Fundamentals of Fluid Flow

Lecture 6
 FLUID DYNAMICS

The laws of Statics that we have learned cannot solve

Dynamic Problems. There is no way to solve for the flow
rate, or Q. Therefore, we need a new dynamic approach
to Fluid Mechanics.
Pathlines, Streamlines and Streamtubes
◼ Pathline-is a line made by a single particle as it
moves during a particular period of time.
◼ Streamline-is a line which gives the velocity
direction of the fluid at each point along the line
at a given instant.
◼ Streamtube-when streamlines are drawn
through closed curve.
There are two types of flow:

Laminar flow
▪ all the particles proceed along smooth parallel paths
and all particles on any path will follow it without
deviation.
▪ Hence all particles have a velocity only in the
direction of flow.

Typical
particles
path

Figure: Laminar flow

Turbulent Flow
▪ the particles move in an irregular manner through the flow field.
▪ Each particle has superimposed on its mean velocity fluctuating velocity
components both transverse to and in the direction of the net flow.

Particle
paths

Figure: Turbulent flow

Transition Flow
▪ exists between laminar and turbulent flow.
▪ In this region, the flow is very unpredictable and often changeable back
and forth between laminar and turbulent states.
▪ Modern experimentation has demonstrated that this type of flow may
comprise short ‘burst’ of turbulence embedded in a laminar flow.
Uniform Flow, Steady Flow

steady: A steady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity,

pressure and cross-section) but DO NOT change with time.
unsteady: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with time,
the flow is described as unsteady. (In practice there is
always slight variations in velocity and pressure, but if the
average values are constant, the flow is considered steady.)

uniform flow: flow velocity is the same magnitude and direction within a
certain length
non-uniform: within a certain reach of the stream, the mean velocities at
different sections are unequal.
Equation of Continuity –
(Principle of Conservation of Mass)
◼ Matter cannot be created nor destroyed - (it is simply
changed in to a different form of matter).
◼ This principle is known as the conservation of mass and we
use it in the analysis of flowing fluids.
◼ The principle is applied to fixed volumes, known as control
volumes or surfaces

CONTROL Outflow
Inflow
VOLUME

Control surface

Figure: A control volume

For steady flow:
(there is no increase in the mass within the control volume)
▪ Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time

Mass entering per unit

time at end 1 = Mass
leaving per unit time at
end 2

Figure1: A streamtube section

▪ flow is incompressible, the density of the fluid is constant
throughout the fluid continum. Mass flow, m, entering may
be calculated by taking the product
(density of fluid, )  (volume of fluid entering per second Q)
▪ Mass flow is therefore represented by the product Q, hence
 Q (entering) =  Q (leaving)
▪ But since flow is incompressible, the density is constant, so
Q (entering) = Q (leaving) (3.5a)
▪ This is the ‘continuity equation’ for steady incompressible
flow.
Application of Continuity Equation
▪ We can apply the principle of continuity to pipes with cross sections which
change along their length.
▪ A liquid is flowing from left to right and the pipe is narrowing in the same
direction. By the continuity principle, the mass flow rate must be the
same at each section - the mass going into the pipe is equal to the mass
going out of the pipe. So we can write:
 1 A1 V 1 =  2 A2 V 2

▪ As we are considering a liquid, usually

water, which is not very compressible,
the density changes very little so we can
say 1 =2 =. This also says that the
volume flow rate is constant or that
▪ Discharge at section 1 = Discharge at
section 2
Figure:Pipe with a
Q1 = Q2 contraction
A1 V 1
A1V1 = A2V2 or V2 =
A2
Another example is a diffuser, a pipe which expands or
diverges as in the figure below
The continuity principle can also be used to determine the
velocities in pipes coming from a junction.

Total mass flow into the junction = Total mass flow out of the
junction
 1 Q1 =  2 Q2 +  3 Q3
When the flow is incompressible (e.g. water) 1 = 2 = 
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
A1V1 = A2V2 + A3V3
EXAMPLE : Water Flow through a Garden Hose Nozzle
A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to fill a 10-gal bucket. The
inner diameter of the hose is 2 cm, and it reduces to 0.8 cm at the nozzle
exit (Fig. 5–12). If it takes 50 s to fill the bucket with water, determine (a)
the volume and mass flow rates of water through the hose, and (b) the
average velocity of water at the nozzle exit.

