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Department of Civil Engineering

III B.Tech I Semester
Geo Technical Engineering I
Unit - 2
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Unit - 2
Index Properties of Soil: Grain size analysis – sieve and hydrometer methods –
consistency limits and indices – various types of soils classifications – unified soil
classification and I.S. soil classification.
Day 11
Today’s topic: Introduction to Index properties of Soil
Q1. What is meant by Index properties of soil?
Ans: In nature, Soil occurs in a large variety. So, soils which are exhibiting
approximately similar behaviour can be put together to form a particular group.
The soil can be put together into major or minor groups based on certain
properties of soil. The tests carried out in order to classify a soil are termed as
Classification Tests. The numerical results obtained on the basis of such tests
are termed as Index Properties of Soil.
The index properties of soil can be classified in two categories:
1) Soil grain properties 2) Soil aggregate properties
Soil grain properties are those which are dependent on the individual grains of
the soil and are independent of the manner of the soil formation. These include
mineralogical composition, specific gravity, size and shape of grains.
Soil aggregate properties are those properties which are dependent on the soil
mass as a whole and thus represent the collective behaviour of a soil. Soil
aggregate properties are influenced by soil stress history, mode of formation
and soil structure.
Q2. Explain in brief about different shapes of soil grains that are available in
nature.
Ans: The shape of a soil grain is a useful property in case of coarse grained soils
where it is important in influencing the engineering behaviour of these soils. The
shape of the grains in a coarse grained soil can be examined with naked eyes,
where as fine grained soil require microscopic examination.
Bulky grains are soil grains where all the dimensions of a grain are more or less
the same. These are the characteristics of sand and gravel soils. These soils are
formed by mechanical breakdown of parent rocks.
Angular shape: After the mechanical breakdown of parent rock, the resulting
particles will have sharp and well distinguished edges generally referred as
Angular Shape.
Rounded shape: During the transportation of soils by wind or water, the sharp
edges of grains may get worn out and the particle becomes rounded.
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During the process of transformation from angular particles to rounded
particles, sub angular and sub rounded shapes of particles are also observed.
Alluvial soils are mostly sub-angular or sub-rounded. Soils containing particles
with high angularity tend to resist displacements and hence possess high
shearing strength compared to those with less angular particles.
Plate shaped grains (or flaky) are the ones in which one dimension of grains,
namely its thickness is much smaller than other two lateral dimensions. The
behaviour of such grains is different from other type of grains.
Needle shaped grains are the grains in which one dimension of the grains is fully
developed than other two. As these grains resemble needles these are termed
as needle shaped grains.

a) Angular b) Semi Angular c) Flaky d) Granular

Fig 2-1: Different shapes of soil particles
Q3. Explain about classification system and how it’s done in the case soils.
Ans: It is necessary to adopt a formal system of soil description and classification
in order to describe the various materials found in ground investigation. Such a
system must be meaningful and concise in an engineering context, so that
engineers will be able to understand and interpret. Classification of soil is the
separation of soil into classes or groups, each having similar characteristics and
potentially similar behavior.
A classification for engineering purposes should be based mainly on mechanical
properties: permeability, stiffness, strength. The class to which a soil belongs can
be used in its description.
The aim of a classification system is to establish a set of conditions which will
allow useful comparisons to be made between different soils. The system must
be simple. The relevant criteria for classifying soils are the size distribution of
particles and the plasticity of the soil. For measuring the distribution of particle
sizes in a soil sample, it is necessary to conduct different particle size tests.
Wet sieving is carried out for separating fine grains from coarse grains by
washing the soil specimen on a 75 micron sieve mesh.
Dry sieve analysis is carried out on particles coarser than 75 micron. Samples
(with fines removed) are dried and shaken through a set of sieves of descending
size (2mm, 1mm, 600μ, 425μ, 300μ, 150μ, 75μ). By determining the mass of soil
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sample left on each sieve, the following calculations can be made. The
cumulative percentage quantities, finer than the sieve sizes, (passing each given
sieve size) are then determined.
mass of soil retained
1. Percentage retained on any sieve= total soil mass × 100
2. Cumulative percentage retained on any sieve
= Sum of percentages retained on all coarser sieves
3. Percentage finer than any sieve size, P
= 100 percent minus cumulative percentage retained.
The resulting data is presented as a grain size distribution curve, with grain size
along x-axis (log scale) and percentage passing along y-axis (arithmetic scale).
Sedimentation/Wet sieve analysis is used only for the soil fraction, finer than 75
microns. Soil particles are allowed to settle from a suspension. The decreasing
density of the suspension is measured at various time intervals. The procedure is
based on the principle that in a suspension, the terminal velocity of a spherical
particle is governed by the diameter of the particle and the properties of the
suspension.
In this method, the soil is placed as a suspension in a jar filled with distilled
water to which a deflocculating agent is added. The soil particles are then
allowed to settle down. The concentration of particles, remaining in the
suspension, at a particular level can be determined by using a hydrometer as
shown in Figure 2-2.

