HYDRAULICS 2

FUNDAMENTALS OF
FLUID FLOW
LESSON 1
• Path line – is a line made by a single
particle as it moves during a particular
period
• Streamline – is a line which gives the
velocity direction of the fluid at each point
along the line at a given instant.
• *** A path line refers to the trace of a single
particle while a streamline refers to an
instantaneous picture of the velocity
direction of a number of particles.
• *** There can be no fluid movement across
a streamline.
• Streamtube – when streamlines are
drawn through a closed curve, they form
boundaries across which no fluid particle
could pass. The space within such
boundaries becomes a tube, called as
streamtube.
• Laminar Flow – when the velocity of
movement is sufficiently low, the individual
particles will follow well defined paths that
do not cross or intersect one another. Such
type of fluid motion is known as laminar
flow.
• if conduit has parallel sides, pathlines will be parallel
traces.
• if the sides of the conduit are non-parallel, the
pathlines either converge or diverge, converging
pathlines denote increasing velocity in each path line in
the direction of flow and diverging path lines denote
decreasing velocity
• Turbulent Flow – when the separate particles
or groups of particles will follow irregular paths
which keep on crossing and recrossing one
another to form an intricate pattern of interlacing
lines, under such conditions, the flow pattern is
said to be turbulent.

• Critical Velocity – for any fluid flowing in a

given conduit, the transition from laminar to
turbulent flow starts when a certain velocity of
flow, known as the critical velocity, is attained
and exceeded
• Steady Flow – flow is said to be steady at a
point in the flowing fluid if the velocity,
pressure and other flow characteristics at
that point do not change with time. Steady
flow specifies a limitation on time variation
and not on space variation and so, in such
condition of flow, the velocity at one point
may differ from that at another point.
• Unsteady Flow – the flow is unsteady if the
velocity and other such characteristics vary
with time at a point in the flowing fluid.
• Uniform Flow – fluid motion is said to be
uniform if, within a certain length or “reach”
of a stream, the mean velocity at every
section is the same.

• Non-uniform Flow – non-uniform flow

exists if, within a certain reach of a stream,
the mean velocities at different sections
are unequal.
Discharge or Rate of Flow
- in a stream of flowing fluid, the volume of
fluid passing a cross section per unit time
is called as the discharge or rate of flow.
Q=AV
V = Q/A
A = Q/V
Where: Q = discharge or rate of flow, (m3/s)
V = mean velocity, (m/s)
A = area of the cross section, (m2)
Example Prob 1.1:
A city requires a flow of 1.50 m3/s for its water supply.
Determine the diameter of the pipe if the velocity of flow
is to be 1.80m/s
Equation of Continuity
When applied to fluid flow, the principle of conservation of
mass may be stated as follows: ”the mass of fluid
passing any section per unit time is constant.” The
equation which results from this application is known as
the equation of continuity or continuity equation,
expressing the continuity of flow from section to section
along the stream.
1 A 1 V 1 =  2 A 2 V 2
 1 A 1 V 1 = 2 A 2 V 2

