Open Channel Flow

An Open Channel is a water conveyance system in which the flow has a

free surface; that is, its boundary is exposed to the atmosphere. Therefore,
the pressure on the free surface is atmospheric and the flow is mainly due
to gravity.

Dr. KVS’Ram
Open Channel Flow Vs Pipe Flow
Open Channel Flow Pipe Flow (Closed conduit flow)
Free surface exists (exposed to There is no free surface
atmosphere).

Flow occurs mainly due to gravity Flow is due to hydraulic gradient

(pressurized flow)

More complex: Less complex:

variations due to free surface, Cross section is usually regular
channel cross section, roughness, and constant along the length
and slope along the length make and roughness inside the pipe is
the study complex more or less uniform.

Dr. KVS’Ram
Geometric Elements
• Prismatic Channel is a channel with the same cross section (artificial channels).
(Non-prismatic channel is the one in which the channel cross section varies from one
point to another point. Eg. Natural channels)
• Area of flow, A = flow area perpendicular to the flow direction
• Depth of flow, y = vertical distance of the channel bed from free surface;
• Depth of flow section, d = depth of flow normal to the flow.
[if θ is the longitudinal slope of the channel, d = y cosθ; for small θ, y ≈ d]
• Stage is the elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above a datum.
• Top width, T is the width of the channel section at the free surface.
• Wetted perimeter P is the perimeter of the wetted portion of the channel section.
• Hydraulic Radius, Rh is the ratio of the water area to its wetted perimeter, Rh=A/P
• Hydraulic depth, D is the ratio of water area to the top width , D = A/T
• Section factor, Z is the product of the water area and square root of the hydraulic
depth, Z =A.√D

Dr. KVS’Ram
Non Dimensional Numbers
We know that in fluid flows three forces namely, Viscous force, gravity
force and inertial forces are significant.
To consider the relative effect of each force we consider non-dimensional
numbers such as Froude Number and Reynolds Number:

Froude Number is ratio of the inertial force to the gravity force of the
flowing fluid: 2
Fi V V U
Fe    
Fg gL gL gD

Where V = characteristic velocity of the flow (Average Velocity,

Uavg); L = Characteristic length of the flow (hydraulic depth, D= Area, A/ Top
width, T)

Reynolds Number is ratio of inertial force to the viscous force of the

flowing fluid: Rh= hydraulic radius
(=Area, A / Wetted perimeter, P)
Fi VL U Rh
Re   
Fv  
Dr. KVS’Ram
Classification of Open Channel Flow
I. Classification based on combined effect of viscous and gravity forces:
1. Subcritical-laminar flow: F<1 and flow is laminar (Re <= 500)
2. Supercritical-laminar flow: F>1 and flow is laminar (Re <= 500)
3. Supercritical-turbulent flow: F>1 and flow is turbulent (Re > 2000)
4. Subcritical-turbulent flow: F<1 and flow is turbulent (Re > 2000)
5. Subcritical-transient flow: F<1 and the flow is in transition between laminar and
turbulent (Re 500 ~ 2000)
6. Supercritical-transient flow: F>1 and the flow is in transition between laminar and
turbulent (Re 500 ~ 2000)

In general real life open channel flow is turbulent and the first two categories above are
not common (they occur in very thin sheets of flow in laboratory models).

Dr. KVS’Ram
Classification of Open Channel Flow
II. Classification based on variation of flow depth with respect to space and
time:
1. Steady uniform flow: The flow is steady (y/t=0) and uniform
(y/x=0); mostly uniform flow is associated with steady flow so we
frequently refer this as simply ‘uniform flow’.
2. Steady non-uniform flow (steady varied flow): This flow is steady
(y/t=0) but non-uniform (y/x≠0). This flow is further divided
as gradually varied flow (when the flow depth changes gradually.
eg: flow in a reservoir behind a dam) and rapidly varied flow (when
the flow depth changes rapidly. eg: flow within hydraulic jump)
3. Unsteady uniform flow: Though this flow is possible conceptually
practically we don’t see such a flow.
4. Unsteady non-uniform flow (unsteady varied flow): In this flow
depth varies with both time and space, such as in a flood wave.
This flow is again classified as gradually varied unsteady and
rapidly varied unsteady flow.