Fig: 2-2 Hydrometer analysis

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Specific gravity readings of the solution at that same level at different time
intervals provide information about the size of particles that have settled down
and the mass of soil remaining in solution.
The results are then plotted between % finer (passing) and log size.

Homework:
1) Explain about dry sieve and wet sieve analysis briefly.
2) Explain in brief about index properties of soil
Important and previous JNTUK Questions:
1) Differentiate between dry sieve analysis and wet sieve analysis. Why wet
sieve analysis is required? (Jan 2014)
Day 12
Today’s topic: STOKES LAW, Use of hydrometer for calculation of percentage
fines.
Q4. Explain in detail about stokes law along with its limitations.
Ans: Principle of sedimentation analysis is stokes law.
Stokes law: In an infinite fluid medium, if a single spherical particle is allowed to
settle, its velocity initially increases due to gravitational force. But later on
decreases when the drag force comes into action. And after suitable adjustable
time period, settling velocity remains constant and it is called terminal velocity.
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The terminal velocity is obtained by using the equation of
Equilibrium as
Upward forces = downward forces.
FD + U = W,
1 ( D2
V= G−1 )
18 v
Where FD = drag force
U = upward thrust.
W = weight of the particle.
G = specific gravity of particle.
D =diameter of the particle.
𝓥 = kinematic viscosity of the fluid.
Limitations of sedimentation analysis:
 Stoke’s law is applicable to spherical grain but the soil particles are not
spherical in reality.
 The soil suspension is confined by the walls of glass jar but Stoke’s law
stated for infinite fluid medium.
 The results of sedimentation analysis are affected by the interference of
surrounding particles in soil suspension.
 Stoke’s law is applicable for the particles of diameter in the range (0.2 μ –
0.2 mm).
If d > 0.2 mm - causes turbulent motion.
If d < 0.2 μ - causes Brownian motion.
Q5. Explain in detail about Determination of Percent Finer using hydrometer.
Ans: The hydrometer going to be used is calibrated to read from 0 to 60 g of soil
in a 1000mL suspension with the limitation that the soil has a specific gravity G =
2.65. The reading is, of course, directly related to the specific gravity of the
suspension.
The hydrometer gives readings pertaining to the specific gravity of the soil-water
suspension at the centre of the bulb. Any soil particles larger than those still in
suspension in the zone shown as L (Fig 2.2) have fallen below the centre of
volume, and this constantly decreases the specific gravity of the suspension at
the centre of volume of the hydrometer.
Lesser the specific gravity of the suspension, the deeper in the hydrometer will
sink into the suspension. It must also be remembered here, that the specific
gravity of water decreases as the temperature rises from 4° C. This will also
cause the hydrometer to sink deeper into the suspension.
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The readings of the hydrometer are affected by the rise in temperature during
the test. The temperature correction is a constant. The use of a dispersing agent
also affects the hydrometer reading.
Corrections for these readings can be obtained by using a sedimentation
cylinder of water, from the same source, and with the same quantity of
dispersing agent as that used in the soil-water suspension to obtain a zero
correction.
This jar of water should be at the same temperature as that of the soil water
suspension. A reading of less than zero in the standard jar of water is recorded
as a (-) correction value; a reading between 0 and 60 is recorded as a (+) value.
All the readings are taken to the top of the meniscus in both the standard jar
(clear water) and soil suspension. If the temperature during the test is quite
high, the density of water will be equally less and the readings on the
hydrometer will sink too deep. One can use a temperature correction for the
soil-water suspension. Table 2.1 gives the values of temperature correlation C T
The zero correction Co can be (±) and the temperature correction also has (±)
sign.
Table 2.1 Values of Temperature Correlation CT

The actual hydrometer reading Ra has to be corrected as follows

1) Correction for meniscus Cm only for determination of ‘D’
2) Zero correction Co and temperature correction Cr are for obtaining
percent finer.
Where
30 μ L L
D=
√ √ √
G −1
( s ) w
30 μ
y t
=K
t
−−−−(2.1)

