UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

B.Sc. (Eng.) course 2006/7 Second year students
WR 212 OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS

1. Introduction

1.1 Classification of channels

 Natural: e.g. River channels (irregular in shape, alignment & roughness of
the surface)
 Artificial: e.g. Canals, flumes, enclosed conduits (e.g. sewers & culverts)
operating partially full (Built for specific purpose, regular in shape,
alignment & roughness of the boundary surface is also uniform). Channels
in this category are mainly natural channels.
Therefore, channels exclude pipes, which always flow full and under pressure.

1.2 Typical / common shapes of open channels (channel geometry)

The open channels geometry can be broadly categorized as:
 Prismatic, where the cross-section is uniform and the bed slope is
constant (mainly artificial channels).
 Non-prismatic, where either the cross-section or the slope or both
change.
The typical / common shapes are:
 Rectangular
 Trapezoidal
 Triangular
 Circular
 Parabolic

1.3 Characteristic feature of channel flow

 Free surface

1
  Hydraulic gradient is coincident with the free surface of water and
sectional area of flow expands or contracts in accordance the discharge
 Atmospheric pressure (ignored in many cases) but pressure of the fluid
itself on the surrounding is considered
 Flow driven by gravity or potential energy (unlike pressure in pipes)

1.4 Importance of channels

 River control – water allocation, flood control (Reservoir regulation),
maintain minimum flow for aquatic life, etc.
 Inland navigation – Transport (objects & people), sports
 Land drainage – small channels in the soil as rotten roots, cracks, culverts
 Irrigation (ditches)
 Water supply – mixing of chemicals or disinfectants
 Sanitation – Wastewater drainage / circular pipes for prevention of odors,
flies, etc.
Therefore, it is required to understand basic laws governing channel flow.

1.5 Fluid properties (refer to the WR 211 Fluid Mechanics course)

For example: Specific weight, density, specific gravity, etc.

1.5.1 Ideal and real fluids

Ideal fluids: encounters no resistance to flow and therefore continuously
accelerates due to gravity. As the velocity increases, the flow
depth decreases to maintain a continuity of mass and this is
known as varied flow.
Real fluids: encounters resistance due to friction (channel roughness) and
viscosity. Resistance is small when the velocity is small, so gravity
causes acceleration and varied flow. As the velocity increases,
resistance increases until it balances the forces of gravity. This

2
 balance is characterized by no change of flow cross-section, depth
or velocity. This is uniform flow.

1.6 Types of flow

 Laminar (very low velocity) or Turbulent (determinant is the Reynolds
number, Re; whether or not the viscous force is predominant factor)
 Steady or Unsteady
 Uniform or Non-uniform (Varied)
 Sub-critical - streaming or Supercritical - rapid or shooting (defining the
nature of flow: determinant is the critical depth)

1.7 Classification of flows

Flow

Unsteady Steady

Uniform Varied Uniform Varied

Gradually Rapidly Gradually Rapidly

Fig. 1: Classification of flows

Types / classification of flows

1.7.1 Steady flow

3
The flow is steady when at a particular section, the depth of liquid and other
parameters such as velocity, area of cross-section, discharge do not change with
time.
Steady v / t = 0

1.7.2 Unsteady flow

In an unsteady flow, the depth of flow and other characteristics change with
time. Examples are: wave propagation, uniform progressive flow and moving
hydraulic jump.
Unsteady v / t # 0

1.7.3 Uniform and Non-uniform flow

The flow is uniform flow when the depth or velocity of liquid is constant. Also,
when the mean velocity from one section to another is constant. Essentially
uniform flow is the result of an exact balance between the gravity and frictional
forces.

Uniform v / x = 0 or y / x = 0

Fig. 2: Uniform flow

4
The opposite is non-uniform flow, where the depth varies along the length of
the channel (e.g. between converging or diverging boundaries). Non-uniform
flow is also called varied flow.

Varied v / x # 0 or y / x # 0

Non-uniform flow can be further divided into two types: Gradually varied flow
and Rapidly varied flow.

