Determination of Index Properties

DETERMINATION OF INDEX PROPERTIES
By:
Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha
PhD in Geotechnical Engineering (IISc Bangalore)
Associate Professor
Manipal University Jaipur
E-Mail ID: arvindkumar.jha@Jaipur.manipal.edu
8/29/2018 Prepared By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, MUJ 1
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1. Properties of Soils
2. Index Properties of soils
3. Soil Colour
4. Soil Shape
2. DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT, SPECIFIC GRAVITY
1. Determination of Water Content
1. Oven-drying method
2. Rapid Moisture Tester Method or, Calcium Carbide Method
2. Determination of Specific Gravity
3.DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION BY SIEVE AND SEDIMENTATION
ANALYSIS
1. Size of the Particles
2. Significance of Particle Size Distribution analyses
3. Particle size distribution by sieve analyses (Mechanical Sieving)
4. Sedimentation analysis (or, Hydrometer Analysis, or Wet Analysis)
1. Hydrometer Analysis
2. Engineering Applications of Particle Size Distribution
5. Particle or Grain Size Distribution Curve

4. VOID RATIO AND DENSITY INDEX, AND CONSISTENCY
LIMITS
1. Density Index (or Relative Density)
2. Consistency of Clay Soil (Cohesive Soil)
1. Atterberg’s Limit
3. Determination of Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and Shrinkage Limit
1. Casagrande Apparatus method or, Mechanical method
2. Cone Penetration Method
4. Plastic Limit
5. Shrinkage Limit
5. SENSITIVITY, THIXOTROPY AND ACTIVITY OF CLAYS
1. Unconfined Compressive Strength & Sensitivity of Clays
2. Sensitivity (St)
3. Thixotropy
4. Activity of Clays (A)
6. FIELD IDENTIFICATIONS: DENSITY OF UNDISTURBED SOILS
1. Sand-Replacement Method
3.6.1 Core Cutter Method
3.7 NUMERICAL PRACTICES
OUTCOMES:
After completion of this chapter, students will be able to
1. Investigate the suitability of soils and its improvement techniques for structures
to be constructed.
2. Determine the properties of soils and its critical evaluation for design
and construction of civil engineering structures.
3. Apply the knowledge to handle the various geotechnical
projects
independently/or, in group.

INTRODUCTION
Properties of soils can be classified in two types:
 Index properties or physical properties
 Engineering properties
Index Properties of soils:

 help to assess the engineering behaviour of a soil and which assist in determining its
classification accurately are termed ‘Index Properties’.
The various properties of soils which would be considered as index properties are:
 The size and shape of particles: soil colour, soil structure, texture, particle shape
 The relative density or consistency of soil: grain specific gravity, water content, in-situ
unit weight, density index, particle size distribution, and consistency limits and related
indexes.

The index properties of soils can be studied in a general way under two classes.
 Soil grain properties:
are the properties of the individual particles and the
(size and shape)
mineralogical character of the finer fractions (applied to clay soils) of which
the soil is composed. It is commonly used for soil classification and
identification.
 Soil aggregate properties:
depends on the structure and the arrangement of the particles in the soil
mass.
It has a great influence on the engineering behavior of soil mass.
The engineering behavior of a soil mass is related with strength, compressibility
and
permeability characteristics.
Soil Colour
 Important to identify the types of soils.

 Soil colour may vary widely, ranging from
white through red to black.
 Depends upon the mineral matter, quantity and nature
of organic matter and the amount of colouring oxides
of iron and manganese, besides the degree of
oxidation. Such as Manganese compounds and
decayed organic matter (Black Colour), Pyrite (Green
and blue colour).
 Change in moisture content leads to lightening of soil
colour. A dark coloured soil turns lighter on oven-
drying.
Soil Shape
 Provide a qualitative idea of the behavior of a soil mass composed of different shape of particles.
 The particle shape of bulky grains may be described by terms such as angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded, rounded
and well-rounded (Fig. 3.1).
 Can visualize the nature of the coarse grained particles only. Coarser fractions composed of angular grains are
capable of supporting heavier static loads and can be compacted to a dense mass by vibration.
 The influence of the shape of the particles on the

compressibility characteristics of soils are (for
example):
I. Reduction in the volume of mass upon the
application of pressure.
II. A small mixture of mica to sand will result in a
large increase in its compressibility.
F
i
3.2 DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT, SPECIFIC GRAVITY
3.2.1 Determination of water content {IS: 2720 (Part-II)–1973}

 is necessary in soil compaction control, in determining consistency limits of soil, and for the calculation of
strength and stability of all kinds of earth works and foundations.
Three methods to determine the water content:
(i) Over-drying method
(ii) Pycnometer method
(iii) Rapid Moisture Tester method or, Calcium Carbide Method
(i) Over-drying method
 is the most accurate approach.
Procedure
 Take a clean container of non-corrodible material and its empty weight.
 Place a small quantity of moist soil in the container, and take the weight.
 Place the container in a thermostatically controlled oven for 24 hours, the temperature being maintained between 105-110°C.
 Weight the weight of container along with soils after 24 hours with weighing a balance with an accuracy of 0.0001 N (0.01 g).

The observations are:
Weight of an empty container = W1
Weight of container + wet soil = W2
Weight of container + dry soil = W3
The calculations are as follows:
Weight of dry soil = W3 – W1
Weight of water in the soil = W2 – W3
𝑾𝒕. 𝒐𝒇 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 (𝑾𝟐−𝑾𝟑)
Water Content, = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% …………… (3.1)
𝑾𝒕. 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 (𝑾𝟑−𝑾𝟏)
LIMITATIONS - Oven-drying at 110±5°C does not result in reliable water content values for soil containing
gypsum or other minerals having loosely bound water of hydration or for soil containing significant amounts of
organic material. Reliable water content values for these soils can be obtained by drying in an oven at
approximately 60 to 80°C.

Rapid Moisture Tester Method or, Calcium Carbide Method (IS: 2720 (Part II) – 1973)
 It is a method for rapid determination of water content from the gas pressure developed by the reaction of calcium
carbide with the free water of the soil. The principle of operation is based on the reaction that occurs between a carbide
reagent and soil moisture.
CaC2(s) (Calcium Carbide) + 2H2O (l) —> C2H2 (g) (acetylene gas) + Ca(OH)2 (aq)
 The method is rapid and results may be got in about ten

minutes.
 The wet soil sample is placed in a sealed container with
calcium carbide, and the acetylene gas produced exerts
pressure on a sensitive diaphragm placed at the end of the
container. This pressure is correlated to the moisture content
and is calibrated on a dial gauge on the other side of the
diaphragm.
8/29/2018 Prepared By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, MU FJ ig. 3.2: Rapid Moisture Meter Apparat1u1 s
Rapid Moisture Tester Method or, Calcium Carbide Method (IS: 2720 (Part II) – 1973)
 The reading gives the moisture expressed as a percentage of the wet weight of the soil. It may
be converted to the moisture content expressed as a percentage of the dry weight by the
following relationship:
𝒘𝒓
𝒘= ………………………………..…………………………..…
𝟏−𝒘𝒓 (3.2)
Where,
wr = moisture content obtained by the rapid moisture tester, expressed as a decimal
fraction.