K=
√ ( G s −1 )
Reading for use:
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R = Ra + Cm ………………………. (2.1 a)
Reading for obtaining percent finer
Rc =Ra-Co + CT ..................... (2.1 b)
Percent Finer: The Hydrometer is calibrated for a suspension with a specific
gravity of solids Gs = 2.65. If the specific gravity of solids used in the suspension
is different from 2.65, the percent finer has to be corrected by the factor Csg
expressed as:
1.65G s
C sg =
2.65 ( G s−1 )
Now the percent finer, with the correction factor Cs , may be expressed as
Percent finer, P’
C sg Rc
P' = ×100
Ms
Where Rc = grams of soil in suspension at some elapsed time “t” seconds
(corrected hydrometer reading)
Ms = mass of soil used in the suspension in grams (not more than 60 gm for
hydrometer)
Above equation gives the percentage of particles finer than a particle diameter
D in the mass of soil Ms, used in the suspension. If M is the mass of soil particles
passing through 75 micron sieve (greater than M) and M the total mass taken
for the combined sieve and hydrometer analysis, the percent finer for the entire
sample may be expressed as Percent finer (combined) P
Mp
P=P’ (%) M
Percentage finer versus particle diameter, gives points for plotting a grain size
distribution curve.
Problem: A sedimentation analysis by the hydrometer method (152 H) was
conducted with 50 g (= Ms) of oven dried soil. The volume of soil suspension is V
= 103 cm3. The hydrometer reading Ra = 19.50 after a lapse of 60 minutes after
the commencement of the test. Given: Cm (meniscus) = 0.52, L (effective) = 14.0
cm, Co (zero correction) = +2.50, Gs = 2.70 and µ = 0.01 poise. Calculate the
smallest particle size, which would have settled to a depth of 14.0 cm and the
percentage finer than this size. Temperature of test = 25° C.
Solution: From Eq. (2.1)
30 μ L
√
D ( mm )=
√( Gs −1 )
×
t
-3
Where µ = 0.01 x 10 (gm-sec)/cm . 2

Substituting
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−3
30 ×0.01 ×10 14
D=
√ √
( 2.7−1 )
From Eq. (2.1 b)
×
60
=0.0064 mm

Rc =R a−C o +Ct
From Table 2.1 for T= 25 °C, CT= +1.3. Therefore,
From Eqs (2.1 a) and (2.1 b), we have

Homework:
1) What is the principle of sedimentation analysis? Give the expression for
terminal velocity.
2) Describe the hydrometer method of particle size analysis of soils.
Important and previous JNTUK Questions:
1) What are the different hydrometer corrections? Explain. (Nov-2015 , set-2)
2) State Stokes law. What is its use in the sedimentation method of analysis?
What are its limitations?(April/May 2012, set-4)
3) Describe the hydrometer method of particle size analysis of soils.
(April/May 2010, set-1)
4) Discuss about the hydrometer analysis test. What are the corrections to be
applied to the hydrometer readings? Why? (April/May 2011, set-2)
5) Describe briefly the hydrometer analysis test. What are the corrections to
be made to the hydrometer reading and what is the nature of the
corrections? (April/May 2013, set-2)
Day 13
Today’s topic: Grain Size Distribution of Soils
Q6. Write about Grain-Size Distribution of soils
Ans: The grain-size distribution of coarse-grained soils (gravelly and/or sandy) is
determined by sieve analysis. The cumulative percent by weight of a soil passing
a given sieve is referred to as the percent finer. The size distribution curves, as
obtained from coarse and fine grained portions, can be combined to form one
complete grain-size distribution curve (also known as grading curve). A typical
grading curve is shown in Graph 2-1.

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Graph 2-1 Grading Curve

From the complete grain-size distribution curve, useful information can be
obtained such as:
a. Grading characteristics, which indicate the uniformity and range in grain-size
distribution.
b. Percentages (or fractions) of gravel, sand, silt and clay-size.
Grading Characteristics: A grading curve is a useful aid to soil description (Graph
2-2). The geometric properties of a grading curve are called Grading
Characteristics.

Graph 2-2 Grading Characteristics

To obtain the grading characteristics, three points are located first on the
grading curve.
D60 = size at 60% finer by weight
D30 = size at 30% finer by weight
D10 = size at 10% finer by weight
The grading characteristics are then determined as follows:
1. Effective size = D10
2. Uniformity coefficient,
D60
C u=
D10
3. Curvature coefficient,
2
( D30 )
C c=
D60 D10
 Both Cu and Cc will be 1 for a single-sized soil.

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 Cu > 5 indicates a well-graded soil, i.e. a soil which has a distribution
of particles over a wide size range.
 Cc between 1 and 3 also indicate a well-graded soil.
 Cu < 3 indicates a uniform soil, i.e. a soil which has a very narrow
particle size range.
A soil is called a well-graded soil if the distribution of the grain sizes extends
over a rather large range. In that case, the value of the uniformity coefficient
is large. If Cu is close to 1—the soil is called poorly graded. A soil might have a
combination of two or more well-graded soil fractions, and this type of soil is
referred to as a gap-graded soil as shown in Graph 2-3.