In gradually varied flow, the variation of the depth of liquid along the length is
gradual. In this type of flow, we find water surface profiles and their lengths.
Flow through hydraulic structures is a typical example.

y1
y2

Dam

Fig. 3: Gradually varied flow

In rapidly varied flow, the change in depth is sudden (e.g. water flow over an
overflow dam, there is a sudden rise of water at the toe of the dam and a
hydraulic jump (low stage to high stage) forms. Another common phenomena is
a hydraulic drop (from high stage to low stage). We are generally interested in
the location of the rapidly varied phenomenon and its effect on the flow.

1.8 Three fundamental Equations (from fundamental laws of Physics)

These are basic relationships that we use to analyze open channel flow. They
account of the mass, energy and momentum in a system:

5
  Conservation of matter (or mass) – The continuity equation
Mass (matter) can not be destroyed nor created. In fluid mechanics
& in open channel hydraulics, conversion by chemical activity is not
considered
 Conservation of energy – The energy equation
Energy budget
 Conservation of momentum – The momentum equation
Momentum budget

1.9 Definitions
 Area of cross-section (or wetted area), A – is the area of the liquid
surface cut when a cross-section is taken normal to the direction of flow.
 Depth of flow, y – is the vertical distance between the lowest point of the
channel section and the free surface.
 Depth of flow section, d – is the depth of liquid at the section measured
normal to the direction of flow. A relation between the depth of flow, y and
the depth of flow section, d is: d = y cosθ, where θ is the angle, which the
bed line makes with horizontal. For a channel with small slope, the value
of cosθ will be approximately unity. Therefore, d ≈ y.
 Wetted perimeter, P – is the length of the line (or curve) of intersection of
the wetted surface with a plane normal to the direction of flow. In other
words, it is the length of the perimeter of the section, which is wetted. The
free surface is not included in the wetted perimeter as there is no
boundary surface to cause friction.
 Hydraulic radius, R – is the ratio of the area of cross-section to the
wetted perimeter (R = A/P).
 Hydraulic depth (Hydraulic mean depth), D – is the ratio of the wetted
area, A to the top width, T (D = A/T).
 Stage – is the elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above a
datum. If the lowest point of the channel section is taken as the datum, the
stage is the same as the depth of flow, y.

6
  Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL) – is the line indicating the pressure at
various sections along the channel. In case of open channels, the HGL
coincides with the liquid surface. If a piezometer is inserted in an open
channel, the liquid will rise in the tube to the level of the liquid surface. The
liquid surface slope, Sw is the slope of the liquid surface or HGL.
 Energy Gradient Line (EGL) – is the line indicating the total energy of the
liquid with respect to a selected datum. The EGL is above the HGL. The
vertical distance between the two lines is αV 2/2g, where α is the velocity
distribution factor, which takes into account the non-uniform distribution of
velocity across the section. The value of α varies from 1.1 to 1.2 for the
turbulent flow in open channels. However, for simplicity it is usually taken
as unity.
 Hydraulic slope, S – is the slope of the total energy line: S = h f / L. Where
L is the length of the channel in which the drop of the total energy line is
hf. For uniform flow, S = S w = So. For small So, So = tangent or sine of
angle.
<End of 17/2/2004 Introductory Lecture>

2. Velocity distribution

There is free surface and friction along the channel wall of open channel. The
velocity at a solid boundary must be zero and in open channel flow it generally
increases with distance from the boundaries (non-uniformly distributed in the
channel section). The maximum velocity does not occur at the free surface but is
usually below the free surface a distance of 0.05 to 0.25 of the depth.

2.1 Theoretical derivation

Consider laminar flow in a channel of unit-plan area with an elemental layer
bounded by the section line x-x and the free surface (column of water) under
equilibrium condition:

7
 Elemental layer
x
y

x
vmax
dcos  d
v


Fig. 4: Laminar flow with a free surface

The component of the gravitational force parallel to the slope is g(d – y)sin and
this is resisted by the shear force, . Note that y is measured from the channel
bed to the water surface.