3.2.2 Determination of Specific Gravity [IS: 2720 (Part-III)-1980]
It is an important parameter to determine the various properties of soils such as void-ratio, degree of saturation,
critical hydraulic gradient, zero air voids for compaction, unit weight at different conditions, particle size by wet
analysis.
It can be determine by using pycnometer (coarse-grained soils) or, density bottle (for all type of soils).
Procedure:
 Determine the weight of empty pycnometer (W1) in the dry condition (Fig. 3.1).
 Place the oven dried soil sample in pycnometer and determine the weight of
pycnometer and soil sample (W2).
 Fill the remaining volume of pycnometer with distilled water or kerosene gradually
and remove the entrapped air by shaking or applying vacuum or by gentle heating.
 Take the weight of the pycnometer, soil and water (W3) carefully.
 Empty the bottle, clean properly and filled with distilled water or, kerosene.
 Take the weight of bottle and filled water or kerosene (W4).
Fig. 3.2: Pycnometer
Calculation (Fig. 3.3):
I. Wt. of solids Ws = W2 – W1,
II. Wt. of water = W3 – W2,
III. Wt. of water filled completely in Pycnometer = W4 – W1,
Weight of water having the same volume as that of soil solids = (W4 – W1) – (W3 – W2).
Fig. 3.3: Determination of specific gravity of soils by Pycnometer method

By definitions and Archimedes’ principle,
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒔
𝑮=
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒔
𝑾𝟐 − 𝑾𝟏
𝑮=
𝑾𝟒 − 𝑾𝟏 − (𝑾𝟑−𝑾𝟐)
𝑾𝒔
𝑮=
𝑾𝟐 − 𝑾𝟏 − (𝑾𝟑−𝑾𝟒)
𝑾𝒔
𝑮= …………………………………… (3.3)
𝑾𝒔−(𝑾𝟑−𝑾𝟒)
If kerosene (generally used for clay soil or soil containing organic matter) is used,
𝑾𝒔
𝑮= 𝑿 𝑮𝒌 …………………………………… (3.4)
𝑾𝒔−(𝑾𝟑−𝑾𝟒)
𝑮𝒌 = Specific gravity of kerosene at the temperature of the test
The specific gravity is reported at a temperature of 27°C.

The specific gravity is calculated at temperature 27oC ± 0.2oC. If the room temperature is
differ from 27oC, following correction is necessary:
𝑮′ = 𝑲. 𝑮 …………………………………… (3.5)
𝑮 ′ = corrected specific gravity at 27oC, and
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑲=
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝑪 Table 3.1 Specific gravities of some soils
Fig. 3.4: Density of water in relation with temperature

1. In a specific gravity test in which a density bottle and kerosene were used, the following observations were
made:
a. Weight of empty density bottle = 0.6025 N
b. Weight of bottle + clay sample = 0.8160 N
c. Weight of bottle + clay + kerosene filling the remaining volume = 2.5734 N
d. Weight of bottle + kerosene = 2.4217 N
e. Temperature of the test = 27°C
f. Specific gravity of kerosene at 27°C = 0.773
Determine the specific gravity of the soil solids.
What will be the specific gravity if it has to be reported at 4°C, if the same test is done with water? Take
the similar observation and densities of water at different temperature from Graph .

3.3 DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION BY SIEVE AND SEDIMENTATION ANALYSIS
Size of the particles
The classification according to size divides the soils broadly into two distinctive groups:
I. Coarse-grained soils (properties based on the grain size distribution)
II. Fine-grained soils
From an engineering point of view, these two types of soils have distinctive characteristics.
 In coarse grained soils, gravitational forces determine the engineering
characteristics.
 Interparticle forces are predominant in fine grained soils.
As per Indian Standard:
Gravel = 80 mm to 4.75 mm size
Sand = 4.75 mm to 0.075 mm
size
8/29/2018
Silt = 0.075 mm to 0.002 mmPrepared By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, MUJ 18
The particle-size distribution is found in two stages:
(i) Sieve analysis, for the coarse fraction.
(ii) Sedimentation analysis or wet analysis, for the fine fraction.
Significance of Particle Size Distribution analyses
 Provides the basic information for revealing the uniformity or, gradation of the materials within
established size ranges and for textural classifications.
 The size of the soil grains is of importance in such cases as construction of earth dams or rail road
and highway embankments, where earth is used as a material that should satisfy definite
specifications.
 In foundations of structures, data from mechanical analyses are generally illustrative; other
properties such as compressibility and shearing resistance are of more importance.

3.3.1 Particle size distribution by sieve analyses (Mechanical Sieving) [IS: 2720 (Part IV)–1985]
Fractionation Mechanical Sieving
The physical separation of a sample of soil by The determination of the mass of material in
any method into two or more fractions, each fractions containing only particles of
containing only particles of certain sizes. certain sizes.
Sieves
 Are made by weaving two sets of wires at right angles to one another.
 The square holes thus formed between the wires provide the limit which determines the size of
the particles retained on a particular sieve.
 The sieve sizes are given in terms of the number of openings per inch or Size of aperture. The number of
openings per inch varies according to different standards.
Fig. 3.5: Sieve size of particles

8/29/2018 Prepared By: Dr. Kumar Jha, MUJ 20
Arvind
Sieves Opening: Rounded-hole and Square-hole
opening???
• The advantage of the square hole sieve is the additional speed of sieving. Not only does the
square-hole sieve have a large percent open space per unit area of sieve (almost twice for 0.5
mm sieve) but particles lodge less in the wire sieve under sieving vibration.
• The only advantage of the round-hole sieve is its durability; however, substantial large-
opening wire sieves are made and give little trouble if the mesh is suitable crimped.
• Thus square-hole, wire sieves are be recommended over round-hole sieves in order a)
to avoid needless particle shape discrimination, and b) to speed sieving procedure.
Tarner, C. B., & Bourget, S. J. (1952). Particle-

Shape Discrimination of Round and Square
Holen Sieves. Soil Science Society of America
Journal, 16(1), NP-NP.
8/29/2018 Prepared By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, 21

MUJ
Table: Common Sieve Sizes Used by IS, BS and ASTM Standards

Procedures
 Stack the sieve in decreasing orders of their aperture sizes (larger sizes over the smaller) and keep pan at bottom.
 Carefully pour the oven dried soil sample into top sieve and place lid on top.
 Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 to 15 minutes.
 Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the weight of each sieve with its retained
soil from bottom to top sieve and also weigh the soil retained in pan.
 Convert the weight of material retained on each sieve to a percentage of the total sample.
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅

% 𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆 = 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
% of soil sample passing = 100 - % Retained on any sieve
 The percentage material finer than a sieve size may be got by subtracting this from 100.
 In of case cohesive soils, the material is to be washed through it with water (preferably mixed with 2 gm
of
sodium hexametaphosphate per litre), until the wash water is fairly clean.
 The material passing the bottom-most sieve, which is usually the 75–µ sieve, is used for conducting sedimentation
analysis
8/29/2018 for the fine fraction. Prepared By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, MUJ 23
Fig. 3.6: Chart for recording grain size distribution curve of soils
PARTICLE OR GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
The grain distribution curves as shown in Fig. 3.9 can be used to understand certain grain size
characteristics of soils. The % finer (N) than a given size is plotted as ordinate (on natural scale) and the
particle size as abscissa (on log scale).
Advantages of semi-log plot for particle size distribution curve,
o The soils of equal uniformity exhibit the same shape, irrespective of the actual particle size
o As the range of the particles sizes is very large, for better representation, a log scale is required.
The shapes of the curves indicate the nature of the soil tested.
On the basis of the shapes we can classify soils as:
1. Uniformly graded or poorly graded: represented by nearly vertical lines. Such soils possess
particles of almost the same diameter.
2. Well graded: possesses a wide range of particle sizes ranging from gravel to clay size particles.
3. Gap graded: some of the sizes of particles missing.

