FUNDAMENTALS OF

FLUID FLOWS
Fluid flow may be steady or unsteady; uniform or nonuniform; laminar or turbulent; one-
dimensional, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional; and rotational or irrotational.

• A true one-dimensional flow of an incompressible fluid occurs when the direction and
magnitude of the velocity at all points are identical. However, one-dimensional flow
analysis is acceptable when the single dimension is taken along the central streamline of
the flow and when velocities and accelerations normal to the streamline are negligible. In
such cases, average values of velocity, pressure, and elevation are considered to
represent the flow as a whole, and minor variations can be neglected. For example, flow
in curved pipelines is analyzed by means of one-dimensional flow principles despite the
fact that the structure has three dimensions and the velocity varies across any cross
section normal to the flow.

• Two-dimensional flow occurs when fluid particles move in planes or parallel planes and
the streamline patterns are identical in each plane.

• For an ideal fluid in which no shear stresses occur and hence no torques exist, fluid
particles cannot experience rotational motion about their own mass centers. Such ideal
flow, which can be represented by a flow net, is called irrotational flow.
STEADY FLOW

Steady flow occurs if, at any point, the velocity of successive fluid
particles is the same at successive periods of time. Thus, the velocity is
constant with respect to time, or ∂V/∂t = 0, but it may vary at different
points or with respect to distance.
UNIFORM FLOW

Uniform flow occurs when the magnitude and direction of the velocity do
not change from point to point in the fluid, or ∂V/∂/s = 0. This statement
implies that other fluid variables do not change with distance, or ∂y/∂s =
0, ∂ρ/∂s = 0, ∂p/∂/s = 0, etc. Flow of liquids under pressure through long
pipelines of constant diameter is uniform flow whether the flow is steady
or unsteady.
STREAMLINES

Streamlines are imaginary curves drawn through a fluid to indicate the

direction of motion in various sections of the flow of the fluid system. A
tangent at any point on the curve represents the instantaneous direction
of the velocity of the fluid particles at that point. The average direction of
velocity may likewise be represented by tangents to streamlines. Since
the velocity vector has a zero component normal to the streamline, it
should be apparent that there can be no flow across a streamline at any
point.
STREAMTUBES

A streamtube represents elementary portions of a flowing fluid bounded

by a group of streamlines that confine the flow. If the streamtube's cross-
sectional area is sufficiently small, the velocity of the midpoint of any
cross section may be taken as the average velocity for the section as a
whole. The streamtube will be used to derive the equation of continuity
for steady one-dimensional incompressible flow
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

• The equation of continuity results from the principle of conservation of

mass. For steady flow, the mass of fluid passing all sections in a stream
of fluid per unit of time is the same. This can be evaluated as
ρ1A1V1=ρ2A2V2=constant
ENERGY AND HEAD

Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Work is the result of the

application of a force through a distance and is generally defined
mathematically as the product of a force and the distance traversed in
the direction of application. Both energy and work can therefore be
expressed in units of ft-lb or N-m. One N-m is a joule (J).
The element is located a distance z above a reference datum and has
a velocity V and pressure p. Potential energy refers to the energy
possessed by the element of fluid due to its elevation above a
reference datum. Potential energy (PE) is determined quantitatively by
multiplying the weight (w) of the element by the distance the element
is located above the reference datum (z). 
Kinetic energy refers to the energy possessed by the element of fluid due
to its velocity. Kinetic energy (KE) is determined quantitatively by
multiplying the mass (m) of the element by the square of the velocity (V)
and taking half the product. 
Pressure energy, sometimes called flow energy, is the amount of work
required to force the element of fluid across a certain distance against
the pressure. The pressure energy (FE) can be evaluated by determining
the work done in moving the fluid element a distance equal to the
segment's length (d). The force causing work is the product of pressure
(p) and cross-sectional area (A) of the element.
Combining:
ENERGY EQUATION

The energy equation results from application of the principle of

conservation of energy to fluid flow. The energy possessed by a flowing
fluid consists of internal energy and energies due to pressure, velocity,
and position. In the direction of flow, the energy principle is summarized
by the general equation:
APPLICATION OF THE
BERNOULLI THEOREM
ENERGY LINE
The energy line is a graphical
representation of the energy at
each section. With respect to a
chosen datum, the total energy (as
a linear value in feet or meters of
fluid) can be plotted at each
representative section, and the line
so obtained is a valuable tool in
many flow problems. The energy
line will slope (drop) in the direction
of flow except where energy is
added by mechanical devices.
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE

The hydraulic grade line lies below the energy line by an amount equal to
the velocity head at the section. The two lines are parallel for all sections
of equal cross-sectional area. The ordinate between the center of the
stream and the hydraulic grade line is the pressure head at the section.