 = g(d – y)sin
By the Newton’s law of viscosity,  =  (dv / dy);  is dynamic viscosity [N.s/m2]
 (dv / dy) = g(d – y)S; S = sin, the longitudinal slope

 dv = g(d – y)S dy
dv = (gS/) (d – y)dy
 = / is kinematic viscosity [m2/s]
dv = (gS/) (d – y)dy
dv = (gS/) (d – y)dy
v = (gSy/) (d – y/2) + C; C is a constant of integration
For v = 0 when y = 0, C = 0
v = (gSy/) (d – y/2)
v = gSyd/ – gSy2/2, which is an equation of a parabola.
Therefore, the velocity distribution is parabolic under uniform flow. The
roughness of the channel will cause the curvature of the vertical-velocity-
distribution curve to increase (deviates from parabolic).

8
2.1.1 Maximum velocity determination
dv / dy = gSd/ – gSy/
For maximum velocity, dv / dy = 0:
gSd/ = gSy/
y=d
Therefore, maximum velocity occurs at the surface.
Substituting y =d in the velocity distribution equation above,
vmax = gSd2/ – gSd2/2
vmax = gSd2/2

2.1.2 Mean velocity, V determination

V = gSd2/3 = (2/3)vmax
Therefore, the mean velocity over the depth d is (2/3)v max.

2.1.3 The location of the mean velocity

Substitute (equate) the mean velocity equation in the velocity distribution
equation and solving the resulting quadratic equation for y = y m:
ym = 0.42d (only a fraction of d is allowed)
Therefore, the filament of mean velocity is located at 0.42d above the bed
(Because y is measured from the channel bed).

2.2 Velocity distribution in a practical (natural) channel

The velocity distribution is dependent on a number of factors, which include

boundary configuration (geometry) - cross section shape, alignment/bends;
surface roughness and discharge. The bends induces centrifugal force
causing high velocities near the outer bank of the channel.
Consider a natural river channel with contours of velocity superimposed:

9
 Water surface

80 100

40

Fig. 5: Cross-section of a river channel showing velocity distribution, with the

percentages (%) of maximum velocity

 Contours obtained by interpolation from point velocity data that were

obtained by traversing with a current meter.
 Maximum velocity is slightly below the surface because of secondary
currents, which are circulating from the boundaries towards the section
center and resistance at the air/water interface.
 For wide shallow channels the maximum velocity can be located at the
surface.
 Economic reasons: Knowledge of the normal velocity distribution in a
vertical is of some assistance in flow gauging by current meter, since it is
more economical to record only one or possibly two representative
velocities in a vertical rather than undertake a traverse for the full depth.

Cite the general patterns for velocity distribution in other several channel
sections of channel shapes:
 Rectangular
 Triangular
 Trapezoidal
 Shallow ditch
 Narrow rectangular section
 Pipe

10
2.3 Approximation methods for mean velocity

The mean velocity in a vertical cross section occurs at approximately:

(1) 0.6 x bed depth, measured from the surface

(2) For a closer approximation, is the average of the velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 x
bed depth, which accords with a parabolic distribution, although there is no
theoretical justification for this.
- The mean velocity varies between 0.8 and 0.95 times the surface
velocity, the usual value being about 0.85.
- In the transverse direction the distribution is much more irregular,
except that in general the velocity adjacent to the sides is nearly
always less than that nearer to the center. Because of the
inconsistent nature of the distribution, it is not possible to define
the location of any singe point of measurement that will yield the
mean velocity over the entire cross-section.

(3) Karman-Prandtl hypothesis velocity distribution

The hypothesis (velocity is a logarithmic function of the distance y) was derived

for pipes but it has been extended to channel flow. For wide shallow channels the
equation gives good agreement with the facts and therefore is a very fair
representation of conditions in practice.

Where v* (= (o/) is shear velocity and k is effective roughness of the surface

(roughness height), which is the mean diameter of the sand grains used by
Nikuradse – Nikuradse Sand Roughness. The depth y is measured from the
channel bed.

The mean velocity over the full depth, d is given as:

11
From which,

Mean velocity,

And the height ym above the bed at which the filament (path line) velocity has the
mean value is obtained from:

or ym = 0.37d
Which compares very favorably with the conventional (theoretical) 0.4d derived
above.

Comparing with the average of the velocities at 0.2d and 0.8d:

At 0.2d:

And at 0.8d:

Giving an average velocity, V as:

Which compares reasonably well with equation .