Graph 2-3 showing various grading curves for different graded soils
Homework:
1) Explain gradation curve neatly with sketch.
2) What are the characteristics of particle size distribution curve?
Important and previous JNTUK Questions:
1) Write the formulae to determine the coefficient of uniformity and
coefficient of curvature. (Nov 2016)
2) Define a Gap Graded Aggregate.(Nov 2016)
3) Explain CU, CC. (Nov-2015)
Day 14
Today’s topic: Atterberg Limits, Laboratory determination of Atterberg limits
Q7. Explain in brief about Consistency of clays.
Ans: Consistency is a term which is used to describe the degree of firmness of a
soil in a qualitative manner using descriptions such as Soft, Medium, Firm, Stiff
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or Hard. It indicates the relative ease with which a soil can be deformed. In
practice, the property of consistency is associated only with fine grained soils,
especially clays. The following four states of consistency are used to describe the
consistency of clay soils as shown in Fig:2-2.
a) Liquid state
b) Plastic state
c) Semi-Solid State
d) Solid state
The boundary water content at
which the soil undergoes a change
from one state to another are called
Consistency Limits. In 1911, a
Swedish scientist, Atterberg, first
demonstrated the importance of
these limits. So they are also known
as Atterberg limits. Fig: 2-3 consistency stages of soil
Q8. Explain in brief about Atterberg limits of soil.
Ans: When a clayey soil is mixed with an excessive amount of water, it may flow
like a semi liquid. If the soil is gradually dried, it will behave like a plastic,
semisolid, or solid material, depending on its moisture content. The moisture
content, in percent, at which the soil changes from a liquid to a plastic state, is
defined as the liquid limit (LL). Similarly, the moisture content, in percent, at
which the soil changes from a plastic to a semisolid state and from, a semisolid
to a solid state are defined as the plastic limit (PL) and the shrinkage limit (SL),
respectively. These limits are referred to as Atterberg limits (Figure 2-3):
 The liquid limit of a soil is determined by Casagrande’s liquid limit device and
is defined as the moisture content at which a groove closure of 12.7 mm
occurs at 25 blows, when groove is made using a standard grooving tool.
 The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content at which the soil crumbles
when rolled into a thread of 3.18 mm in diameter.
 The shrinkage limit is defined as the moisture content at which the soil does
not under go any further change in volume with loss of moisture.
The Atterberg limits of cohesive soil depend on several factors, such as
amount and type of clay minerals and type of adsorbed Cation.

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Fig:2-4 Understanding of Atterberg limits

Q9. Explain in detail about determination of liquid limit in laboratory.
Ans: Liquid limit of a soil is
generally determined by the
Standard Casagrande device. A
schematic diagram (side view) of a
liquid limit device is shown in
Figure 2-5. This device consists of
a brass cup and a hard rubber
base. The brass cup can be
dropped onto the base by a cam
operated by a crank. To perform
the liquid limit test, one must
place a soil paste in the cup. A
groove is then cut at the center of
the soil pat with the standard
grooving tool (Figure 2-5 b). By
using the crank-operated cam, the Fig: 2-5 Schematic diagram of a) liquid
cup is lifted and dropped from a limit device, b) grooving tool, c) soil
pat
height of 10 mm. The moisture content, in percent, at the beginning
requiredof to
the close
test anda d)
distance
soil pat at the end of the test.
of 12.7mm along the bottom of the groove (see Figures 2-5 c and d) after 25
blows is defined as the liquid limit.
It is difficult to adjust the moisture content in the soil to meet the required 12.7-
mm closure of the groove in the soil pat in 25 blows. Hence, at least three tests
for the same soil are conducted at varying moisture contents, with the number
of blows, N, required to achieve closure varying between 15 and 35. The
moisture content of the soil, in percent, and the corresponding number of blows
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are plotted on semi logarithmic graph paper (Graph 2-5). The relationship
between moisture content and log N is approximated as a straight line.
This line is referred to as the flow
curve. The moisture content,
corresponding to N = 25, determined
from the flow curve, gives the liquid
limit of the soil. The slope of flow
curve is called flow index denoted by
If. The equation of flow curve is given
by
W 1−W 2=L F log 10 ( N 2 /N 1 )
Graph: 2-5 Determination of
Where, N1 & N2 are the number of liquid limit
blows
W1& W2 corresponding to moisture contents
Q10. Explain how to determine Plastic Limit in laboratory.
Ans: About 15 g of soil, passing through 425 microns sieve, is
mixed thoroughly. The soil is rolled on a glass plate with the
hand, until it is about 3 mm in diameter. This
procedure of mixing and rolling is repeated till
the soil shows signs of crumbling. The water
content of the crumbled portion of the thread is
determined. This is called the plastic limit of soil.
Fig:2-6 Plastic limit determination
Homework:
1) Explain about atterberg limits
2) Explain in detail determination of liquid limit, plastic limits of a soil sample
in laboratory
Important and previous JNTUK Questions
1) Explain any one method for determination of liquid limit of a soil. (Jan
2014)
2) What are the uses of consistency limits? What are their limitations? (Jan
2014)
3) What are the different Atterberg limts? Explain them. (Nov-2015)
4) Define Consistency Limits? Why they are required to find in geotechnical
Engineering? What are they? (April/May 2013, set-4)
5) Define three consistency limits.(Nov-2015)