SOIL
GRADATION

Fig. 3.9: Grading of a Soils
To determine uniformity of a soil qualitatively, Hazen (1893) proposed the following equation:
𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑪𝒖 = 𝑫𝟔𝟎 ………………..

𝑫𝟏𝟎
…………………………. (3.18)
𝐷60 = particle size such that 60% of the soil is finer than this size, and
𝐷10 = particle size such that 10% of the soil is finer than this size (also known as effective grain size)
For all practical purposes we can consider the following values for granular soils.
Cu > 4 for well graded gravel
Cu > 6 for well graded sand
Cu < 4 for uniformly graded soil containing particles of the same size
The shape of the particle size distribution curve is described by coefficient of curvature (Cc),
𝑪𝒄 = 𝑫𝟑𝟎 𝟐 ……………………………….………..………………. (3.19)

𝑫𝟏𝟎 ∗ 𝑫𝟔𝟎
𝐷30 = particle size such that 30% of the soil is finer than this size
The soil is said to be well graded if Cc lies between 1 and 3 for gravels and sands.
2. Interpreting sieve analysis data: A sample of a dry, coarse grained materials of mass 500 grams was shaken through
a nest of sieves and the following results were obtained:
Sieve Openin Mass
No. g (mm) Retained
(Grams)
4 4.75 0
10 2.00 14.8
20 0.85 98
40 0.425 90.1
100 0.15 181.9
200 0.075 108.8
Pan 6.1
a) Plot the particle size distribution (gradation) curve
b)Determine 1) the effective size, 2) the average particle size, 3) the uniformity coefficient, and 4) the coefficient of
curvature
c) Determine the textural composition of the soil (i.e. the amount of gravel, sand etc.)
8/29/2018 Prepared By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, MUJ [Ans: Cu = 4.5; Cc =
0 .72]
3. The results of sieve analysis of two soil samples are as follows:
Sieve Size, mm Wt. of soil retained on sieve
Soil A Soil B
37.50 0 -
19.00 26.00 - A sedimentation test on material passing the 200 sieve
9.50 31.00 -
(75 micron) indicated that the sample contained:
4.75 11.00 0.00
2.36 18.00 8.00 Particle Size, Wt. in gms
1.18 24.00 7.00 mm Soil A Soil B
0.60 21.00 11.00
0.30 41.00 21.00 0.02 8.00 2.00
0.21 32.00 63.00 0.006 4.00 1.00
0.15 16.00 48.00 0.002 2.00 0.00
0.075 15.00 14.00 Less than 0.002 1.00 0.00
Plot the grain size distribution curves for the two soils and determine the effective size D10, Coefficient of
Uniformity (Cu) and Coefficient of Curvature (Cc). Comment briefly on the results.

3.3.2 Sedimentation analysis (or, Hydrometer Analysis, or Wet Analysis) [IS: 2720 (Part
IV)–1985]
 is a widely used method to determine the percentage of soil particle passing through 75
micron IS sieve. The data are plotted in semi-log graph combined with the data from
mechanical sieve analysis (wet sieve) to get complete grain size distribution curve.
 is based on ‘Stokes Law’ for what is known as the ‘terminal velocity’ of a sphere
falling
through an infinite liquid medium.
If a single sphere is allowed to fall in an infinite liquid medium without interference, its
velocity first increases under the influence of gravity, but soon attains a constant value.
This constant velocity, which is maintained indefinitely unless the boundary conditions
change, is known as the ‘terminal velocity’. The principle is obvious; coarser particles
tend to settle faster than finer ones.
The terminal velocity of the spherical particle by Stoke’s Law can be determined by equilibrium of the
particles.
Equilibrium of forces in vertical direction,
𝑊 = 𝑈 + 𝐹𝐷 …………………………………………………. (3.6)
Where,
W = the weight (W) of the sphere (particles)
U = buoyant force
FD = the drag force
Now
,
The weight of sphere (W),
4
𝑊 = 𝜋 𝑟 3 𝛾𝑠
3
𝛾𝑠 = Unit weight of material of sphere,
The buoyant force (U)
4
𝑈 = 𝜋 𝑟 3 𝛾𝑤
3
𝛾𝑤8/29/2018
= Unit weight of water, Prepared By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, MUJ 33
The drag force (FD), experienced by the sphere of radius (r) when it falls through a fluid of viscosity (μ) is given by,
𝐹𝐷 = 6 𝜋 𝜇 𝑟 𝑣
Where, 𝑣 = velocity
From equation (3.6),
4 4
𝜋 𝑟 3 𝛾𝑠 = 𝜋 𝑟 3 𝛾𝑤 + 6 𝜋 𝜇 𝑟 𝑣
3 3
2 𝑟2
𝑣= . 𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾𝑤
9 𝜇
𝒗= 𝟏 𝑫𝟐 𝑮−𝟏 𝜸𝒘 ……………………………….……………………… (3.7)

𝟏𝟖 . 𝝁
𝟏𝟖.𝝁.𝒗
∴𝑫= ……………………………………………………………. (3.8)
𝜸𝒘 (𝑮−𝟏)
(∴ 𝜸𝒔 = 𝑮. 𝜸𝒘 )
Where,
D = diameter of the spheres, cm
G = specific gravity of the materials of sphere
If a spherical particle falls through a height (He) centimeters in t
minutes
𝑣 = 𝐻𝑒 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 ………………………..………..…………………. (3.9)
60 𝑡
From equation (3.7) and (3.9),
𝐻𝑒
= 1
.
𝐺−1 𝛾 𝑤
………………………….……………….………. (3.10)
60 𝑡 𝜇
𝐷2
18
𝟎. 𝟑. 𝝁. 𝑯𝒆
∴𝑫=
𝜸𝒘 𝑮 − 𝟏
∗𝒕
𝑯𝒆
∴𝑫= 𝑲 𝒕
………………………………………………………. (3.11)
𝟎.𝟑.𝝁
∴ 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓, 𝑲 = …………………………….………………………. (3.12)
𝜸𝒘 𝑮−𝟏
Where,
𝜇 = the viscosity in poise (dyne-sec/cm2) (1 poise = 0.1 N·s/m²)
𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water (N/cm3)
D = Diameter of particles in cm
Table 3.2: Value of K Table 3.3: Absolute viscosity of distilled water in poise