Therefore, the extension to channel flow of the Karman-Prandtl hypothesis, with

its sound theoretical basis, clearly gives a very fair representation of conditions in
practice????

2.4 Wide-open channels

12
  For very wide-open channels, observations have shown that the velocity
distribution in the central region of the section is essentially the same as it
would be in a rectangular channel of infinite width.
 The sides of the channel have practically no influence on the velocity
distribution in the central region in the 2D flow
 Wide open channel can safely be defined as a rectangular channel
whose width is greater than 10 times the depth of flow.

2.5 Velocity distribution coefficients

The velocity coefficients are applied to the energy and momentum equations.
Because of non-uniform distribution of velocities over a channel section, the
velocity head of an open channel flow is generally greater than the value
computed according to the expression V2/2g, where V is the mean velocity.

The true velocity head may be expressed as V2/2g, where  is known as the
energy coefficient or Coriolis coefficient. And the true Kinetic Energy (K.E.)
may therefore be computed as AV3/2 if  and V are known.
 Experimental data indicate that the value of  varies from about 1.03 to
1.36 for fairly straight prismatic channels. The value is generally higher for
small channels and lower for large streams of considerable depth.
  = 1 for uniform velocity distribution across the channel section. Also,
assumed for regular cross-sections.
  = 1.6 for complex cross-sections
  is very large in steep channels than in flat channels.
 In most practical problems dealing with regular channels it is not
necessary to consider the variation of velocity throughout the cross-
section, since use of the average velocity will give the accuracy required.
The non-uniform distribution of velocities also affects the calculation of
momentum in open channel flow. Therefore, a momentum coefficient, β is
introduced in the momentum equation.

13
3. Pressure distribution

3.1 Uniform flow and gradually varied flow

The pressure at any point on the cross-section of the flow in a channel of small
slope can be measured by the height of the water column in a piezometer
tube installed at the point.

Water surface
A
h
HGL
h = hs h

Fig. 6: Uniform (parallel) flow (i.e. no acceleration as the velocity is constant)

The pressure at any point on the section is directly proportional to the depth
of the point below the free surface and equal to the hydrostatic pressure
corresponding to this depth. In other words, the distribution of pressure over
the cross-section of the channel is the same as the distribution of hydrostatic
pressure, i.e., the distribution is linear and can be represented by a straight
line AB.

For parallel flow, the streamlines have neither substantial curvature nor
divergence. As a result, there are no appreciable acceleration components
normal to the direction of flow that would disturb the hydrostatic pressure
distribution in the x-section of a parallel flow. Gradually varied flow may also be
regarded as parallel flow, since the change in depth of flow is so mild that the
streamlines have neither appreciable curvature nor divergence. For practical
purposes therefore, the hydrostatic law of pressure distribution is applicable to
gradually varied flow as well as to uniform flow.

14
3.2 Curvilinear flow

If the curvature of streamlines is substantial, the flow is theoretically known as

curvilinear flow. The effect of the curvature is to produce appreciable
acceleration components or centrifugal forces normal to the direction of flow.
Therefore, the pressure distribution over the section deviates from the
hydrostatic if curvilinear flow occurs in the vertical plane. Such curvilinear flow
may be either convex or concave as below:
c
A The nonlinear pressure distribution
is represented by AB’ instead of
hs
the straight distribution AB that
h would occur if the flow were
parallel.

The Centrifugal force acts upwards

against the gravity action. The
B’ pressure is less than the
h B
c hydrostatic pressure of a parallel
flow.

Fig. 7: Convex flow

The nonlinear pressure distribution
is represented by AB’ instead of
the straight distribution AB that
would occur if the flow were
c parallel.
h
The Centrifugal force points
downwards to reinforce the gravity
A
h action, so the resulting pressure is
hs greater than the hydrostatic
pressure of a parallel flow.

hs
B B’
Fig. 8: Concave flow

Examples are: Convex curvature of streamlines at the crest of a spillway and

concave curvature in the bucket at downstream end of a spillway.