Dr. KVS’Ram
Velocity Distribution
We have seen that in a pipe the velocity distribution is parabolic: Maximum at central axis
and zero at pipe walls.
In open channel flow also the velocity distribution is approximately
parabolic, with maximum velocity at slightly below the free surface (at 0.2 *
Y, Y=depth of flow) and Average velocity at about 0.6*Y from the surface.

[Though we expect maximum velocity at the free surface, that is maximum distance away
from the boundary, the velocity at the free surface is slightly reduced due to secondary
currents and is a function of the aspect ratio of the channel]

For better accuracy average velocity can

be computed as follows:
Vavg = [V0.2+V0.8]/2
where Vavg is average velocity;
V0.2 and V0.8 are velocities at 0.2Y
and 0.8Y from the free surface
[Y = depth of flow]
Dr. KVS’Ram
Velocity distribution coefficients

As a result of non uniform velocity distribution, the velocity head, V2avg /2g
needs correction as α.V2avg /2g where α (called Coriolis coefficient) = energy
coefficient and its value is in the range 1.03 ~ 1.36

Similarly, momentum of fluid passing through the channel per unit time is:
β.γQVavg where β (called Boussinesq coefficient) = momentum coefficient
and its value is in the range 1.01 ~ 1.12

Dr. KVS’Ram
Basic Governing Equations
1. Continuity equation (2-D): u v
 0
x y
2. Energy Equation: v2 p
  z  Constant
2g g

Dr. KVS’Ram
Uniform Flow – Chezy’s Equation
Consider a uniform flow of water in an open channel as shown in the
figure between section 1-1 and 2-2. The flow is uniform which means
that the depth of flow is constant (it follows that area of flow
(prismatic channels) and velocity flow are also constant).

Dr. KVS’Ram
Uniform Flow – Chezy’s Equation
Applying the momentum principle between sections, 1-1 and 2-2 in the direction of flow,
[Net force = rate of change of momentum]
P1  W sin   Ff  P2  0
where P1 and P2 are pressure forces and P1 = P2 as flow depth is constant;
W sin θ = weight of fluid between sections 1-1 and 2-2;
Ff = Frictional resistance at the boundary;
Since the flow is uniform, velocity at sections 1 and 2 are same hence change in
momentum is zero.
Now, W = γAL and Ff = τoPL where τo = Average shear stress on the wetted perimeter of
length, P and γ = unit weight of water. Replacing sin θ by S0 ( = bottom slope),
A
or  ALS0   0 PL  0   S0   RS 0
Where R = Hydraulic radius. P
We know τo = k.ρ.V2 from our knowledge on laminar flow in pipes (k=coefficient dependent on
the nature of the surface and is similar to Darcy’s coefficient, f ) Now, τo = k.ρ.V2 = γR S0  k.
ρ.V2 = γR S0
RS 0 g Where ‘C’ is chezy’s
V  2
V  . RS 0  V  C. RS 0 constant
k k Dr. KVS’Ram
Chezy’s Constant
Note that Chezy’s Coefficient or Constant is not a dimensionless quantity and it has a
dimension of √g [L1/2T-1] and there are several empirical formulae to arrive at the
value of ‘C’.
0.00155 1
23  
S0 n
(i) Ganguillet-Kutter Formula for ‘C’: C 
 0.00155  n
1  23  
 S 0  R
Where, n = Kutter’s coefficient and is
dependent on channel surface and its condition and some typical values of ‘n’ are
given in the next page.

157.6
C
(ii) Bazen’s Formula for ‘C’: m
1.81 
R

here, ‘m’ = Bazen’s roughness coefficient and some typical values are given in the
next page.