But 1 = 2, and 1 = 2

therefore:
A1 V1 = A 2 V 2 = Q
Example Prob 1.2: A pipeline consists of three successive lengths of
50cm, 40cm, and 30cm pipes. With a continous discharge of 300
litre/s of oil (sp.gr. 0.75) compute the mean velocity in each pipe.
Energy and Head of Fluids in Motion
• Fluids at rest or in motion, like all other
matter, must act in accordance with the
law of conservation of energy. Energy,
which is defined as the ability to do work,
exists in several forms and, in the case of
fluids in motion the kinetic, potential, and
pressure energies are particularly
recognized.
Velocity Head
• Kinetic Energy is the energy possessed by
a mass by virtue of its motion or velocity.
• For a mass W/g, having a velocity V,
K.E. = W[V2/2g] (N-m, or J (joule))
• For every unit weight:
K.E./W = V2/2g (N-m/N or m)
therefore:
Velocity Head = V2/2g
Elevation Head
• Potential or Elevation Energy is the energy
possessed by a mass by virtue of its position or
elevation above some horizontal reference
plane.
• For a mass having a weight W and positioned at
a distance z above the datum plane, the
potential energy is:
P.E. = Wz (N-m or Joule)
• For a newton weight or unit weight of mass:
P.E./W = z (N-m/N or m)
Therefore:
Elevation Head = z (m)
Pressure Head
• This is another form of energy which is classified
as potential energy which is energy possessed
by a mass by virtue of the pressure maintained
within the mass.
• For a mass of weight W raised to a distance p/,
the work done or the energy exerted by the
pressure p is:
Pressure Energy = W [p/]
• Per unit weight:
Pressure Energy/ Weight = p/
Therefore:
Pressure Head = p/ (m)
Total Energy (Total Head)
• E1 = V12/2g + p1/ + z1
Example Problem 1.3 A fluid flowing in a pipe 30cm
in diameter has a uniform velocity of 4m/s. The
pressure at the center of the pipe is 40KPa, and the
elevation of the pipe’s centerline above an
assumed datum is 4.5m. Compute the total energy
per unit weight of the flowing fluid if it is oil (sp. Gr.
0.80)
Power of Fluids in Motion
Power is defined as the rate of doing work.
P = QE
P = Q(V2/2g + p/ + z)
Unit = N-m/s or J/s or Watt (W)
1 N-m = 1 J
1 W = 1 J/s
Example Prob 1.4: A liquid of specific gravity 1.75 flows in a
6cm pipe. The total energy at a point in the flowing liquid is
80J/N. The elevation of the pipe above a fixed datum is
2.60m and the pressure in the pipe is 75KPa. Determine
the velocity of flow and the power available at that point.
 Kinetic or Velocity Head for Non-
Uniform Velocity Distribution
V2/2g
V = 1/n( V1+V2+V3+….+Vn)
• in here, velocity head V2/2g is only approximate.

• Actual Velocity is:

Va2/2g=1/n(V12/2g+V22/2g+V32/2g+…+Vn2/2g)
• We could therefore conclude:
Va2/2g > V2/2g
• To correct it:
Va2/2g = V2/2g
Example Prob 1.5: The cross section of a pipe was divided into
eight equal areas by means of concentric circles. The mean
velocities in the areas, starting at the center of the pipe, were
measured, in m/s, as follows: 2.72, 2.70, 2.67, 2.65, 2.49,
1.38, 1.05 & 0.78. Compute the correction factor  of the
velocity head.
 Bernoulli’s Energy Equation for
Incompressible Fluids
• From Daniel Bernoulli (Swiss Mathematician, 1738)
– general theorem w/ reference to fluid motion under
steady flow condition:
“ in any fluid motion where friction is
neglected, the total energy possessed by a
given mass of the fluid is the same at
every point along the path of flow.”
This is in line with the law of conservation of energy and simply states
that each one of the three forms of energy (kinetic, elevation, and
pressure energies) may be transformed into either of the other two
forms without suffering any loss, assuming a frictionless flow.
If there is a loss of energy in any one of the three forms, there must
necessarily be a corresponding gain of energy in the other two
forms, collectively.
Bernoulli Equation: Frictionless Flow
• Theorem of Bernoulli for an incompressible fluid
under frictionless flow:
• “For steady flow with friction eliminated,
the total head: E = V2/2g +p/ +z =
constant at all points along a stream line.”
• In general, the total head E or the sum of the velocity,
elevation and pressure heads, will have different values
depending on which streamline is chosen for integration.
However, when all the streamlines originate under the same
conditions, E is constant for all points in the fluid. This is true
when considering the mean velocity at any section of flow, in
which case, p and z represent the average pressure and
average elevation above an assumed datum, respectively.
Bernoulli Equation: Friction Considered
• Real liquids are more or less viscous and their motion is
usually accompanied by frictional forces which act against the
direction of motion and thus hinder the flow.
• So as the mass of liquid flows from section to section, there is
a continual expenditure of energy given up by the liquid to
overcome these frictional forces.
• Accordingly, the Bernoulli or Energy Equation as given by
equation must be modified to:
V12/2g + p1/ + z1 = V22/2g + p2/ + z2 + HL
where:
HL =the loss of energy per unit wt from section (1) to section (2) (N-m/N)
Therefore it could be concluded:
“ Insteady flow, with friction present, the total head at
section (1) is equal to that at any downstream section (2)
plus the loss of head occurring between the two
sections.”
• Remarks:
If energy is added to the flowing fluid between sections (1)
and (2) by means of a mechanical device like a pump, the left
side of equation must include the added head HP(out) which
represents the head or energy output per unit weight supplied
by the pump to the fluid. On the otherhand, if energy is given
up by the flowing fluids to a turbine between sections (1) and
(2), the right side of the energy equation must include the
expended head or energy input HT(in) per unit weight.