15
Let the deviation from an otherwise hydrostatic pressure hs in a curvilinear flow
be designated by c. Then the true pressure or piezometric height h = hs + c.
The c is positive for concave flow, negative for convex flow and zero for parallel
flow.
For simplicity, the pressure head of a curvilinear flow may be represented by
’y, where ’ is a correction coefficient for the curvature effect. The correction
coefficient is referred to as a pressure distribution coefficient. Since this
coefficient is applied to a pressure head, it may be specifically called a pressure
coefficient.

Q is total discharge, y is depth of flow, ’ is greater than 1.0 for concave flow, ’
is less than 1.0 for convex flow and ’ is equal to 1.0 for parallel flow.

3.3 Rapidly varied flow

In rapidly varied flow the change in depth of flow is so rapid and abrupt that the
streamlines posses substantial curvature and divergence. Consequently, the
hydrostatic law of pressure distribution does not hold strictly for rapidly varied
flow.

3.4 Effect of slope on pressure distribution

3.4.1 Approach One (simplest and easy to understand)

Consider a liquid element of length, dL in a channel of unit (1 m) width having a

large bottom slope of angle .

16
Fig. 9a: Pressure distribution in large-slope channels

Weight of shaded portion = (acting vertically)

Weight on the surface x-x = (acting normally)
Therefore, pressure on x-x is given by:

The above equation states that the pressure at any vertical depth y is equal to
the hydrostatic pressure ( ) multiplied by . If the angle is small
will tend to unity. This lead to a definition of channels of small and large
slopes. If the angle does not exceed 60 (i.e. channel slope not steeper than 1
in 10), the pressure distribution may safely be taken as hydrostatic. Such
channels are known as having small bottom slope.

On the other hand, if the channels are steeper than 1 in 10 ( > 60), the
hydrostatic pressure needs to be corrected for the effect of channel steepness
(i.e. by a correction factor ). These channels are known as large sloped
channels.

3.4.2 Approach Two

Consider a straight sloping channel of unit width and slope angle .

A’ A Circular arcs used for

A graphical construction

17
 A’ h=dcos
A

h=ycos2 d=ycos
y
y

B B’ C dL
dcos
Pressure distribution,
on vertical section A’C C
B
Fig. 9b: A straight sloping channel of unit width and slope angle 

Channels of large slopes are rarely encountered in practice except, typically in

spillways and chutes.

The weight of the shaded water element of length dL is equal to ycosdL.

The pressure due to this weight is ycos2dL (for a length dL). The unit pressure
is therefore equal to ycos2, and the head is:
h = ycos2 or
h = dcos

Where d = ycos, is the depth measured perpendicular from the water surface in
other words the depth of flow section.
Horizontal line parallel to datum

dH = hL1-2
V2/2g Energy line slope, Sf

Water surface slope, Sw

y
dcos d

Channel bottom slope, So


z
dx
Datum
18

1 2
Fig. 10: Geometry for derivation of the gradually varied flow equation

From the geometry in the above figure, h = ycos2 does not apply strictly to
varied flow, particularly when  is very large, h becomes bigger whereas h =
dcos still applies.

The equation h = ycos2 states that the pressure head at any vertical depth is
equal to this depth (y) multiplied by a correction factor cos2. Apparently, if the
angle  is small, this factor will not differ appreciably from unity.
 The correction tends to decrease the pressure head by an amount less
than 1% until  is nearly 6o, a slope of about 1 in 10. Since the slope of
ordinary channels is far less than 1 in 10, the correction for slope
effect can usually be safely ignored. However, when the channel slope
is large and its effect becomes appreciable, the correction should be
made if accurate computation is desired. A channel of this type, say,
with a slope greater than 1 in 10, is hereafter called a channel of large
slope.
 For a channel of large slope, where a longitudinal vertical profile of
appreciable curvature, the pressure head should be corrected for the
effect of the curvature of streamlines. Simply, the pressure head may be
expressed as ’ ycos2, where ’ is the pressure coefficient.

4.0 Channel Flow Formulas / Equations

The need for flow equations arises following development from the industrial
revolution and hence great constructional works. A number of empirical formulae

19
that fit field and experimental data were developed and published. Only the three
most important ones are considered here: Chezy, Darcy-Weisbach and
Manning formula. Of these the Manning formula is the one that is now regarded
as the most appropriate (e.g. it is robust even to non-uniform flow conditions).

