Thermodynamic Cycles

NUCL 2010
Instructor: Dr. M.H. Kaye
Matthew.Kaye@ontariotechu.ca
Chapter 5 – Mass and Energy (January 22, 2024)
Conservation of Mass
• At the macro level, and for this course, the conservation of mass
principle applies.
• Note that conservation of mass is not a law; at the atomic level only
energy is conserved.
Closed System versus Controlled Volume
• For a closed system, it is required that the mass of the system remain
constant during the process;
• For a control volume, mass can cross the boundaries, so it is necessary to
keep track of the amount of mass entering and leaving the control
volume;
Closed System versus Controlled Volume
Use mass flow rate, 𝑚𝑚,̇ to represent amount of
mass flowing through a cross section per unit
time.
Thus, the differential flow rate of fluid flowing in 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛
and out of a control volume is given by, 𝜕𝜕𝑚𝑚.̇
And 𝜕𝜕𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 where ρ represents the fluid
density flowing through a cross section of pipe
𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 , at a velocity, 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 , normal to the cross section.

𝑚𝑚̇ = � 𝜕𝜕𝑚𝑚̇ = � 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐

𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐
Continuing the Analysis
Solving the integral on the previous slide is
not always practical. Instead, it is often
necessary to express the mass flow rate in
terms of average values over the cross
section of the pipe (see diagram).
From Fluid Mechanics for compressible
flow, the density is essentially uniform
across the cross section, but velocity varies.
1
Use average velocity: 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = � 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐
𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐
Cross sectional area: 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 So, 𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐
Volume Flow Rate
Volume flow rate (m3·s-1) is defined as the
volume of fluid flowing through a cross
section per unit time: 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑉𝑉̇ = � 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 = 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑉̇ = 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐
𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐
And mass and volume flow rates related by
ρ, the density.
𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉̇
Conservation of Mass Principle
Conservation of Mass Principle for a control volume:
Net mass transfer to or from a control volume during a time interval ∆t is
equal to the net change of the total mass within the control volume during ∆t
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = ∆𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
Or in rate form as:
𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
These are often called a mass balance.
Extending on Mass Balance
Consider a control volume in an arbitrary shape.
The mass of a differential volume, dV, within
the control volume is: dm = ρdV
The total mass within the control volume at any
instant in time, t, is determined by integration…
𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉
And in terms of rates, rate of change of mass:
𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑
= � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉
Mass Balance for a Steady Flow Process
A steady flow process means that the total mass contained in a control
volume does not change with time (i.e., mCV = constant)
In other words, min = mout
Usually interested in the mass flow rate, so for a steady flow system:
� 𝑚𝑚̇ = � 𝑚𝑚̇
𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
Often there is only one stream [one inlet (subscript 1), one outlet
(subscript 2)], so the steady flow equation for a single stream is:
𝑚𝑚̇ 1 = 𝑚𝑚̇ 2 which leads to: 𝜌𝜌1 𝑉𝑉1 𝐴𝐴1 = 𝜌𝜌2 𝑉𝑉2 𝐴𝐴2
Special Case: Incompressible Flow
For liquids, which are usually incompressible, a further simplification can
be made. Density can be cancelled from both sides of the equation:
� 𝑉𝑉̇ = � 𝑉𝑉̇
𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