V12/2g + p1/ + z1+ HP(out) = V22/2g + p2/ + z2 + HT(in) + HL(1-2 )

• Example Prob 1.6: A pump draws water from reservoir A and
lifts it to reservoir B. The head losses are: A to 1: V12/2g and 2
to B: 20V22/2g. Compute the output power in KW of the pump
and the pressure head at point 2 if the discharge is 15li/s.
• Example Prob 1.7 The 60cm pipe conducts water from
reservoir A to a pressure turbine which is discharging
through another 60 cm pipe into tailrace B. The head
losses are: A to 1: 5V2/2g; 2 to B: 0.20V2/2g. If the
discharge is 0.70m3/s, what input power is being given up
by the water to the turbine?
 Energy Equation for Compressible
Fluids
• Equation represents the Bernoulli’s energy
equation for compressible fluids (gases) under
frictionless isothermal flow:
• V12/2g + p1/ ln p1 + z1 = V22/2g + p2/ ln p2 + z2

• To correct equation for frictional losses, we add to

its right side the corresponding head loss:
V12/2g + p1/ ln p1 + z1 = V22/2g + p2/ ln p2 + z2 + HL

*it must be noted that in these equations, the pressure must be in

absolute units.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE ENERGY EQUATION:
Flow- Measuring Instruments
Venturi Meter
a device which is inserted into a pipe line for the purpose of
measuring the quantity of fluid flowing in the line.
• It was invented by an American Engineer, Clemens Herschel, in
1881. It was named by him in honor of an early Italian Hydraulician,
Venturi.
• Prob 1.8 In the figure given below, the fluid flowing is air ( =
12 N/m3), and the manometer fluid is oil (SG = 0.827).
Determine the actual flow if C = 0.98.
• Given:
 = 12 N/m3
manometer fluid is oil (SG = 0.827)
C = 0.98
• Nozzle
A truncated and somewhat contracted form of the Venturi
meter is the nozzle. It is simply rounded construction placed
or connected to the end of conduit (pipe or hose) and is used
in engineering practice for creation of jets and streams for
variety of purposes as well as for metering.
It may be used, in particular, to provide a high velocity
stream for fire fighting, or for measuring the flow of fluid in the
pipe or hose into which it is connected.
The discharge equations for the nozzle are the same as
for the Venturi meter and can be derived in the same manner.
• Prob 1.9 A nozzle is attached to a pipe as shown in the figure.
The inside diameter is 100mm, while the water jet issuing
from the nozzle has a diameter of 50mm. If the pressure at
section 1 is 500 KPa, determine the water jet’s velocity.
Assume head loss in the jet is negligible.
• Pitot Tube
• A tube with circular cross section bent in the shape of
an L with both ends open was first used by the french
scientist, Henri Pitot,in 1732 for measuring the velocity of
liquids in an open flow.
Prob 1.10 The device shown in figure below is used to
determine the velocity of liquid at point 1. It is a tube with
its lower end directed upstream and its other leg vertical
and open to the atmosphere. The impact of liquid against
opening 2 forces liquid to rise in the vertical leg to the
height of 1.8m above the free surface. Determine the
velocity at 1.
• Prob 1.11 A pitot tube in a pipe in which air is flowing is
connected to a manometer containing water as in figure
given. If the difference in water levels in the manometer is
10cm, what is the velocity of flow in the pipe? Assume a
tube coefficient of Cp = 0.98. Specific weight of air is
12N/m3
• Prob 1.12 In figure given below is shown a vertical pipe
discharging water from an elevated tank into the atmosphere.
If the pipe is 15cm in diameter and the head loss is 0.05V2/2g
per meter of pipe, compute the discharge and the pressure
head in the pipe 30 cm below point A.
 ASSIGNMENT :

Problems:
3, 6, 7, 10, 14,
15, 16, 18, 25, 26
pages 235 - 244