 To assist hydraulic engineers in the design of channels

Empirical hydraulics revolution

Chezy 1775 (French) Manning 1889 (Irish)

1750 1800 1850 1900 1950

Brahms (Germany) Darcy-Weisbach Chow 1959

(French-Germany) (American)

4.1 Chezy Equation

4.1.1 Chezy equation under assumption 1

Uniform flow:

(4.1.1)
y1 = y2  P1 = P2  V1 = V2, which affects Fs as it is equal to q(V2 – V1)
For uniform flow, the gravity (ALS) and resistance (oPL) forces are in
equilibrium so that oPL = ALS

20
 y1
V1 Wsin
y2
V2

W Rf

4.1.2 Chezy equation under assumption 2

The shear stresses are assumed proportional to the square of the mean
velocity.

L
P

Resistance force, Rf = shear stress x wetted area of contact

Rf = oPL

Where o is shear stress at the boundary (assumed constant over the surface or
a mean value), P is wetted perimeter and L is length of the channel.

As shear stress is assumed proportional to the square of the mean velocity, o =

V2 ( = constant coefficient).

Rf = V2PL (4.1.2)
Substitute Eq. 4.1.1 in Eq. 4.1.2:

21
ALS = V2PL

; R = Hydraulic radius

as

Determination of the Chezy’s Coefficient, C

About 4 formulas are available:

(1) Ganguillet & Kutter (swiss Engineers) formula (1869) in Metric units:

Where n is coefficient (Kutters’ n) dependent on the boundary roughness and S

is slope.

The equation form is complex.

22
(2) Bazin formula (1897) (French Hydraulic Engineer) in English units:

or in Metric units,

Where m is coefficient of roughness for different surfaces.

The equation is less satisfactory than the Ganguillet & Kutter form because of
calibration from small experiment channels.

(3) The Powel formula (1950) which is a logarithmic formula for the roughness of
artificial channels (Implicit function of C) in English units:

Where R in feet (ft), Re is the Reynolds number and  is a measure of channel

roughness.

The equation is limited to laboratory experiment and hence limited practical

application especially for .

(4) From the Manning formula (1889) (Irish Engineer) in Metric units:
The equation is obtained by comparing Manning and Chezy’s formula:

23
Where n is coefficient of surface roughness almost identical numerically with
Kutter’s n.

The complete description of the Manning’s formula ( ) will be given

later.

4.1.3 Darcy-Weisbach equation

The result of pipe experiments (fundamentals of pipe flow) is extended (modified)

to obtain an expression for flow resistance in open channels.

L P

Resistance force, Rf = shear stress x wetted area of contact

Rf = oPL

Where o is shear stress at the boundary (assumed constant over the surface or
a mean value), P is wetted perimeter and L is length of the channel.

The gravity force in the direction of flow = ALS

For equilibrium:

ALS = oPL

24
o = RS (4.1.3)

From the Darcy-Weisbach equation:

Where,  is the friction factor, h f is the friction loss, V is the mean velocity and D
is the pipe diameter.

The hydraulic radius, R = D/4 (for dimensional similarity, R is a logical length

characteristic and can be related to the shape). The relationship between Re for
channels and Re for pipes is Re(channel) = Re(pipe)/4.

Therefore, with D = 4R and hf / L = S also  = g  g =  / 

Equating the equation above and Eq. 4.1.3:

25
So

 Darcy-Weisbach formula was derived from the Stanton diagram, which is

a relationship between the Reynolds number (Re) and the friction factor
( of f) of the Darcy-Weisbach formula:

Where do is the diameter of pipe = 4R, R is the hydraulic radius of the

channel cross-section. Since , implying that , which is

applied to uniform and nearly uniform flows in open channels.

4.1.4 Manning’s equation (1889) (Irish Engineer)

The formula is widely used today (because of its simplicity and therefore straight
forward application, compares well within the normal limits of accuracy of
discharge measurement) and is also applicable to pipes.

SI units (Metric):

English units:

Where n is dimensionless.