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6) What is a flow curve? Explain with a neat sketch (Nov-2015)
Day 15
Today’s topic: Shrinkage limit determination and consistency indices
Q11. Explain how to determine Shrinkage Limit in laboratory.
Ans: Shrinkage Limit is defined as the maximum water content at which there is
no reduction in volume of soil mass, accompanying reduction in water content.
A saturated sample of soil is placed in a container of known volume V 1. The
weight of the soil is determined in stage (a) of the experiment. The soil is initially
dried in the air and then in an oven to ensure that no cracks are formed. Further
drying of the soil at some water content (b) will not result in the reduction of the
volume of the soil. At stage (c) of the drying process the soil is completely dry
but the volume in the stage is the same as at stage (b). The weight of the soil is
measured at stage (c) and its volume is measured by immersing the dry soil in
mercury.

Fig: 2-6 Determination of shrinkage limit by mercury volume displacement

method.

Fig: 2-7 Phase Representation of Soils for Shrinkage limit determination.

Mass of Water ∈(b)
Shrinkage Limit =
Mass of Solid Solids
The saturated soil sample of volume V1 and mass M1 , on reducing water
content, attains volume V2 and Mass M2. If it is assumed that any further
reduction in water does not cause a decrease in the total volume of the sample,
the water content is the shrinkage limit.
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Mass of water in (a) = (M1- Md)
Loss in water from (a) to (b) = (V1-V2) γw

Q12. Explain about different types of Consistency Indices of soil.

Consistency Index(Ic):
The nearness of soil water to its plastic limit is indicated by consistency index.
W L −W
IC = Ip x 100
Where, WL = liquid limit.
W = natural water content.
IP = plasticity index.
It is also called as “Relative Consistency”. The relative firmness or softness of
soil is expressed by this index.
Plasticity Index (lp):
Plasticity index indicates the degree of plasticity of a soil.
Plasticity Index = LL-PL
The greater the difference between liquid and plastic limits, the greater is the
plasticity of the soil. Cohesion-less soil has zero Plasticity Index. Those soils are
termed non-plastic. Fat clays are highly plastic and possess a high plasticity
index. Soils possessing large values of w, and / are said to be highly plastic or fat.
Those with low values are described as slightly plastic or lean. Atterberg
classifies the soils according to their plasticity indices as in Table 2.2.
Plasticity index Plasticity
0 Non-plastic
<7 Low plastic
7-17 Medium plastic
> 17 Highly plastic
Table 2.2 classification of the soils according to their plasticity
Liquidity Index (Il ): The Atterberg limits are found for remolded soil samples.
These limits as such do not indicate the consistency of undisturbed soils. The
index that is used to indicate the consistency of undisturbed soils is called the
liquidity index. The liquidity index is expressed as
w n−w p
I t=
lp
Where, wn is the natural moisture content of the soil in the undisturbed state.
The liquidity index of undisturbed soil can vary from less than zero to greater
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than 1. The value of Il varies according to the consistency of the soil as in Table
2.3.

Table 2.3 consistency of the soil on variation with liquidity index

The liquidity index indicates the state of the soil in the field. If the natural
moisture content of the soil is closer to the liquid limit, the soil can be
considered as soft, and the soil is stiff if the natural moisture content is closer to
the plastic limit. There are some soils whose natural moisture contents are
higher than the liquid limits. Such soils possess a brittle structure
Flow Index (If): The slope of the flow curve drawn between the number of blows
as abscissa and the water content as ordinate is called as flow index.
W 1−W 2
If = N
log ⁡( 2 )
N1
Where N1 and N2 are the number of blows corresponding to water contents W1
and W2.
Toughness Index (It): the ratio of plasticity index (Ip ) to the flow index is called as
toughness index denoted by It.
IP
It = If
Where IP = plasticity index,
I f = flow index.
Homework:
1) Explain in detail determination of shrinkage limit in laboratory for a given
soil sample
2) Write short notes on soil consistency indices
3) Define the following
a) plasticity index b) liquidity index c)flow index d) toughness index
Important and previous JNTUK Questions
1) A clay sample has a void ratio of 0.5 in dry condition. The grain specific
gravity has been determined as 2.72. What will be the shrinkage limit of
this clay? (Jan 2014)