Assumptions 1 Water is an incompressible substance. 2 Flow through

the hose is steady. 3 There is no waste of water by splashing.

Properties We take the density of water to be 1000 kg/m3 1 kg/L.

Analysis (a) Noting that 10 gal of water are discharged in 50 s, the

volume and mass flow rates of water are
(b) The cross-sectional area of the nozzle exit is

The volume flow rate through the hose and the nozzle is constant.
Then the average velocity of water at the nozzle exit becomes
Q. A river is 40m wide, 2.2m deep and flows at 4.5 m/s. It passes
through a 3.7-m wide gorge, where the flow rate increases to 6.0
m/s. How deep is the gorge?

𝐴2 = 𝑤2𝑑2
𝐴1 = 𝑤1𝑑1

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∶ 𝐴1𝑣1 = 𝐴2𝑣2 → 𝑤1𝑑1𝑣1 = 𝑤2𝑑2𝑣2

𝑤1𝑑1𝑣1 40 × 2.2 × 4.5
𝑑2 = = = 18 𝑚
𝑤2𝑣2 3.7 × 6.0
 THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

◼ The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between

pressure,velocity, and elevation, and is valid in regions of steady,
incompressible flow where net frictional forces are negligible ( as
shown in the Figure below). Despite its simplicity, it has proven to be
a very powerful tool in fluid mechanics.

The Bernoulli equation is an

approximate equation that is valid
only in in viscid regions of flow
where net viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to
inertial, gravitational, or pressure
forces. Such regions occur
outside of boundary layers and
wakes.
Work and Energy
(Principle Of Conservation Of Energy)
▪ friction: negligible
▪ sum of kinetic energy and gravitational
potential energy is constant. Recall :
▪ Kinetic energy = ½ mV2
▪ Gravitational potential energy = mgh
(m: mass, V: velocity, h: height above the
datum).
To apply this to a falling body we have an initial velocity of
zero, and it falls through a height of h.
▪ Initial kinetic energy = 0
▪ Initial potential energy = mgh
▪ Final kinetic energy = ½ mV2
▪ Final potential energy = 0
We know that,
▪ kinetic energy + potential energy = constant

Initial Initial Final Final

{ kinetic
Energy
}+{ potential
Energy
}={ Kinetic
Energy
}+{ Potential
Energy }
mgh = ½ mV2 or V = 2 gh
continuous jet of liquid

Figure: The
trajectory of a
jet of water

▪ a continuous jet of water coming from a pipe with velocity V1.

▪ One particle of the liquid with mass m travels with the jet and falls from
height z1 to z2.
▪ The velocity also changes from V1 to V2. The jet is traveling in air where
the pressure is everywhere atmospheric so there is no force due to pressure
acting on the fluid.
▪ The only force which is acting is that due to gravity. The sum of the kinetic
and potential energies remains constant (as we neglect energy losses due
to friction) so :
mgz1 + mV12 = mgz2 + mV22
▪ As m is constant this becomes :
V12 + gz1 = V22 + gz2
Flow from a reservoir
◼ The level of the water in the reservoir is z1.
Considering the energy situation - there is no
movement of water so kinetic energy is zero but
the gravitational potential energy is mgz1.
◼ If a pipe is attached at the bottom water flows
along this pipe out of the tank to a level z2. A
mass m has flowed from the top of the reservoir
to the nozzle and it has gained a velocity V2. The
kinetic energy is now ½mV22 and the potential
Figure : Flow energy mgz2. Summarising :
from a reservoir
▪ Initial kinetic energy = 0
▪ Initial potential energy = mgz1
▪ Final kinetic energy = ½ mV22
▪ Final potential energy = mgz2
So
mgz1 = ½ mV22 + mgz2
mg ( z1 - z2 ) = ½ mV22
 V2 = 2 g ( z1 − z 2 )
Bernoulli's Equation
2 2
p1 V1 p 2 V2
+ + z1 = + + z2
g 2 g g 2 g
Bernoulli's equation has some restrictions in its applicability, they
are:
▪ Flow is steady;
▪ Density is constant (which also means the fluid is incompressible);
▪ Friction losses are negligible.
▪ The equation relates the states at two points along a single streamline,
(not conditions on two different streamlines).
 Figure : A
contracting
expanding pipe