Dr. KVS’Ram
Chezy’s Constant
(ii) Kutter’s ‘n’ values:

(ii) Bazen’s ‘m’ values:

Dr. KVS’Ram
Manning’s formula
A resistance formula proposed by Robert Manning, an Irish engineer,
for uniform flow in open channels, is 1
V  R 2 3 S 01 2
n
Where, ‘n’ is a roughness coefficient known as Manning’s ‘n’.
Owing to its simplicity of form and acceptable degree of accuracy in
a variety of practical applications, the Manning’s formula is the
most widely used uniform-flow formula in the world. Comparing
Manning’s formula with the Chezy formula, we get: 1 16
C R
n

The values of Manning’s ‘n’ are found to be approximately equal to

those of kutter’s ‘n’ for the normal ranges of slope and hydraulic
radius. (these values can be seen in the previous slide).
Working from the Prandtl-von karman velocity distribution, Strickler
has deduced Manning’s ‘n’ for turbulent flow as: n  1 k 1 6
24
Where, ‘k’=average height of roughness protrusions
Dr. KVS’Ram
in meters.
Computation of Uniform flow
The Manning's formula and the continuity equation, Q =AV form the
basic equations for uniform-flow computations:
1
Q  AR 2 3S01 2  K S0
n
1
where, K AR 2 3 is called the Conveyance of the channel and
n
expresses the discharge capacity of the channel per unit
longitudinal slope. The term AR2/3 is sometimes called the Section
Factor for uniform-flow computations.

We have, AR2/3 = Q.n / √S0\

Here we can note that for a given channel geometry AR2/3 term is
function of flow depth, ‘y’ only. Or, for a given ‘Q’, ‘n’ and ‘S0’
values of the uniform flow, the above relation specifies a flow
depth, ‘y’. It can be shown that there is only one depth for a given
set of ‘Q’, ‘n’ and ‘S0’ provided, the top width remains constant or
increases with increase in the flow depth. This depth is called the
normal depth, ‘yn’. Dr. KVS’Ram
Computation of Uniform flow
However, in the case of oval, circular sections (reducing top width)
two normal depths are possible.
Similarly, the values of the slope, discharge calculated for a uniform
flow of a specified depth are called normal slope, normal
discharge respectively.

Types of uniform flow computation problems:

(1) Find Q (or V), S0 or n given other quantities – Explicit solution
(2) Find y0 given other quantities – Trial and error solution
(3) Find Geometric elements given other quantities – Trial and
error solution.

Dr. KVS’Ram
Most Economical Section
The conveyance ( K  1n AR ) of a channel of a given area increases
2 3

with a decrease in its perimeter. Hence a channel section having

the minimum perimeter for a given area of flow provides the
maximum value of the conveyance. With the slope, roughness
coefficient and area of flow fixed, a minimum perimeter geometry
will be the hydraulically-efficient section as it conveys maximum
discharge. This hydraulically-efficient channel section is also
called the most economical section or best section.

Of all the various possible open channel sections, the semicircular

shape has the least amount of perimeter for a given area.

For a given shape, however, we can find the proportions of the

dimensions for most economical sections by minimizing the
perimeter.

Dr. KVS’Ram
Rectangular Section…
Bottom width = B and depth of flow = y
Area of flow, A = B.y (=constant)
Wetted perimeter, P = B+2y = (A/y +2y) as the function of ‘y’.
For hydraulically efficient section, ‘P’ need to be minimum. Or,
dP A
 0   2  2  0  A  2 ye2  B. ye  2 ye2
dy y
 B  2 ye ; and ye  B / 2; and Re  A / P  2 ye2 / 4 ye  ye / 2
The suffix ‘e’ here denotes the geometric elements of a hydraulically-efficient
section. Thus it is seen that for a rectangular channel when the depth of flow
is equal to half the bottom width a hydraulically-efficient section is obtained.

Hydraulically Efficient
Rectangular Section
Dr. KVS’Ram
Trapezoidal Section…
Bottom width = B, side slope = ‘m’ horizontal : ‘1’ vertical (given).
Area, A = (B+m.y)y (=constant)
Wetted perimeter, P  B  2 y. m2  1  A  my  2 y. m2  1
y
For hydraulically efficient section, ‘P’ need to be minimum. Or,
dP A
 0   2  2 m 2  1  m  0  A  ye2 (2 m 2  1  m)
dy y
 ye2 (2 m 2  1  m)  ( Be  mye ) ye  Be  2 ye ( m 2  1  m)
and , Pe  2 ye ( m 2  1  m)  2 ye m 2  1  2 ye (2 m 2  1  m)
A ye2 (2 m 2  1  m) ye
Re   
Pe 2 ye (2 m  1  m) 2
2

That is, for trapezoidal section also (as in Rectangular section), hydraulic radius,
‘R’ equals half of the depth of flow, ‘y’.