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2) Write short notes on following (i) toughness index and (ii) plasticity index
(April/May 2013, set-1)
3) What are the different soil indices used in identification of soil? Describe
each one. Give their uses. (May 2016)
4) Define the terms (i) flow index, (ii) toughness index, (iii) plasticity index and
(iv) Liquidity index. (Jan 2014)
5) The natural moisture content of an excavated soil is 32%. Its liquid limit is
60% and plastic limit is 27%. Determine the plasticity index of the soil and
comment about the nature of the soil. (Nov-2015)
Day 16
Today’s topic: Soil parameters-volumetric shrinkage, shrinkage ratio, activity in
soils, Thixotropy of soils
Q13. Explain in detail about the following: a) Volumetric Shrinkage b)
Shrinkage Ratio c) Activity d) Thixotropy
Volumetric Shrinkage: It is defined as the ratio of change in volume to the dry
volume expressed as the percentage when the water content reduces to
shrinkage limit.
V 1−V d
Volumetric shrinkage = Vd x 100.
Shrinkage Ratio: The ratio of the volume change expressed as the percentage of
dry volume, to change in water content.
V 1−V 2 100
Shrinkage ratio = Vd
x (W ¿ ¿ 1−W 2) ¿ .
Activity: Skempton (1953) considers that the significant change in the volume of
a clay soil during shrinking or swelling is a function of plasticity index and the
quantity of colloidal clay particles present in soil. The clay soil can be classified
inactive, normal or active (after Skempton, 1953). The activity of clay is
expressed as
Plasticity index , I p
Activity A=
Percent finer than 2 micron
Table 2.4 gives the type of soil according to the value of A. The clay soil which
has an activity value greater than 1.4 can be considered as belonging to the
swelling type.
Table 2.4 soil types on basis of Activity of soil

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Thixotropy: If a remolded clay sample with sensitivity greater than one is
allowed to stand without further disturbance and change in water content, it
may regain at least part of its original strength and stiffness. This increase in
strength is due to the gradual reorientation of the absorbed molecules of water,
and is known as Thixotropy (from the Greek thix, meaning 'touch' and tropein,
meaning 'to change'). The regaining of a part of the strength after remolding,
has important applications in connection with pile-driving operations, and other
types of construction, in which disturbance of natural clay formations is
inevitable.
Q14. Explain in detail about Plasticity Chart.
Ans: Liquid and plastic limits are determined by relatively simple laboratory tests
that provide information about the nature of cohesive soils. Casagrande (1932)
studied the relationship of the plasticity index to the liquid limit of a wide variety
of natural soils. On the basis of the test results, he proposed a plasticity chart as
shown in Graph-2-5.

Graph 2-5: Plastic Chart

The important feature of this chart is the empirical A-line that is given by the
equation.
PI=0.73(LL - 20)
The A-line separates the inorganic clays from the inorganic silts. Plots of
plasticity indexes against liquid limits for inorganic clays lie above the A-line, and
those for inorganic silts lie below the A-line. The information provided in the

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plasticity chart is of great value and is the basis for the classification of fine-
grained soils in the Unified Soil Classification System.
Note that a line called the U-line lies above the A-line. The U-line is
approximately the upper limit of the relationship of the plasticity index to the
liquid limit for any soil found so far. The equation for the U-line can be given as
shown below.
PI = 0.9(LL - 8)
Problem: The laboratory tests on a sample of soil gave the following results:
wn=24%, wl = 62%, wp = 28%, percentage of particles less than 2 µ= 23%
Determine: (a) The liquidity index, (b) activity (c) consistency and nature of soil.
Solution:
a) Plasticity index, Ip = wl- wp = 62 - 28 = 34%
Liquidity index, Il
w n−w p 24−28
I t= = =−0.12
Ip 34
b) Activity, A
Ip 34
A= = =1.48
% of particles<2 μ 23
c) Comments:
i) Since Il: is negative, the consistency of the soil is very stiff to extremely
stiff (semisolid state).
ii) Since Ip is greater than 17% the soil is highly plastic.
iii) Since A is greater than 1.40, the soil is active and is subject to significant
volume change (shrinkage and swelling).
Homework:
1) Define the following a) Activity b) Thixotropy of soils
2) Explain about A-line and U-line classification of soils
Important and previous JNTUK Questions
1) Explain with neat figure about plasticity chart and label it clearly. (Nov-
2015, 2016)
Day 17
Today’s topic: Soil classification-AASHTO and USC systems
Q15. Explain in brief about Classification of Soils
Soils in nature rarely exist separately as gravel, sand, silt, clay or organic matter,
but are usually found as mixtures with varying proportions of these components.
Grouping of soils on the basis of certain definite principles would help the