Hydrometer Analysis
 Used for the determination of unit weight of suspensions at
different depths and particular intervals of time.
 A unit volume of soil suspension at a depth ‘He’ and at any
time ‘t’ contains particles finer than a particular diameter ‘D’.
 Particle diameter is determined by Stokes' law whereas the
percentage finer than this diameter is determined by the use of
the hydrometer.
 The principle of the method is that the reading of the
hydrometer gives the unit weight of the suspension at the
center of volume of the hydrometer.
Reading increases in downward direction towards hydrometer

bulb.
F
8/29/2018 Prepared By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, MUJ i 37
g
Calibration of Hydrometer
Is done to determine the depth of at which the specific gravity is measured.
Volume of hydrometer bulb (Vh): keep 800ml water in 1000ml cylinder, take reading and immersed
hydrometer at water level, take another reading of rises water level. Hence, volume of hydrometer is
the difference between water level after immersion of hydrometer and before immersion of
hydrometer. The rise of water level due to stem weight is neglected.
Calibration
a. Cross-sectional area of 1000ml cylinder: mark the two different water levels in the cylinder and
measure the distance between them. Hence, the cross-sectional area of the cylinder is the ration
of volume of water included between two graduation and measured distance in cm between
graduation.
b. The distance from the lowest calibration mark on the stem of the hydrometer to each of the other
major calibration marks (Rh) is measured and recorded.
Fig. 3.8 : Calibration of
c. Record the distance from the neck of the bulb to the nearest calibration mark.
Hydrometer (Source: IS 2720
d. The height (H) is equal to the summation of (b) and (c).
(part 4)-1985)
e. Measure the distance from the neck to the bottom of the bulb.
f. 8/2C9a/2l0c1u8lated the effective depth (He) correspoPner dpianrgedtBoy:tDh.reAmnvri adjoKrumcaarlJihbar, 38
From Fig. 3.7, immediately after insertion of hydrometer into Jar, the layer of suspension which was at level A-A
rises to the level A’-A’, and that at level B-B rise to the level B’-B’.
The effective depth He is given by,
𝑯𝒆 = 𝑯 + 𝟐𝒉 − 𝑽𝑨𝑯 + 𝟐𝑨
𝑽𝑯
…………………………………………………. (3.13)
It has been assumed that the rise in suspension level from A-A to A’-A’ at the centre of the bulb is equal to half the
total rise due to the volume of the hydrometer.
Thus,
𝟏 𝑽𝑯
𝑯
𝒆 = 𝑯 + 𝟐 (𝒉 − 𝑨
) ……………………………….…………………. (3.14)
Where,
H = depth from the free surface B’-B’ to the lowest mark on the
stem h = height of the bulb
VH = volume of hydrometer
A = cross-sectional area of jar
The effective depth (He) depends on the hydrometer reading (Rh).
Corrections of Hydrometer Reading
Generally calibrated at 20° C or 27°
C Three types of corrections:
 Temperature corrections
 Meniscus correction
 Dispersing agent correction
Meniscus correction (Cm)
 Suspended soil water solution make the system opaque, hence readings are taken at the top of the meniscus
 Actual reading to be taken at water level will be more since reading increases in the downward direction
 Hence, meniscus correction is always positive and is the difference between top and bottom of meniscus (𝐶𝑚)
in the comparison cylinder.
𝑹𝒉 = 𝑹𝒉′ + 𝑪𝒎 …………………………………….……………………. (3.15)
𝑅ℎ′ = hydrometer reading of the suspension at a particular time

Temperature Correction (Ct)
 If temperature of soil suspension is not at 27° C.
 If temp. > 27° C – hydrometer reading will be less hence correction will be positive and vice-
versa
Dispersing agent correction (Cd)
 Addition of dispersing agent increases the density of solutions.
 Hence, it will have more drag on the hydrometer hence reading will increase.
Hence, dispersing agent correction is always negative.
Hence, the Corrected reading Rh can be ′obtained from
𝑹𝒉 = 𝑹𝒉 + 𝑪𝒎 ± 𝑪𝒕 − 𝑪𝒅 …………………….…………………………. (3.16)

Relation between Percentage Finer and Hydrometer Reading
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑮𝒔
𝑾= ∗ 𝑹 …………..………………….………………………. (3.17)
𝑾𝒔(𝑮𝒔−𝟏)
Where,
W = % finer than any size, D
Gs = specific gravity of soil particles;
Ws = weight of soil solids in volume V of 1000 ml
R = corrected hydrometer reading for meniscus, dispersion and temperature

SAMPLE PREPARATION AND TEST PROCEDURE
Pre-treatment of soil
 Pre-treatment of soil is necessary when soil containing more than one percent of soluble salts, then the
soil should be washed with water before use.
 If the soil is lateritic soil will be attacked by the acid but unless they contain calcium, need not be given
the acid treatment. Even the soil containing insoluble calcium salts, acid treatment is necessary.
Dispersion of soil
 Take 50 gm of soil sample passing through 75µ IS sieve. (For clay 50gm and 100gm sand)
 Mixed 33 gm sodium hexametaphosphate and 7 gm sodium carbonate and mixed with100 ml water.
 Keep the soil suspension in the mechanical stirring device for 15 minutes.
 Keep the sample in 1000ml cylindrical and fill the soil sample with distilled water upto1000ml.
 Take another cylinder with distilled water.

Sedimentation of soil
 Soaked the cylinder vigorously then keep hydrometer in the cylinder, stop watch started.
 Take reading after ½ min., 1 min, 2 min, and 4 min and temperature also.
 Removed the hydrometer slowly, rinsed in the distilled water and keep the hydrometer in distilled water at
same temperature as soil suspension.
 Reinserted the hydrometer in the suspension and take readings after periods of 8, 15, 30 min, 1, 2, and 4 hrs
after shaking. The hydrometer shall be removed rinsed and placed in distilled water after each reading. This
is due to avoid distributing the suspension unnecessarily. Take 10 second for each operation.
 For temperature correction, take the temperature of suspension at every reading near to ±0.5° C. For that,
hydrometer temperature is taken at pure distilled water at same temperature. The difference between the
reading in hydrometer and that of the distilled water is correction for temperature.
 Measure the correction for dispersion agent, take reading of hydrometer by inserting in1000ml cylinder
containing distilled water and same proportion of dispersing agent. It is also called zero correction (x).

LIMITATION
S of equivalent diameter (i.e. the diameter of the sphere which
 Particles size obtained by analysis is in term
falls with the same velocity as the actual size) which is less than the particle size given by sieve analysis (i.e.
particles not spherical).
 The specific gravity of solids for different particles is not same but it is assumed same in analysis.
 Stoke’s law is applicable only when the liquid in infinite. The presence of walls of the jar affects the results
to some extent.
 Stokes’ Law is applicable for spheres of diameter between 0.2 mm and 0.0002 mm. It may be noted that
spheres of diameter larger than 0.2 mm falling through water causes turbulence whereas for spheres with
diameters less than 0.0002 mm, Brownian movement takes place and the velocity of settlement is too small
for accurate measurement. In both cases, Stokes’ Law is not applicable.
 The analysis cannot be used for chalky soils, because of the removal of the calcium carbonate of chalky soils
in the pretreatment by hydrochloric acid.