Thus for a steady incompressible flow (single stream):
𝑉𝑉1̇ = 𝑉𝑉̇2 which leads to: 𝑉𝑉1 𝐴𝐴1 = 𝑉𝑉2 𝐴𝐴2
Flow Work
• The work required to push a mass into or
out of a control volume is flow work (or
flow energy).
• In diagram, F = PA
Work Flow Illustrated
𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
This is the flow work done.
L is the distance the force acts;
Units are kJ
Of course, this can be done on a per unit mass basis, as well (then kJ·kg-1)
Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid
From Chapter 2, the total energy of a simple compressible system is:
Total energy = internal + kinetic + potential energies
𝑣𝑣 2
𝑒𝑒 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑘𝑘. 𝑒𝑒. +𝑝𝑝. 𝑒𝑒. = 𝑢𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 � 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−1 )
2
For a fluid entering or leaving a control volume, need to add in the flow
energy, PV. Thus the total energy of a flowing fluid (θ) becomes:
𝜃𝜃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + 𝑒𝑒 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + (𝑢𝑢 + 𝑘𝑘. 𝑒𝑒. +𝑝𝑝. 𝑒𝑒. )
But h = PV + u, so:
𝑣𝑣 2
𝜃𝜃 = ℎ + 𝑘𝑘. 𝑒𝑒. +𝑝𝑝. 𝑒𝑒. = ℎ + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 � 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘−1 )
2
Energy Transport by Mass
From the equation on previous slide, total
energy of a flowing fluid of mass m is: mθ
𝑣𝑣 2
𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚𝜃𝜃 = 𝑚𝑚 ℎ + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
2
For a mass flow rate, 𝑚𝑚,̇ the rate of energy
transport is:
𝑣𝑣 2
𝐸𝐸̇ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚𝜃𝜃
̇ = 𝑚𝑚̇ ℎ + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
2
When kinetic and potential energies are negligible (often the case), then:
𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚 and 𝐸𝐸̇ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚ℎ
̇
Energy Analysis of Steady-Flow Systems
• Systems such as turbines, compressors, and
nozzles operate for long periods of time
under the same conditions.
• These are termed steady-flow devices;
• Idealized process: steady-flow process;
• For a steady-flow process, no intensive or
extensive properties within the control
volume change with time. In other words,
V, m, and E remain constant.
Steady-Flow Systems
• Boundary work is zero, since VCV = constant; and ECV = constant
• Total mass entering = total mass leaving;
• Fluid properties at an inlet or exit remain constant during steady-flow;
• Properties may be different at different inlets and exits;
• Therefore, mass flow rate of fluid at an opening remains constant;
• Usually, at an opening fluid properties considered to be uniform (i.e.,
some average value) over the cross section.
Some Observations that Result
For a steady-flow process:
Energy entering = Energy leaving
𝐸𝐸̇ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝐸𝐸̇ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + � 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑄𝑄̇ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + 𝑊𝑊̇ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + � 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝜃𝜃
𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
Ignoring kinetic and potential energy leads to:
𝑄𝑄̇ − 𝑊𝑊̇ = 𝑚𝑚̇ ℎ2 − ℎ1
and per unit of mass:
𝑞𝑞 − 𝑤𝑤 = ℎ2 − ℎ1
Notes about terms in 𝑄𝑄̇ − 𝑊𝑊̇ = 𝑚𝑚̇ ℎ2 − ℎ1
𝑄𝑄̇ is the rate of heat transfer between the control volume and its
surroundings;
When losing heat 𝑄𝑄̇ < 0;
If 𝑄𝑄̇ = 0, then adiabatic (i.e., well insulated container).
Notes about terms in 𝑄𝑄̇ − 𝑊𝑊̇ = 𝑚𝑚̇ ℎ2 − ℎ1
𝑊𝑊̇ is power. For steady-flow devices, there is no boundary work;
The work required to push mass into and out of the control volume is also
taken care of by the enthalpies for energy fluid streams instead of internal
energies;
Thus, 𝑊𝑊̇ represents the remaining forms of work done per unit time;
Many steady-flow devices (e.g., turbines, compressors, and pumps) transmit
power through a shaft. Thus, 𝑊𝑊̇ becomes the shaft power.
Notes about terms in 𝑄𝑄̇ − 𝑊𝑊̇ = 𝑚𝑚̇ ℎ2 − ℎ1
∆ℎ = ℎ2 − ℎ1
The enthalpy change of a fluid can easily be determined by reading the
enthalpy values at the exit and inlet states (Tables A4 and A5 etc.)