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engineer to rate the performance of a given soil either as a sub-base material for
roads and airfield pavements, foundations of structures, etc.
The classification or grouping of soils is mainly based on one or two index
properties of soil which are described in detail in earlier sections.
Most commonly used properties are the grain size distribution and plasticity of
soils. Several classification systems were evolved by different organizations
having a specific purpose.
The two classification systems which are adopted by US Engineering Agencies
and the State Departments are the Unified Soil Classification System and the
AASHTO Soil Classification System. Other countries, including India, have mostly
the USCS with minor modifications.
Q16. Explain in detail about Unified Soil Classification System
Unified Soil Classification System was developed by Casagrande, for use in air
field construction during Second World War. According to USCS, the coarse
grained soils are classified on the basis of their grain size distribution and fine
grained soils on the basis of their plasticity characteristics.
In this system, soils are broadly divided into three divisions;
1. Coarse-grained soils: If 50% or more, by weight, is retained on No. 200
(.075mm) ASTM sieves. Coarse Grained Soils are further sub divided into Gravels
and Sands. The coarse grained soils are designated as Gravel (G) if 50% or more
of the coarse fraction (+75µ) retained on No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve-otherwise they
are designated as Sand(S).
Both Gravel and Sand are divided into four sub groups as Well Graded(W),
Poorly Graded(P), Silt(M- Symbol M is derived from the Swedish word ‘Mo’ for
Silt) and Clay(C), depending on grain size distribution and nature of fines in the
soil.
Gravels and sands are designated as GW, GP, SW, or SP, if less than 5 percent of
the material passes the No. 200 sieve;
Gravels and sands are designated as GM, GC, SM, or SC if more than 12 percent
passes the No. 200 sieve; The silt or clay designation is determined by
performing the liquid and plastic limit tests on the soil fraction (passing
425µ(No.40) sieve) and using the plasticity chart.
Gravels and sands are designated using dual symbols as GW-GC, SW-SC, GP-GC,
SP-SC, or GW-GM, SW-SM, GP-GM, SP-SM if between 5 and 12 percent of the
material passes the No. 200 sieve.

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2. Fine-grained soils: If 50% or more, by weight, passes through No.200
(.075mm) ASTM sieve. Fine grained soils having more than 50% material passing
No.200 (.075mm) sieve. These are sub divided into silt and clay, based on their
liquid limit and plasticity index.
3. Organic soils: Clay, Silt and organic fractions are further sub divided into soils
possessing Low (L) or High (H) plasticity when the liquid limit is less than 50%
and more than 50%, respectively. Highly organic soils, Fibrous in nature, usually
Peat, Swampy soils having high compressibility are not sub divided. These are
put into one group only with group symbol-Pt
Q17. Explain in detail about AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
This system was originally proposed in 1928 by the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads
for use by highway engineers. A Committee of highway engineers for the
Highway Research Board (HRB), met in 1945 and made an extensive revision of
the PRA System. This system is known as the AASHTO (American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials) System (ASTM D-3242, AASHTO
Method M 145). The revised system comprises seven groups of inorganic soils,
A-l to A-7 with 12 subgroups in all. The system is based on the following three
soil properties:
1. Particle-size distribution 2. Liquid Limit 3. Plasticity Index.
A Group Index is introduced, to further differentiate soils containing appreciable
fine-grained materials. The characteristics of various groups are defined in Table
2-5. The Group Index may be determined from the equation.
Group Index (GI) = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01 bd ………..(1)
In which,
a = that portion of percentage of soil particles passing No. 200 (ASTM) sieve,
greater than 35 = (F-35).
b = that portion of percentage of soil particles passing No. 200 sieve, greater
than 15 = (F -15).
c = that portion of the liquid limit, greater than 40 = (wl -40).
d = that portion of the plasticity index, greater than 10 = (If -10).
F = percent passing No. 200 sieve. If F < 35, use (F -35) = 0
It may be noted here that if GI < 0, use GI = 0. There is no upper limit for GI.
When calculating the GI for soils that belong to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use
the partial group index (PGI) only, that is (From Eq. (1))
PGI = 0.01bd = 0.01(F - 15)(If - 10) ……….(2)

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Table 2-5 provides a rapid means of using the liquid and plastic limits (and
plasticity index 7) to make determination of the A-2 subgroups and the A-4
through A-7 classifications.
Table 2-5 is based on the percent passing the No. 200 sieve (whether greater
or less than 35 percent)
The group index is a means of rating the value of a soil as a sub grade
material, within its own group. The higher the value of the group index, the
poorer is the quality of the material. The group index is a function of the
amount of material passing the No. 200 sieve, the liquid limit and the
plasticity index.
If the pertinent index value for a soil falls below the minimum limit associated
with a, b, c or d, the value of the corresponding term is zero, and the term
drops out of the group index equation. The group index value should be
shown in parenthesis after a group symbol such as A-6(12) where 12 is the
group index.