Uses of Particle Size Distribution Curve
 Classification of coarse grained soils
 To the coefficient of permeability
 To know the susceptibility of a soil to frost action
 To design the drainage filter
 To provides an index to the shear strength of the soil.
 To judge the compressibility behavior
 Useful in soil stabilization and for the design of
pavements

Engineering applications of particle size distribution
o Selection of fill material
o Road sub-base material
o Drainage filters
o Ground water drainage
o Grouting and chemical injection
o Concreting material
o Dynamic compaction
o Knowledge of grain size is very important to access
liquefaction
potential of soil

3.4 VOID RATIO AND DENSITY INDEX, AND CONSISTENCY LIMITS
3.4.1 Density Index (or Relative Density) [IS-2720 (Part XIV)–1983)]
Density Index (DI) of a soil indicates the relative compactness of the soil mass. This is used in relation to
coarse-grained soils or sands.
The relative density is defined as
𝑫𝒓 𝒐𝒓, 𝑰𝑫 = 𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙−𝒆𝒐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% ………………………. (3.20)

𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙−𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏
Where,
= maximum void ratio or void ratio in the loosest
emax
state.
emin = minimum void ratio or void ratio in the densest state.
e0 = void ratio of the soil mass in the natural state
The density index may be considered zero if the soil is in its
Fig. 3.10: Relative states of packing of a coarse-
loosest state and unity if it is in the densest state.
grained soil
Relative Density in Term of Unit Weight
𝑮𝜸𝒘
𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝜸𝒅 =
𝟏+𝒆
𝑮𝜸𝒘
𝒆= −𝟏
𝜸𝒅
Now, substituting the dry density in the loosest, densest and
natural conditions as 𝜸𝒎𝒊𝒏, 𝜸𝒎𝒂𝒙, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜸𝒅
Fig. 3.11: Different state of void ratios
𝑮𝜸𝒘 − 𝟏 − 𝑮𝜸𝒘 − 𝟏 Table 3.4: Classification of sandy soils

𝜸𝒅
𝑫𝒓 𝒐𝒓, 𝑰𝑫 = 𝜸𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑮𝜸𝒘 − 𝟏 − 𝑮𝜸𝒘 − 𝟏
𝜸𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝜸𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑫𝒓 𝑫 𝜸
= 𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝜸𝒅−𝜸𝒎𝒊𝒏 )…………………………. (3.21)
𝜸𝒅 (
𝒐𝒓, 𝑰 𝜸𝒎𝒂𝒙−𝜸𝒎𝒊𝒏

1. A soil sample with a grain specific gravity of 2.67 was filled in a 1000 ml container in the loosest
possible state and the dry weight of the sample was found to be 14.75 N. It was then filled at the
densest state obtainable and the weight was found to be 17.70 N. The void ratio of the soil in the
natural state was 0.63. Determine the density index in the natural state. [Ans: Density Index =
59.60%.]
2. The dry unit weight of a sand sample in the loosest state is 13.34 kN/m3 and in the densest
state, it is 21.19 kN/m3. Determine the density index of this sand when it has a porosity
of 33%. Assume the grain specific gravity as 2.68.
a. γmin (loosest state) = 13.34 kN/m3
b. γmax (densest state) = 21.19 kN/m3
c. Porosity, n = 33%

2. Consistency of Clay Soil (Cohesive Soil)
Consistency is a term used to indicate the degree of firmness of cohesive soils and is expressed qualitatively by
such terms as very soft, soft, stiff, very stiff and hard. The physical properties of clays greatly differ at different
water contents.
Consistency of a soil can be expressed in terms of:
1. Atterberg’s limits of soils.
2. Unconfined compressive strengths of soils.
Fig. 3.12: Curve showing transition stages from

the liquid to solid state
Atterberg’s Limits
Atterberg, a Swedish scientist, considered the consistency of soils in 1911, and proposed a series of tests for
defining the properties of cohesive. Later, the testing procedures of Atterberg were improved by A. Casagrande
(1932).
The water contents corresponding to the transition from one state to another are termed as Atterberg Limits
and
the tests required to determine the limits are the Atterberg Limit Tests.
Different consistency limits and indices (Fig. 3.12)

Liquid Limit (LL or, wl): is the transition state from the liquid state to a plastic state. At this stage all soils
possess a certain small shear strength. (Point C to D)
Plastic Limit (PL or, wp): is the transition from the plastic state to the semisolid state. At this state the soil
rolled into threads of about 3 mm diameter just crumbles. (Point D to E)
Shrinkage Limit (SL or, ws): after point E, the sample begins to dry at the surface, saturation is no longer
complete, and further decrease in water in the voids occurs without change in the void volume.

Plasticity Index (PI or Ip): is the range of water content within which the soil exhibits plastic properties; that
is, it is the difference between liquid and plastic limits.
PI (or Ip) = (LL – PL) = (wl – wp) …………………………………. (3.22)
When the plastic limit cannot be determined, the material is said to be non-plastic (NP). Plasticity index for
sands is zero.
Table 3.5: Soil classifications by Atterberg
according to Plasticity Index
Shrinkage index (SI or Is): the difference between the plastic and shrinkage limits of a soil.
SI or Is = PL − SL = (𝑤𝑝 − 𝑤𝑠)
8/29/2018 ………………………………….
Prepared By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, MUJ (3.23) 53
Consistency index or, Relative consistency (CI or, Ic): the ratio of the difference between liquid limit and the
natural water content to the plasticity index of a soil.
LL−w
CI or Ic = = (𝑤 𝐿 −𝑤) ………………………………. (3.24)
𝑃𝐼 𝐼𝑃
Where,
w = natural water content of the soil (water content of a soil in the undisturbed condition in the
ground). If Ic = 0, w = LL;
Ic = 1, w = PL
Ic > 1, the soil is in semi-solid state and is stiff.
Ic < 0, the natural water content is greater than LL, and the soil behaves like a liquid.
Liquidity index (LI or IL) or, Water-plasticity ratio: the ratio of the difference between the natural water
content
and the plastic limit to the plasticity index.
(𝑤−𝑤 𝑝 )
w−PL
LL (or I𝐿 ) = = …………………………………. (3.25)
𝑃𝐼 (𝑜𝑟 𝐼 𝑃 ) 𝐼𝑃
The sum total of the total liquidity index and the consistency index is always equal to 100
%.
Table 3.6: Consistency classification

1. A soil has a plastic limit of 25% and a plasticity index of 30. If the natural water content of the soil is 34%,
what is the liquidity index and what is the consistency index? How do you describe the consistency? [Ans:
IL = 0.30; Ic = 0.70]