Dr. KVS’Ram
Trapezoidal Section…graphical
Let us see the geometry of the above most economical section
graphically. Refer the sketch below:
OR
OS  ye ; OT  OR sin   2
m2  1 (as sinθ = 1/√(m +1)

For most economical section:

Be
OR   mye  y e ( m 2  1  m)  mye  y e m 2  1
2
OR y e m2  1
 OT    ye
m 1
2
m 1
2

That is, OS=OT=ye. Or, the most

economical section is such that a
semicircle can be inscribed in it.

Dr. KVS’Ram
Trapezoidal Section: ’m’ can vary…
In the above analysis, the side slope ‘m’ was held constant. However,
if ‘m’ is allowed to vary, the optimum value of ‘m’ to make
most efficient Pe is obtained by putting ∂Pe / ∂m = 0.
A
We have, A  y (2 m  1  m)  ye 
2
e
2

( 2 m 2  1  m)
A
and, Pe  2 ye (2 m 2  1  m)  (2 m 2  1  m).2
( 2 m 2  1  m)

 Pe  2 A(2 m 2  1  m)
dPe 2  2  2m
setting 0 . A .2m  1  0  1  0
dm 2 A(2 m 2  1  m)  2 m  1  m 1
2 2

 4mem  mem  1  mem  1 / 3 or,  em  60o

2 2

[' em' suffix is for ' most efficient' section]

Dr. KVS’Ram
Most efficient Trapezoidal Section
2 1
Now, A  y (2 m  1  m)  y (2
2
e
2 2
em  )  3. yem 2

3 3
1
Also, A  ( B  my) y  3. yem
2
 ( Bem  yem ) yem
3
1 2
 Bem  3. yem  yem  Bem  yem
3 3
2
If L is the length of the side slope, Lem  yem m  1  Lem 
2
yem  Lem  Bem
3
2
 Pem  3. yem  2 3. yem
3

That is, the most efficient trapezoidal section is one half of the
hexagonal.

Dr. KVS’Ram
Most economical Triangular Section
Consider the triangular section as shown:
1 A
Here, A  .2 ym. y  y 2 m  m  2 ;
2 y
A2 A2
P  2y m 1  2y
2
 1  2.  y 2

y4 y2
dP 1   2 A2 
We need 0 . 3
 2 y   0
dy A2  y 
 y 2

y2
2 A2
 3  2 ye  A  ye2  me  1   e  45o
ye
ye2 y
Pe  2 ye 2 ; Re  A / Pe   e ; Top width, Te  2 ye me  2 ye
2 ye 2 2 2

That is the most economical triangular section would be the one with
side slopes 45o or m=1.
Dr. KVS’Ram
Most economical circular Section
For the circular cross section of given radius, both
area and perimeter are fixed for a given depth.
Or, we can’t have a minimum perimeter for a given
area.
So, we consider two cases:
• Condition for maximum velocity:
For this case, y = 1.62r = 0.81D (D = diameter) Velocity is maximum when R  A/P
Hydraulic radius, R = 0.3D is maximum with respect to :
 sin 2 
A  r 2   ; P  2 r
 2 
d ( A / P)  dA dA 
 0  P  A  / P2  0
d  d d 
 2  257.5o  1.62r
• Condition for maximum discharge: Discharge is maximum when AR 2/3
 A 5/3 /P 2/3
For this case, y = 1.898r = 0.95D; is maximum with respect to :
Hydraulic radius, R = 0.29D Ar  
 sin 2 
2
; P  2 r
 2 
d (A 5/3 /P 2/3 )
 0  ...  2  257.5o  1.62r
d
 y  1.898r  0.95 D
Dr. KVS’Ram
Most economical sections: summary table
Similarly, we can work out most economical sections for various
geometrical sections. The below table gives a summary of most
efficient geometrical sections.

Dr. KVS’Ram