Further comments on the equation:

26
  Developed empirically from 7 different formulas, based on Bazin’s
experimental data and further verified by 170 observations.
 Most widely used of all uniform-flow formula for open-channel flow (simple
and practical)
 For practical purposes Manning’s n and Kutter’s n can be considered
identical for S  0.0001 and R between 1.0 and 30.0 ft.

Determination of Manning’s n:

There are about four (4) methods for estimating n:

 Summarize the factors (size & shape of the grains of the material forming
the wetted perimeter) that affect the value of n and therefore acquire a
basic knowledge of the problem and narrow the wide range of guess-work
(sum components of roughness factors). E.g. fine grains result in a
relatively low value of n and coarse grains, in a high value of n;
vegetation - height, density, distribution & type of vegetation and it is
important in designing small drainage channels; stage and discharge – n
in most streams decreases with increase in stage and in stage, however in
shallow water, exposed irregularities of channel bottom and their effects
become pronounced, also, n value may be large at high stages if the
banks are rough and grassy.
 Table of typical n values for channels of various types
 Assign n from similar channels whose roughness coefficients are known
 Determine n by analytical method – based on theoretical velocity
distribution in the channel cross-section and on the data of either velocity
or roughness measurements.

5. Best Hydraulic section / Most efficient cross section

27
A channel section is said to be the most efficient if it gives the maximum
discharge for the given shape, slope, area and roughness. The most efficient
cross-section offers least resistance to flow.

 The most efficient section is usually the most economical section. The
cost of construction depends to a large extent on the quantity of
excavation. The quantity of excavation is proportional to the area. The
cost would be a minimum when the excavation is minimum for a given
discharge. In other words, for a given excavation, when the discharge
is a maximum. This condition is the same as that for the most efficient
section.
 Moreover, for the channel of the most efficient cross-section, because the
wetted perimeter is a minimum, the cost of the channel grading and
lining, which depends on the wetted perimeter, is also a minimum.

5.1 Formulation:

 For a given cross-section area and slope, the discharge, Q will be

maximum when R is a maximum
 Since R = A / P, the hydraulic radius will be a maximum when the
wetted perimeter is minimum for a given area
 It follows that for the most efficient section, the wetted perimeter should
be a minimum
 The most efficient section is usually the most economical section.

Cost = f (quantity of excavation)

Quantity of excavation = f (area)
Min(cost) = min(excavation for a given discharge)

28
From the Manning’s formula:

Q is maximum, when is a maximum.

Let x be a variable such as a leading dimension. The condition for maximum

discharge is:

For a given cross-section A, , the maximum discharge is obtained when

. That is when the wetted perimeter is a minimum. This section is

known as the best hydraulic section.

The most efficient cross-section is a circle or semi-circle but is not used in

practice because no full flow (circle) as an open channel and also the
difficulties in materials and construction.

Common shapes:

29
  Rectangular
 Trapezoidal
 Triangular

5.1.1 Rectangular section

A = bd; P = b + 2d
For a given A, P = A / d + 2d
For minimum P, dP / dd = -A /d2 + 2 = 0
bd / d2 = 2 or b = 2d

Therefore, the best proportions for a rectangular channel are such that the
inscribed semi-circle is tangential to the bed and sides (best rectangular
section).

For this condition:

R = A / P = 2d2 / 4d = d / 2
For wide channels (in comparison with the depth) (width > 25 x depth) R  d
(compare with definition of wide channel in sect. 2.3).
Generally, the value of R is between d and d / 2.

5.1.2 Trapezoidal section

d 1

30
b
If the side slope is s horizontally to 1 vertically, then

With given A,

For a minimum P, , from which

Top width,
The most efficient hydraulic section is when the top width is twice the length
of a sloping side.

, Which is the same value as for a rectangular section.

Example:
A trapezoidal channel carries a discharge of 2.5 cumecs. Design the section if
the slope is 1 in 1200 and the side slopes are 1 in 1. Use Chezy’s formula, C =
55.
Solution:
For the trapezoidal section to be the most efficient, R = D / 2 and from above
, Substituting in the equation for area A, gives:

Q = AV

31
From

b = 2 x 1.085 x 0.414 = 0.9 m

32