DETERMINATION OF LIQUID LIMIT, PLASTIC LIMIT AND SHRINKAGE LIMIT
Liquid Limit [IS: 2720 (Part V)–1985]: Casagrande’s Apparatus and, Cone Penetration Method
By Casagrande Apparatus method or, Mechanical method
 The liquid limit is the water content at which soil changes

from liquid state to plastic state.
 At this stage all soil behaves practically like a liquid and
possess certain small shear strength.
 It flow close the groove in just 25 blows in Casagrandes liquid
limit device. As it is difficult to get exactly 25 blows in the
test
3 to 4 tests are conducted, and the number of blows (N)
required in each test determined. Fig. 3.14: Liquid limit apparatus
 A semi-log plot is drawn between log N and the water content
(W). The liquid limit is the water content corresponding to
N=25.
The equation to this straight line will be
𝑵𝟏
𝒘
𝟐 − 𝒘𝟏 = 𝑰𝒇 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝑵
…………………………………. (3.26)
𝟐
Where,
w1 and w2 are the water contents corresponding to the number of blows N1
and N2 and If is the slope of the flow curve, called the “Flow Index”.
Toughness index (It) = the ratio of the plasticity index (Ip) to the flow index
(If) and is the measure of the shearing strength of soil at the plastic limit.
Thus,
𝑰𝒑
𝑰𝒕 = ………………………….……………. (3.27)
Procedure: 𝑰𝒇 Fig. 3.15: Determination of liquid limit
I. Take 120 gm of soil sample passing through IS sieve 425 micron, mixed the sample thoroughly with distilled water in glass
plate and left for 24 hrs for uniform distribution of moisture. The paste should be such that requires 30 to 35 drops of the cup to
cause the required closure of the standard groove. (Note: the soil having low texture i.e. low clay content can immediately used
after mixing of distilled water).
II. Clean, dry and check the cup about free fall and adjust the liquid limit device with basefalls through exactly one centimeter for
8/2o9/n2e01r8evolution of the Prepared By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, MUJ 58
III. Remixed the soil before using for test and placed it in cup which is rested on base. Thickness of sample in
cup should be one centimeter at the point of maximum thickness shown in Fig. 3.14 and trim the excess
soil sample.
IV. Cut the soil pat by grooving tool type A (Casagrande type). After the soil pat has been cut by proper
grooving tool, the handle is rotated at the rate of about 2 revolutions per second and the nos. of
blows
counted till the two parts of the soil sample come into contact for about 12 mm length.
V. Take about a little amount of soil sample from near the closed groove and find the moisture content by
oven drying method.
VI. The soil of the cup is transferred to the dish containing the soil paste and mixed thoroughly after adding
a
little more water (in no case dry soil sample is added). Repeat the test.
VII. By altering the water content of the soil and repeating the foregoing operations, obtain at least 4 readings
in the range of 15 - 35 blows.
Cone Penetration Method
The main principle of this method is to observe depths of penetrations of

soils at various initial moisture contents of a metal cone of certain weight
and apex angle with point barely touching the surface is allowed to drop
into surface.
The plot is made between water content and depth of penetration and
corresponding value of water content at 20 mm depth of penetration is
liquid limit of given soil.
Fig. 3.16: Cone penetration apparatus
The cone penetrometer apparatus consists of stainless steel cone having an apex angle of 30° ± 1° and a length of 50
mm. The cone is fixed at the lower end of a sliding rod which is fitted with a disc at top (Fig. 3.16). The total mass
of the cone, sliding rod and the
disc is 80 g ± 0.05 g. The cylindrical mould is of dimension 50 mm internal diameter and 50 mm height.

Procedure
I. Prepare the sample as in mechanical method.
II. Transferred the wet soil paste into cylindrical cup of
the cone
penetrometer apparatus at three layers that no air is entrapped into the soil
sample.
III. Level the top of surface of the soil sample and placed the cone in
cylindrical cup such that cone just touches the surface of soil sample at
top.
IV. Adjust the dial gauge at zero or take the reading at any graduated mark.
V. Released the cone to penetrate the soil sample at its own weight of 80±0.5
g and after 5 second noted the depth of penetration which should be lies
between 14 to 28 mm.
VI. Take the soil sample from the mid of the cylindrical cup to determine the
moisture content.
VII.Repeat the test for at least four sets of value of penetration.
1. The following observations were obtained from a liquid limit test of a soil.
Two tests for plastic limit were also performed, which gave values of 28.0 and 29.0 respectively. A)
plot the flow curve and determine liquid limit, b) plasticity index, c) flow index of the soil.
No. of Blows (N) 10 20 31 40

Water Content (w), % 82 74.3 68 65
2. The following data were recorded in a liquid limit test using the Casagrande apparatus. Determine the
liquid
limit of the soil. Classify the soil assuming plastic limit PL = 19.8%. [Ans: LL = 34.2%; CL]
Number Mass of Mass of wet Mass of dry
of blows Can (g) soil + can (g) soil + can (g)
8 11.80 36.05 29.18
16 13.20 34.15 28.60
27 14.10 36.95 31.16
40 12.09 33.29 28.11

3. The recorded data in a liquid limit test using the cone penetration method are as follows. Determine
the liquid limit of the soil. [Ans: LL = 47%]
Cone penetration (mm) 14.1 18.3 22.1 27.2

Moisture Content (%) 28.3 42.2 52.4 63.4

Plastic Limit
The plastic limit is the water content at which

soil changes from plastic state to semi-solid
state. The soil in this stage behaves like
plastic. It begins crumble when rolled in to
threads 3 mm diameter.
Test procedure for the determination of plastic limit Fig. 3.17: Plastic limit determination
I. Mix 20 g soil passes through 425 micron IS sieve with distilled water but in case of clayey soil, the plastic soil masses should
be left for 24 hrs to ensure the uniform distribution of water.
II. Take about 8 g of the soil and roll it with fingers on a glass plate. The rate of rolling shall be between 80 to 90 strokes per
minutes to form a 3 mm diameter.
III. If the diameter of the threads becomes less than 3 mm without cracks, it shows that water content is more than its plastic
limit. Kneed the soil to reduce the water content and roll it again to thread.
IV. Repeat the process of alternate rolling and kneading until the thread crumbles.
V. Collect the pieces of crumbled soil thread in a moisture content container for determination of water content.
VI. Repeat the process at least twice more with fresh samples of plastic soil each time.
Shrinkage Limit
 is used to find out the structure of soil. The greater shrinkage, more the disperse structure.
 Because any soil that undergoes a volume change (expands or contracts) with change in water content may
be troublesome in like a) if used for highway or railway fills, it produces a bumpy road b) if a structural
foundation is placed on it, produces uneven floors and or structural cracks seen c) if used as backfill behind a
retaining wall, produces excessive thrust against the wall, which may cause it to fail.
Expression to determine the shrinkage limit
Vi
Fig. 3.18: Determination of shrinkage limit

Wt. of initial water content = (Wi – Wd)
Loss of water from the initial stage to the stage of shrinkage limit = (Vi – Vm)*γw
Wt. of water at shrinkage limit = (Wi – Wd) – (Vi – Vm) * γw
Wi − Wd − (Vi − Vm)γw
∴ Shrinkage Limit ws = x 100%
Wd
(V i −V d )γ w
ws = wi − x 100% …………………………………. (3.28)
Wd
Where,
𝑊𝑖 = initial water content
𝑉𝑖 = initial volume of the soil pat
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉𝑚 = dry volume of the soil pat
𝑊𝑑= dry weight of the soil sample