◼ A fluid of constant density = 960 kg/m3 is flowing steadily through

the above tube. The diameters at the sections are d1 = 100mm and
d2 = 80mm. The gauge pressure at 1 is P1 = 200 kN/m2 and the
velocity here is V1 = 5m/s. What is the gauge pressure at section 2.
◼ Bernoulli equation is applied along a streamline joining section 1
with section 2.
◼ The tube is horizontal, with z1 = z2 so Bernoulli gives us the
following equation for pressure at section 2:
▪ But we do not know the value of V2. We can calculate this from the
continuity equation: Discharge into the tube is equal to the discharge out
i.e. AV = A V
1 1 2 2

A1V1
V2 =
A2
2
d 
V2 =  1  V1
 d2 
2
 0.1 
  5
 0.08 
= 7.8125 m/s

So we can now calculate the pressure at section 2


P2 = P1+ (V12 – V22) = 200000 + 960 (52 – 7.81252)
2 2
p2 = 200000 -17296.87
= 182703 N/m2
= 182.7 kN/m2
Modifications of Bernoulli Equation
◼ In practice, the total energy of a streamline does not remain constant.
Energy is ‘lost’ through friction, and external energy may be either :
▪ added by means of a pump or
▪ extracted by a turbine.
◼ Consider a streamline between two points 1 and 2. If the energy head lost
through friction is denoted by HL and the external energy head added (say
by a pump) is or extracted (by a turbine) HE, then Bernoulli's equation may
be rewritten as :

H 1± H E = H 2 + H L
or
𝑝1 𝑉1 2 𝑝2 𝑉2 2
+ + 𝑧1 ± 𝐻𝐸 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝐻𝐿
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

HE = energy head added/loss due to external source such as pump/turbines

The Power Equation
In the case of work done over a fluid the power input into the
flow is :
P = gQHE (3.13)
where Q = discharge,
HE = head added / loss
If p = efficiency of the pump, the power input required,

gQH E
Pin =
p (3.14)
EXAMPLE Spraying Water into the Air
Water is flowing from a hose attached to a water main at 400 kPa gage (Fig.
below). A child places his thumb to cover most of the hose outlet, causing a
thin jet of high-speed water to emerge. If the hose is held upward, what is the
maximum height that the jet could achieve?

This problem involves the conversion of flow, kinetic, and potential energies
to each other without involving any pumps, turbines, and wasteful
components with large frictional losses, and thus it is suitable for the use of
the Bernoulli equation. The water height will be maximum under the stated
assumptions. The velocity inside the hose is relatively low (V1 = 0) and we
take the hose outlet as the reference level (z1= 0). At the top of the water
trajectory V2 = 0, and atmospheric pressure pertains. Then the Bernoulli
equation simplifies to
EXAMPLE Water Discharge from a Large Tank
A large tank open to the atmosphere is filled with water to a height of 5 m from
the outlet tap (Fig. below). A tap near the bottom of the tank is now opened, and
water flows out from the smooth and rounded outlet. Determine the water velocity
at the outlet.
This problem involves the conversion of flow, kinetic, and potential energies to
each other without involving any pumps, turbines, and wasteful components
with large frictional losses, and thus it is suitable for the use of the Bernoulli
equation. We take point 1 to be at the free surface of water so that P1= Patm
(open to the atmosphere), V1 = 0 (the tank is large relative to the outlet), and z1=
5 m and z2 = 0 (we take the reference level at the center of the outlet).
Also, P2 = Patm (water discharges into the atmosphere).
Then the Bernoulli equation simplifies to

Solving for V2 and substituting

The relation is called the Toricelli equation.

EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE:
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