depends on the levels of distress and
damage caused by road pavement. To overcome these problems, various efforts undertaken
such studies on bituminous materials with the aim of ensuring the quality of construction of
roads is guaranteed and can reduce maintenance costs.

Maintenance of roads is undertaken to ensure the safety of traffic and to sustain the
serviceability and appearance of the road. Road maintenance involves remedying defects
such as potholes that occur in the carriageway from time to time (corrective maintenance) and
providing treatments such as crack sealing which will slow the rate of deterioration
(preventative maintenance). Typical maintenance activities include crack filling and sealing,
minor reshaping, minor sealing, minor stabilising, pothole patching and surface correction.
After we propose suitable actions for maintenance activities the next step is estimation of
construction cost.
Chapter 3: Methodology

3.1 Materials and Equipment

1. Traffic cone
2. Safety vest
3. Hand wheel odometer
4. Ruler
5. Measuring tape
6. Survey sheet
7. Red Flag

3.2 Method Measurement

1. Select a suitable road that have defect in main campus UTHM which is 1km along
Persiaran Tun Ghafar Baba where the starting point is from Fakulti Kejuruteraan
Awam & Alam Sekitar (FKAAS) to Dewan Sultan Ismail (DSI).
2. Wave the red flag and put traffic cone along the road that has been inspected to
minimize the traffic for safety precautions
3. Measure 1km along the road by using hand wheel odometer and marking every 100
meters
4. Next, use hand wheel odometer, ruler or measuring tape to measure the depth,
diameter, width, length and area to determine the quantity of distress severity.
5. Then, record the data based on the defect according to the level of degree whether it is
low, medium and high.
6. Lastly, calculate the Pavement Condition Index (PCI) to obtain the Level of Service
(LOS) and choose which type of maintenance are suitable.
3.3 Method of Classification of Failure

Road pavement damage is:

1. Potholes
Potholes are small usually less than 750mm in diameter which has bowl shaped
depressions in the pavement surface. Generally, have sharp edges and vertical sides
near the top of the hole. Potholes are measured by counting the number that are low,
medium and high severity and recording them separately.

2. Edge cracking
Edge crack are parallel to and usually within 0.3m to 0.5m of the outer edge of
pavement. This distress is accelerated by traffic loading and can be caused by frost-
weakened base or subgrade near the edge of pavement. The area between the crack
and pavement edge is classified as ravelled if it is broken up. Low or medium
cracking with no breakup or ravelling, medium cracks with some breakup and
ravelling while high cracks considerable breakup or ravelling along the edge. It is
measure in linear meters.

3. Alligator cracking
Alligator cracking is a series of interconnecting cracks caused by fatigue failure of the
asphalt concrete surface under repeated traffic loading. The pieces are generally less
than 0.5m on the longest side. The classification for alligator crack are low cracking
where fine, longitudinal hairline cracks running parallel to each other with no, or only
few interconnecting cracks. Medium cracks are further development of light alligator
crack into a pattern or network of cracks that may be lightly spalled. High cracks
where network or pattern cracking has progressed so that the pieces are well defined
and spalled the edges. Furthermore, alligator cracking is measured in square meters of
surface area which is length x width
 4. Patching
A patch is an area of pavement that has been replaced with new material to repair the
existing pavement. It still considered as a defect no matter how well it is performing.
It has low level which patch is in good condition and satisfactory. Ride quality is rated
as low severity or better. Medium level where the patch is moderately deteriorated, or
ride quality is rated as medium severity or both. High level can be classified where
patch is badly deteriorated, or ride quality is rated as high severity, or both and it
needs replacement soon. Patching is measured in surface area which is square meters.

3.4 Method of Pavement Calculation Index (PCI)

1. Add up the total quantity of each distress type at each severity level, and record them
in the “Total Severities” section. For example, Fig. 4 shows five entries for the
Distress Type 1, “Alligator Cracking”: 5L, 4L, 4L, 8H, and 6H. The distress at each
severity level is summed and entered in the “Total Severity” section as 13 ft 2 (1.2 m2)
of low severity and 14 ft 2 (1.3 m2) of medium severity. The units for the quantities
may be either in square feet (square meters), linear feet (meters), or number of
occurrences, depending on the distress type.
2. Divide the total quantity of each distress type at each severity level from1 by the total
area of the sample unit and multiply by 100 to obtain the percent density of each
distress type and severity.
3. Determine the deduct value (DV) for each distress type and severity level
combination from the distress deduct value curves in Appendix X3.
4. Determine the maximum corrected deduct value (CDV).

The procedure for determining maximum CDV from individual DVs is identical for both AC
and PCC pavement types.