For ideal gases, it can be approximated by: ∆ℎ = 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝,𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1

Dealing with Kinetic Energy
1 2
∆𝑘𝑘. 𝑒𝑒. = 𝑣𝑣2 − 𝑣𝑣12
2
Thus the unit of kinetic energy is m2·s-2, which is equivalent to J·kg-1.
Because enthalpy is usually given in kJ·kg-1, be careful when adding these
two terms (i.e., get them into the same units).
A velocity of 45 m·s-1 corresponds to a kinetic energy of 1 kJ·kg-1, which
is a very small value when compared with typical enthalpy values. Thus
the kinetic energy term can be neglected at low velocities.
Dealing with Kinetic Energy
When a fluid stream enters and leaves a steady-
flow device at about the same velocity, from
1
∆𝑘𝑘. 𝑒𝑒. = 𝑣𝑣22 − 𝑣𝑣12 , when 𝑣𝑣1 ≅ 𝑣𝑣2 , the change
2
in kinetic energy is close to 0, regardless of the
velocity.
At high velocities, there is cause for caution.
At high velocities, small changes in velocities may
cause significant changes in kinetic energy.
Dealing with Potential Energy
∆𝑝𝑝. 𝑒𝑒. = 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧2 − 𝑧𝑧1
A potential energy change of 1 kJ·kg-1 corresponds to an elevation
difference of 102 m.
For most industrial devices (e.g., turbines and compressors) the elevation
difference between the exit and inlet is well below this value. Thus the
potential energy term can be ignored.
However, the potential energy term is significant when a process involves
pumping a fluid to high elevations and we are interested in the required
pumping power.
Steady-Flow Engineering Devices
Many engineering devices operate essentially under the same conditions
for long periods of time. The components of a steam power plant (e.g.,
turbines, compressors, heat exchangers, and pumps) operate nonstop for
months before the system is shut down for maintenance.
These devices can be conveniently analysed as steady-flow devices…
Let us look at these in turn…
A General Electric LM5000 Turbine
Example of a modern
land-based gas turbine
used for electric power
production.
Length: 6.2 m
Mass: 12.5 tons
Produces: 55.2 MW at
3600 rpm with steam
injection.
Nozzles and Diffusers
Commonly used in jet engines, rockets,
spacecraft, and even garden hoses.
Nozzle increases the velocity of a fluid at the
expense of pressure;
Diffuser increases the pressure of a fluid by
slowing it down;
For subsonic flows the cross-sectional area
decreases in the flow direction;
For supersonic flows the cross-sectional area
increase in the flow direction.
Nozzles and Diffusers
Rate of heat transfer between the fluid flowing
through a nozzle or a diffuser and the
surroundings is usually very small (𝑄𝑄̇ ≈ 0)
Since the fluid has high velocities, it does not
have enough time to transfer the heat.
Nozzles and diffusers typically involve no work
𝑊𝑊̇ = 0 . Any change in potential energy is
negligible ∆𝑝𝑝. 𝑒𝑒. ≅ 0 ;
Because of high velocities, kinetic energy
changes must be accounted for ∆𝑘𝑘. 𝑒𝑒. ≠ 0 .
Turbines and Compressors
In power plants, the device that drives the electric
generator is the turbine (see right);
As the fluid passes through the turbine, work is
done against the blades, which are attached to the
shaft. The shaft rotates and produce work;
Compressors (and pumps and fans) are devices
used to increase the pressure of a fluid;
Work is supplied to these devices from an external
source through a rotating shaft. Thus,
compressors involve work inputs.
Turbines, Fans, Compressors, and Pumps
Fans increase the pressure of a gas slightly and are used to mobilize a gas;
A compressor is capable of compressing the gas to very high pressures;