Alternative approach:
 Applicable when specific gravity of soil are known.
 Fig. 3.18 (ii), water content is at the shrinkage
limit,
(Vd − Vs)γw
∴ Shrinkage Limit ws = x 100%
Wd
(Vd − W
𝛾𝑠d)γw
ws = x 100%
Wd
ws = 𝑉𝑑𝛾𝑤 − 1 x 100%
𝑊𝑑
ws = 𝛾 𝑤𝐺 − 1 x 100% …………………………………. (3.29)
𝛾𝑑
Where,
𝐺
𝛾𝑑 = dry unit weight of soil
SHRINKAGE PARAMETERS
1) Shrinkage index (Is) = the numerical difference between the liquid limit (wl) and the shrinkage limit (ws)
𝑰𝑺 = 𝒘𝒍 − 𝒘𝒔 ………………….………………………………………………. (3.30)
2)Shrinkage Ratio (SR) = the ratio of a given volume change (as a % of dry volume) to the corresponding change in water
content.
𝑽𝒊 −𝑽 𝒅
𝑺𝑹 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎/ 𝒘𝒊 − 𝒘𝒔 ……………………………..…………….………… (3.31)
𝑽𝒅
Another expression for shrinkage ratio (SR) can be found by expressing the water content,
𝑽𝒊−𝑽𝒅 𝜸𝒘
𝒘𝒊 − 𝒘 𝒔 = 𝑾𝒅 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎……………………………………..…………….……. (3.32)
Substituting the value in Eq. (i)
𝑾
𝑺𝑹 = 𝑾𝒅
= 𝜸𝒅𝒘= 𝑮 𝒎(𝒅𝒓𝒚) = 𝑽𝒅……………………………………………………. (3.33)
𝜸 𝒅
𝑽𝒅 𝜸 𝒘
The shrinkage ratio is also the mass specific gravity of the soil in the dry state.
Now, from equation,
𝒘𝒔 = 𝜸𝒘
−
𝟏 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝜸𝒅
𝑮
𝟏 𝟏
𝒘𝒔 = − 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎% ………………………………………………….…………. (3.34)
𝑺𝑹 𝑮

3) Volumetric Shrinkage (Vs): the decrease in the volume of a soil mass, expressed as a percentage of the dry volume
of the soil mass, when the water content is reduced from an initial value to the shrinkage limit.
𝑽𝒔 = (𝑽𝒊−𝑽𝒅) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝒅
𝑽𝒔 = 𝑺𝑹 (𝒘𝒊 − 𝒘𝒔) …………..…………………………………..……………………. (3.35)
4) Degree of Shrinkage (Sr): the ratio of the difference between initial volume and final volume of the soil sample to
its initial volume.
𝑺𝒓 = (𝑽𝒊−𝑽𝒅) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% ………………………………………..……………………. (3.36)

𝑽𝒊
5) Linear Shrinkage (Ls): the decrease in one dimension of the soil mass expressed as a percentage of the initial
dimension, when the water content is reduced from a given value to the shrinkage limit.
𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑳𝒔 = 𝟏− × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ………………………………………………………. (3.37
𝑽𝒔+𝟏𝟎𝟎
6) Shrinkage limit of undisturbed soil (wsu):
𝒘𝒔𝒖 = 𝑽𝒅𝒖
− 𝑮 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% ……………………………….………………………. (3.38)
𝟏
𝑾𝒅𝒖
Where, Vdu and Wdu are the volume in ml and weight in g, respectively, of the oven-dry soil specimen.
Procedure to determine shrinkage limit
Fig. 3.19: Arrangement for determining volume-change in the shrinkage limit

test

Procedure to determine shrinkage limit
1. Take a sample weighing about 100 gm from the thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing through 425 micron.
2. Place about 30gm of the soil sample in the evaporating dish and thoroughly mix with distilled water in an amount sufficient to fill
the soil voids completely and to make the soil pasty enough to be readily worked into the shrinkage dish without entrapping of water
required to obtain the desired consistency is equal to or slightly greater than the liquid limit; in the case of plastic soils, it may
exceed
the liquid limit by as much as percent.
3. Weight empty shrinkage dish and find the volume of shrinkage dish by pouring mercury and take weight of shrinkage dish filled with
mercury.
4. Coat the inside of the shrinkage dish with a thin layer of silicone grease or Vaseline or some other heavy grease to prevent the
adhesion of soil to the dish. Fill one third of the dish with soil sample and taped on the firm base so that flow allow to flow in edges.
Repeat the soil filling and tapping three times and trim the dish removing excess soil and level it. Three dishes are prepared in same
way.
5. Weight the dish with wet soil sample and keep in oven for 24 hrs drying.
6. Weighed again dish and dry soil immediately after removal from oven.
7. Fill the glass cup with mercury and level it plain glass plate.
8. Keep the soil pat over mercury in the cup and keep the prongs over soil pat.
9. Press the prong plate so that soil pat goes down in the cup mercury and till no mercury is displaced by soil pat. Release the prongs
so that no mercury spill out during releasing from the cup. Remove the dish from cup and take the weight of dish and mercury after
8/29/2018displaced by soil pat. From this we can get volume of dry
Prepared soil
By: Dr. pat. Kumar Jha, MUJ
Arvind 71
1. The following are the data obtained in a shrinkage limit test:
a) Initial weight of saturated soil = 0.956 N; b) Initial volume of the saturated soil = 68.5 cm3; c) Final dry volume = 24.1 cm3; d)
Final dry weight = 0.435 N
Determine the shrinkage limit, the specific gravity of grains, the initial and final dry unit weight, bulk unit weight, and void ratio.
[Ans: Shrinkage limit (SL) = 17.70%; Grain specific gravity = 2.65; Initial dry unit weight = 6.23 kN/m3; Final dry unit
weight =17.71 kN/m3; Bulk unit weight = 13.70 kN/m3; Initial void ratio = 3.17; Final void ratio = 0.47]

3.5 SENSITIVITY, THIXOTROPY AND ACTIVITY OF
CLAYS Unconfined compressive strength & Sensitivity of clays:
The unconfined compressive strength (qu) is defined as the ultimate load per unit cross sectional area that a
standard cylindrical specimen of soil can take under compression without any lateral pressure.
Sensitivity (St) is the measure of loss of strength with remoulding. Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of
unconfined compressive strength of clay in undisturbed state to unconfined compressive strength of a same clay
in remoulded state at unaltered water content.
Sensitivity St = Unconfined compressive strength of clay (undisturbed state)

Unconfined compressive strength of clay (remolded state) ……. (3.39)
Table 3.7: Sensitivity classification

Thixotropy (from the Greek thix, meaning ‘touch’ and tropein, meaning ‘to change’):
 The phenomenon of strength loss-strength gain, with no change in volume or water content.
 also be said to be “a process of softening caused by remoulding, followed by a time-dependent return

to the original harder state”.
 Higher the sensitivity, larger thixotropic hardening.
Fig. 3.20: Thixotropy of clays

Activity of clays (A):
Activity (A) is defined as the ratio of plasticity index to the percentage of clay-size: Where ‘c’ is the
percentage of clay-size, i.e., of particles of size less than 0.002 mm. Activity is derived conveniently
from slope of straight line. A steeper slope represents greater activity.
Plasticity Index (I p )
Activity A = …………………………………. (3.40)
Clay Fraction (<0.002 mm)
Table. 3.8: Activity of

clays
Activity Classification
< 0.75 Inactive
0.75 – 1.25 Normal
> 1.25 Active
Fig. 3.21: Activity of

clays
Fig. 3.22: Summary of Sensitivity, Thixotropy and Activity of Clays
1. A clay soil sample has been obtained and tested in its undisturbed condition. The unconfined compression
strength has been obtained as 200 kN/m2. It is later remoulded and again tested for its unconfined
compression strength, which has been obtained as 40 kN/m2. Classify the soil with regard to its sensitivity
and indicate the possible structure of the soil. [Ans: Sensitiviy (St) = 5]