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Table:2-5 AASHTO soil classification

Fig:2-9 chart for use in AASHTO classification.

Classification procedure: With the required data in mind, proceed from left to
right in the chart. The correct group will be found by a process of elimination.
The first group from the left consistent with the test data is the correct
classification. The A-7 group is subdivided into A-7-5 or A-l-6 depending on the
Plasticity Index, Ip.
For A-7-5, lp ≤ Wl - 30
ForA-7-6, Ip ≥ Wl- 30
Homework:
1) Explain in detail about different soil classification systems
2) Explain about Unified soil classification system
Important and previous JNTUK Questions
1) What is the use of classification of soils? (May 2016)
2) Discuss briefly about HRB classification of soils(Jan 2015)
Day 18
Today’s topic: Indian Standard Soil Classification System
Q18. Explain in brief about Indian standard soil classification system.
The range of particle sizes encountered in soils is very large from boulders with
dimension of over 300 mm down to clay particles that are less than 0.002 mm.
Some clay contains particles less than 0.001 mm in size which behave as colloids,
i.e. do not settle in water. In the Indian Standard Soil Classification System

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(ISSCS), soils are classified into groups according to size, and the groups are
further divided into coarse, medium and fine sub-groups.
The grain-size range is used as the basis for grouping soil particles into boulder,
cobble, gravel, sand, silt or clay.
Table:2-6 Grouping of soils
Very Boulder size   > 300 mm
coarse   80 - 300 mm
Cobble size
soils
Gravel size Coarse 20 - 80 mm
(G) Fine 4.75 - 20 mm
Coarse Coarse 2 - 4.75 mm
soils Sand size Medium 0.425 - 2 mm
(S) Fine 0.075 - 0.425
mm
  0.002 - 0.075
Silt size (M)
Fine soils mm
Clay size (C) < 0.002 mm
Gravel, sand, silt, and clay are represented by group symbols G, S, M, and
C respectively. Coarse-grained soils are those for which more than 50% of the
soil material, by weight, has particle sizes greater than 0.075 mm. They are
basically divided into either gravels (G) or sands (S).
According to gradation, they are further grouped as well-graded (W) or poorly
graded (P). If fine soils are present, they are grouped as containing silt fines (M)
or as containing clay fines (C).For example, the combined symbol SW refers to
well-graded sand with no fines. Both the position and the shape of the grading
curve for a soil can aid in establishing
its identity and description. Some
typical grading curves are shown in
Fig 2-10.
Curve A – Poorly graded medium
SAND.
Curve B - a well-graded GRAVEL-SAND
(i.e. having equal amounts of gravel
and sand).
Curve C - a gap-graded COBBLES- Fig: 2-10 graphical representation
SAND. of different soils with gradation
Curve D - sandy SILT. curves
Curve E - a silty CLAY (i.e. having little amount of sand).

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Fine-grained soils are those for which more than 50% of the material has particle
sizes less than 0.075 mm. Clay particles have a flaky shape to which water
adheres, thus imparting the property of plasticity. A plasticity chart, based on
the values of liquid limit (WL) and plasticity index (IP), is provided in ISSCS to aid
classification. The 'A' line in this chart is expressed as IP = 0.73 (WL - 20).

Graph:2-6 Plasticity chart with A-Line

Depending on the position of the point in the chart, fine soils are divided
into clays (C), silts (M), or organic soils (O). The organic content is expressed as a
percentage of the mass of organic matter in a given mass of soil to the mass of
the dry soil solids.
Three divisions of plasticity are also defined as follows:
Low plasticity WL< 35%
Intermediate plasticity 35% < WL< 50%
High plasticity WL> 50%

The 'A' line, and vertical lines at WL equal to 35% and 50% , separate the soils

into various classes. For example, the combined symbol CH refers to clay of high
plasticity. 
Soil classification using group symbols is as follows:
Group Symbol Classification
Coarse soils
GW Well-graded GRAVEL
GP Poorly-graded GRAVEL
GM Silty GRAVEL
GC Clayey GRAVEL
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SW Well-graded SAND
SP Poorly-graded SAND
SM Silty SAND
SC Clayey SAND
Fine soils
ML SILT of low plasticity
MI SILT of intermediate plasticity
MH SILT of high plasticity
CL CLAY of low plasticity
CI CLAY of intermediate plasticity
CH CLAY of high plasticity
OL Organic soil of low plasticity
OI Organic soil of intermediate plasticity
OH Organic soil of high plasticity
Pt Peat

Homework:
1) Explain in detail about Indian soil classification systems
Important and previous JNTUK Questions
1) Discuss Indian standard classification system. (May 2016, 2015)
2) Show IS soil classification based on grain size. (Nov-2015)

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