Pumps work in a similar fashion to compressors, except they handle
liquids instead of gases;
Turbines produce power output; Heat transfer usually negligible (𝑄𝑄̇ ≈ 0);
Compressors, pumps, and fans require power input; Heat transfer usually
negligible, unless there is intentional cooling;
Any change in potential energy is negligible for all devices ∆𝑝𝑝. 𝑒𝑒. ≅ 0 ;
Only turbines and fans cause significant change in kinetic energy.
Throttling Valves
Throttling valves are any kind of flow-restricting devices that cause a
significant pressure drop in the fluid;
Examples: adjustable valves, capillary tubes, and porous plugs;
This pressure drop is produced without involving any work;
The pressure drop in the fluid is often accompanied by a large drop in
temperature;
Throttling devices are commonly used in refrigeration and air-conditioning
applications. The magnitude of the temperature drop (or rise) is governed
by a property called the Joule-Thomson coefficient (more in Chapter 12).
Throttling Valves
Throttling valves are usually small single-stream devices;
Flow through them may be assumed to be adiabatic (q ≈ 0) since there is
neither sufficient time nor large enough area for any effective heat transfer
to take place;
Also, there is no work done (w = 0);
Change in potential energy is negligible as well ∆𝑝𝑝. 𝑒𝑒. ≅ 0 ;
The increase in kinetic energy is insignificant too ∆𝑘𝑘. 𝑒𝑒. ≅ 0 ;
Thus the conservation of energy equation for throttling valves reduce to:
ℎ2 ≅ ℎ1
Throttling Valves
Thus, the enthalpy values at inlet and exit are the same; (isenthalpic)
For throttling devices with large exposed surface areas (such as capillary
tubes), heat transfer may be significant;
𝑢𝑢1 + 𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑢𝑢2 + 𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉2 or
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
The outcome of a throttling process depends
on which of the two quantities increases.
1. If P2V2 > P1V1, it can do so at the expense
of the internal energy, and usually with a
drop in T.
Throttling Valves
Thus, the enthalpy values at inlet and exit are the same; (isenthalpic)
For throttling devices with large exposed surface areas (such as capillary
tubes), heat transfer may be significant;
𝑢𝑢1 + 𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑢𝑢2 + 𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉2 or
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
2. If P2V2 < P1V1, the internal energy and the
Temperature of a fluid will increase during a
throttling process.
3. For an ideal gas, h = h(T), and thus the
temperature remains constant.
Mixing Chambers
Wherever two streams of fluids meet, that place is
called a mixing chamber.
An ordinary T-elbow or Y-elbow in a shower is an
example of a simple “chamber”, where the hot
and cold water mix. Simple
The conservation of mass principle applies for a mixing
chamber
mixing chamber and requires that the sum of the
incoming mass flow rates equal the mass flow rate
of the outgoing mixture.
Mixing Chambers
Mixing chambers are usually well insulated 𝑞𝑞 ≅ 0 and usually do not
involve any kind of work 𝑤𝑤 = 0 ;
Kinetic and potential energies of the fluid streams are usually negligible
𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒., 𝑘𝑘. 𝑒𝑒. ≅ 0, 𝑝𝑝. 𝑒𝑒. ≅ 0 ;
Thus the total energies of the incoming streams and the outgoing mixture
are equal;
Also called direct-contact heat exchanger.
Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers are devices in which two moving fluid streams exchange
heat without mixing. Simplest form is a double-tube heat exchanger.