6.FIELD IDENTIFICATIONS: DENSITY OF UNDISTURBED SOILS
Two important methods for the determination of the in-situ unit weight are
being given:
(i) Sand-replacement method
(ii) Core-cutter method
(i) Sand-replacement method
The detail arrangement of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 3.23. In this method,
a square tray with a circular hole is taken. The tray is placed on the level
ground. A small quantity of soil is excavated from the hole and is weighed.
The water content of the excavated soil is determined. The hole is filled by
sand of known density from a sand bottle. The weight of sand fillings the Fig. 3.23: Use of sand cone to
cone of the sand bottle is taken separately. measure the unit weight of fill

The weight of sand filling the hole is determined with these data and the dry density is computed
as follows:
Wt. of soil in the hole = W1
Wt. of sand bottle before pouring = W2
Wt. of sand bottle after pouring = W3
Wt. of sand filling conical funnel = W4
Wt. of sand filling the hole = W2-W3-W4
Known Unit weight of sand = γ
𝑊2 − 𝑊3 − 𝑊4
∴ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝛾
= volume of hole = V
W1
Bulk unit weight γ =
V
γ
Dry unit weight
=
1+w
γd
Where, w = Water content
(ii) Core Cutter Method
In this method, a cylindrical core cutter with dolly of known dimension as shown in Fig. 3.24 is used. A
dolly is placed over the cutter to prevent burring of the edges of the cutter. Cylinder is embedded into ground
for its full height and is taken out. The surplus soil at both ends is trimmed and the weight of the cylinder is
found out. From the known dimension of the cutter, volume and the moisture content of the soil is
determined.
The dry density of soil is computed as follows:
Weight of cutter = W1
Wt. of soil + cutter = W2 Wt.
of soil = W2 – W1
W2 − W1
Volume ofBulk
cutterunit
= Vweight γ =
V
γ
Dry unit weight γd =
1+w Fig. 3.24: Core cutter with dolly
Where, W = Water content
The method is suitable for soft, fine grained soils. The method is practicable only at places where the surface
of the soil is exposed and the cutter can be easily driven.
1. The following data were obtained during an in-situ unit weight determination of an embankment by the
sand-replacement method:
a. Volume of calibrating can = 1000 ml
b. Weight of empty can = 9 N
c. Weight of can + sand = 25 N
d. Weight of sand filling the conical portion of the sand-pouring cylinder = 4.5 N
e. Initial weight of sand-pouring cylinder + sand = 54 N
f. Weight of cylinder + sand, after filling the excavated hole = 41.4 N
g. Wet weight of excavated soil = 9.36 N
h. In-situ water content = 9%
Determine the in-situ unit weight and in-situ dry unit weight. [Ans: In-situ unit weight (γ) = 18.15 kN/m3;
In-situ dry unit weight (γd) = 16.67 kN/m3]

1. A field density test was conducted by core-cutter method and the following data was obtained:
a. Weight of empty core-cutter = 22.80 N
b. Weight of soil and core-cutter = 50.05 N
c. Inside diameter of the core-cutter = 90.0 mm
d. Height of core-cutter = 180.0 mm
e. Weight or wet sample for moisture determination = 0.5405 N
f. Weight of oven-dry sample = 0.5112 N
g. Specific gravity so soil grains = 2.72
Determine (a) dry density, (b) void-ratio, and (c) degree of saturation. [Ans: In-situ dry unit weight (γd) =
22.075 kN/m3; Void ratio (e) = 0.21; Degree of saturation (S) = 74.20%]

1. The results of sedimentation Table: Hydrometer Readings
analysis of Red Clay is as follows:

Meniscus Correction (Cm) = 0.0005
Temperature Correction (Mt) = 0.0105
Dispersing Agent Correction (x) = Table: Results Obtained
from Wet Sieve
Length between neck to bottom of Hydrometer (h) = 15.7
0.0035 Analysis
cm Volume of Hydrometer Bulb (Vh) = 70 ml
X-sectional Area of Cylinder (A) = 38.465 cm2
Specific Gravity of Soil (G) = 2.59
Specific Gravity of Water (Gw) =1
Total Sample (Wet + Hydrometer) = 500 gm
Total Sample Retained on 75 Micron IS Sieve = 263.22 gm
• Determine the size of particles and corresponding percentage finer.

• Plot the combined grained size distribution curve and comment on the
results
Clay Size Silt Size Sand Gravel Cobble Boulder
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Coarse
0.002
0.075
0.425
4.75
300
20
75
2
Limit of Visibility of unaided eye Sieve
Analysis
Colloid
Hydrometer
Centrifuge
Analysis
Ultramicroscopic range
Limit of Electron
Light Limit
Microscope
Limit of Microscope
Thickness of Absolute
Montmorillonite Sheet
Normal
Thickness of Illite Sheet
Thickness of
Kaolinite Sheet
Dia. of Water
Molecule
Weve-length of X-ray
10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 0.1 1 mm

Determination of Index Properties

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Determination of Index Properties

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DETERMINATION OF INDEX PROPERTIES

8/29/2018 Prepared By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, MUJ 2

8/29/2018 Prepared By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, MUJ 4

Index Properties of soils:

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 Important to identify the types of soils.

 The influence of the shape of the particles on the

3.2.1 Determination of water content {IS: 2720 (Part-II)–1973}

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 The method is rapid and results may be got in about ten

wr = moisture content obtained by the rapid moisture tester, expressed as a decimal

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Fig. 3.3: Determination of specific gravity of soils by Pycnometer method

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The specific gravity is reported at a temperature of 27°C.

8/29/2018 Prepared By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, MUJ 15

𝑮 ′ = corrected specific gravity at 27oC, and

𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆

Fig. 3.4: Density of water in relation with temperature

8/29/2018 Prepared By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, MUJ 17

Size of the particles

Significance of Particle Size Distribution analyses

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Fig. 3.5: Sieve size of particles

Tarner, C. B., & Bourget, S. J. (1952). Particle-

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𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅

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𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑪𝒖 = 𝑫𝟔𝟎 ………………..

𝑪𝒄 = 𝑫𝟑𝟎 𝟐 ……………………………….………..………………. (3.19)

8/29/2018 Prepared By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, MUJ 30

𝒗= 𝟏 𝑫𝟐 𝑮−𝟏 𝜸𝒘 ……………………………….……………………… (3.7)

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Reading increases in downward direction towards hydrometer

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The relative density is defined as

𝑫𝒓 𝒐𝒓, 𝑰𝑫 = 𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙−𝒆𝒐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% ………………………. (3.20)

𝑮𝜸𝒘 − 𝟏 − 𝑮𝜸𝒘 − 𝟏 Table 3.4: Classification of sandy soils

8/29/2018 Prepared By: Dr. Arvind Kumar Jha, MUJ 49

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Fig. 3.12: Curve showing transition stages from

Different consistency limits and indices (Fig. 3.12)

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 The liquid limit is the water content at which soil changes

The main principle of this method is to observe depths of penetrations of

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No. of Blows (N) 10 20 31 40

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Cone penetration (mm) 14.1 18.3 22.1 27.2

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The plastic limit is the water content at which