5. The following procedure must be used to determine the maximum CDV.

i. 9.5.1 If none or only one individual deduct value is greater than two, the total
value is used in place of the maximum CDV in determining the PCI; otherwise,
maximum CDV must be determined using the procedure described at below.
 ii. List the individual deduct values in descending order. For example, in Fig. 4 this
will be 25.1, 23.4, 17.9, 11.2, 7.9, 7.5, 6.9, and 5.3.
iii. Determine the allowable number of deducts, m, from Fig. 5, or using the
following formula (see Eq 4):

m=1+ ( 989 ) ( 100−HDV ) ≤10 → eq . 4

Fig.4 example of a Flexible Pavement Survey Data Sheet

 Fig.5 Adjustment of Number of Deduct Values

Where:

m = allowable number of deducts including fractions (must be less than or equal to ten), and
HDV = highest individual deduct value. (For the example in Fig. 4, m= 1 + (9/98)(100-25.1)
= 7.9).

iv. The number of individual deduct values is reduced to the m largest deduct values,
including the fractional part. For the example in Fig. 6, the values are 25.1, 23.4,
17.9, 11.2, 7.9, 7.5, 6.9, and 4.8 (the 4.8 is obtained by multiplying 5.3 by (7.9– 7 =
0.9)). If less than m deduct values are available, all of the deduct values are used.
v. Determine maximum CDV iteratively, as shown in Fig. 6.
a. Determine total deduct value by summing individual deduct values. The total
deduct value is obtained by adding the individual deduct values in 9.5.4, that
is, 104.7.
b. Determine q as the number of deducts with a value greater than 2.0. For
example, in Fig. 6, q=8.
c. Determine the CDV from total deduct value and q by looking up the
appropriate correction curve for AC pavements in Fig. X4.15 in Appendix X3.
d. Reduce the smallest individual deduct value greater than 2.0 to 2.0 and repeat
a to c until q=1
e. Maximum CDV is the largest of the CDVs.
6. Calculate PCI by subtracting the maximum CDV from 100: PCI = 100-max CDV.
7. Fig. 6shows a summary of PCI calculation for the example AC pavement data in Fig.
4. A blank PCI calculation form is included in Fig. 2.
FIG B-20 Alligator Cracking FIG. B-27 Edge Cracking

FIG B-37 Potholes FIG B-35 Patching and Utility Cut Patching

Fig 6 Calculation of Corrected PCI Value—Flexible Pavement

FIG. 2 Flexible Pavement Condition Survey Data Sheet for Sample Unit
Chapter 4: Calculation
JALAN PARIT SEMPADAN LAUT (ASPHALT SURFACED ROAD)
CONDITION SURVEY DATA SHEET
BRANCH: TRAFFIC LABORATORY UTHM DATE:
SURVEYED BY: SAMPLE UNIT: (KM 0.462 – 0.562)
SECTION: SAMPLE AREA: 100m x 3.5m = 350 m2
2 2
01. Alligator Cracking (m ) 06. Depression (m ) 11. Patching & 16. Shoving (m2)
Utility Cut
Patching (m2)

02. Bleeding (m2) 07. Edge Cracking (m) 12. Polished 17. Slippage Cracking
Aggregate (m2) (m2)

03. Block Cracking (m2) 08. Joint Reflection 13. Potholes 18. Swell (m2)
Cracking (m) (no.)

04. Bumps and Sags (m) 09. Lane/Shoulder 14. Railroad 19. Weathering/
Drop Off (m) Crossing(m2) Ravelling (m2)

05. Corrugation (m2) 10. Longitudinal & 15. Rutting

Transvers Cracking (m2)
(m)
DISTRES DENSITY DEDUCT
S QUANTITY TOTAL % VALUE
SURVEY
07 H 1.0 1.0 0.02 8

07 L 9.9 9.9 0.17 2

13 M 1 1 2 0.03 7

07 M 6.6 6.6 0.11 4

5.6x1. 2.8x0. 2.2x1. 4.6x1.
01 L 18.16 0.30 6
3 9 5 1
1.8x1.
11 L 6x5 32.88 0.55 2
6

SKETCH:
Maximum allowable number of deducts, m
Highest deduct value, HDV = 8

m = 1 + (9/98)(100 – HDV)
= 1 + (9/98)(100 – 8)
= 9.4
Deduct values in descending order: 8, 7, 6, 4, 2, 2

Number of deduct values = 6

Maximum corrected deduct value, CDV

Number of deduct values greater than 2, q = 6

Total deduct value = 8 + 7 + 6 + 4 + 2 + 2 = 29
From Figure X4.20(ASTM D6400 – 07), CDV = 12

Reduce the smallest individual deduct value to 2 (q is now 4) and determine the CDV.

Repeat until q reaches 1.

No
Deduct Values Total q CDV
.
1 8 7 6 4 2 2 29 4 12
2 8 7 6 2 2 2 27 3 14
3 8 7 2 2 2 2 23 2 16
4 8 2 2 2 2 2 18 1 17

Maximum CDV = 17

Determine the Pavement Condition Index

PCI = 100 – CDVmax

= 100 – 17
= 83
Based on the rating for PCI value of 83 (FIG. 1 Pavement Condition Index (PCI), Rating
Scale, and Suggested Colours), this road having Level of Service (LOS) B of pavement is
need to do the preventive maintenance.
Reference

[1] Adlinge, S. S., & Gupta, A. K. (2013). Pavement deterioration and its causes.
International Journal of Innovative Research and Development, 2(4), 437-450.

[2] Woods, W. R., & Adcox, J. W. (2002). A general characterization of pavement system
failures, with emphasis on a method for selecting a repair process. AMERICAN
PROFESSIONAL CONSTRUCTOR, 26(2), 36-38.

[3] https://www.wsdot.wa.gov/publications/manuals/fulltext/M51-01/Chapter3.pdf