Heat is transferred from hot fluid to the cold

one through the separating wall. This transfer
can be improved by increasing the surface
transfer area, and thus the rate of transfer.
Note: under steady operation, the mass flow
rate of each fluid stream flowing through a
heat exchanger remains constant. A Simple Heat Exchanger
Heat Exchangers
Do not involve any kind of work 𝑤𝑤 = 0 ;
Kinetic and potential energies of the fluid
streams are usually negligible (𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒., 𝑘𝑘. 𝑒𝑒. ≅
0, 𝑝𝑝. 𝑒𝑒. ≅ 0);

A Simple Heat Exchanger

Heat Exchangers
Heat transfer rate depends on how the
control volume is selected;
Heat exchangers are designed for heat
transfer between two fluids within the
device, and the outer shell is usually well
insulated to prevent heat loss to
surroundings;
If entire heat exchanger is selected as
control volume, (𝑄𝑄̇ = 0).
Heat Exchangers
If only one of the fluids is selected as the
control volume, then heat will cross the
boundary as it flows from one fluid to the
other (the purpose of the device in first
place);
In this case 𝑄𝑄̇ will be the rate of heat
transfer between the two fluids.
Pipe and Duct Flow
Flow through a pipe or duct is usually
considered to be steady-flow;
Control volume spans the interior diameter
(cross-sectional area) of the pipe or duct,
for some suitable length;
Amount of heat gained or lost can be
significant. Amount of heat transfer
depends on application:
• Water in furnace of power plant, refrigerant
in freezer, heat exchangers (want transfer)
• Insulated piping to transport heat
Pipe and Duct Flow
If the control volume involves a heating
section (electric wires), a fan, or a pump
(shaft), the work interactions should be
considered. Of the interactions just listed,
fan work is usually small in comparison to
other aspects and can be neglected.
Energy Analysis of Unsteady-Flow Processes
Unsteady-flow (transient-flow) is a process that
involves changes within the control volume with time;
Requires an inventory being kept of the mass and
energy content of the control volume as well as the
energy interactions across the boundary. Examples:
• Charging a rigid vessel from a supply line;
• Discharging a fluid from a pressurized vessel;
• Driving a gas turbine with pressurized air stored in a large
container;
• Inflating tires or balloons;
• Cooking with a pressure cooker.
Unsteady-Flow
Unsteady flow processes take place over a finite
period of time, ∆t;
There is a similarity to a closed system, except
the mass within the system boundaries does not
remain constant during a process;
Unsteady-flow is fixed in space, but not in size
or shape, and may involve a moving boundary,
and thus boundary work. Mass balance:
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = ∆𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
∆𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 − 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
Unsteady-Flow
Mass balance for a control volume is:
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 − 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
Often one or more terms in this equation are 0.
For example:
• minlet = 0 if no mass enters the CV during process;
• mexit = 0 if no mass leaves the CV during process;
• minitial = 0 if CV is initially evacuated.
Energy Content During Unsteady-Flow
Analysis requires keeping track of energy content of CV as well as energy
of the incoming and outgoing flow streams.
Energy balance (same as before):
𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝐸𝐸𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = ∆𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
A generalized unsteady-flow process can be difficult to analyse because the
properties of the mass at the inlets and exits may change during the
process.
Solution: Analyze as an uniform-flow process
Uniform-Flow Process
• This is an idealization of the unsteady-flow process;
• Assume: the fluid flow at any inlet or exit is uniform and steady, and so
the fluid properties do not change with time or position over the cross
section of an inlet or exit;
• If the properties change, they are averaged and treated as constants for
the entire process; θ = h + k.e. + p.e.
• Energy balance is: e = u + k.e. + p.e.

𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑊𝑊𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + � 𝑚𝑚𝜃𝜃 − 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + 𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + � 𝑚𝑚𝜃𝜃 = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑒𝑒2 − 𝑚𝑚1 𝑒𝑒1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
Unsteady-Flow – Valves Closed
When all inlets and exits are closed, the
energy equation of a uniform-flow system
reduces to that of a closed system.
Uniform-Flow System – Level of Complexity
• The level of complexity can be increased;
• The uniform-flow system may involve
electrical, shaft, and boundary work
simultaneously!
Usually, k.e. and p.e. changes are negligible.
Energy balance simplifies to:
𝑄𝑄 − 𝑊𝑊 = � 𝑚𝑚𝑚 − � 𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑚𝑚2 𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑚𝑚1 𝑢𝑢1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑜𝑜𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖= 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜the net heat input
𝑊𝑊 = 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − 𝑊𝑊𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 the net work output
January 24
• On to Chapter 6…
• Please read ahead.
Questions
• Ask now.
• Or, e-mail me at: Matthew.Kaye@ontariotechu.ca