Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter One Lecture Notes

1. OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

1.1. Open channel flow and its classifications
At the end of this chapter the students should be able to:
Know the basic difference between open channel flow and pipe flow
Illustrate the types of open channel flow and kinds of channels
Introduction: Open channel flow is the passage in which the liquid is not completely enclosed by a
solid boundary, but has free surface exposed to atmosphere.
Example:
Flow in natural rivers
Streams Flow in irrigation channels
Flow in sewers
Flow in culverts with a free surface
Flow in pipes not running fully
Open channel flows versus pipe flow
Open channel: is a conduit for flow, which has a free surface, i.e. a boundary, exposed to the
atmosphere. The flow of water in a conduit may be either open channel flow or pipe flow. Open
channel is a conduit for flow which has a free surface, i.e. a boundary exposed to the atmosphere.
The two kinds of flows, i.e. open channel and pipe flow, are similar in many ways but differ in one
important aspect. Open channel flow must have a free surface, whereas pipe flow has none, since the
water must fill the whole conduit. A free surface is subject to atmospheric pressure. Pipe flow being
confined in closed conduit, exerts no direct atmospheric pressure but hydraulic pressure. In the case
of the flowing fluid in open channel, the motion is usually caused by gravity effects and the pressure
distribution within the fluid is generally hydrostatic.

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Figure 1.1a. Comparison between pipe flow and open channel flow.

The two kinds of flows are compared in Figure shown on the lift side is pipe flow. Two piezometer
tubes are installed on the pipe at section 1 and 2. The water levels in the tubes are maintained by the
pressure in the pipe at elevations represented by the so–called hydraulic grade line. The pressure
exerted by the water in each section of the pipe is indicated in the corresponding tube by the height
(y) of the water column above the centerline of the pipe. The total energy in the flow of the section
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with reference to a datum line is the sum of the elevation z of the pipe center line, the piezometric
V2
height of and the velocity head , where v is the mean velocity of flow. The energy is represented
2g
in the figure by what is called the energy grade line or a simply energy line. The loss of energy that
result when water flow from section 1 to section 2 is represented by hf. A similar diagram for open
channel flow is shown on the right side of Figure . For simplicity, it is assumed that the flow is
parallel and has a uniform velocity distribution and that the slope of the channel is small. In this
case, the water surface is the hydraulic grade line, and the depth of the water corresponds to the
piezometric height.
Despite the similarity between the two kinds of flow, it is much more difficult to solve problems of
flow in open channels than in pressure pipes.
Reasons:
1. In open channels the position of the free surface is likely to change with respect to time and
space,
2. Depth of flow (y), discharge (Q), and bottom slope (S) and slope of the free surface are
independent,
3. Physical condition of open channels varies more widely than that of pipes,
4. Cross section of open channel is widely variable and even might not be ridged,
5. Selection of friction coefficient is difficult and it varied with the position of the free surface,
ACTIVITY 1.1
2. Where is the HGL in case of the open channel flow?
3. What is the influence of the change in cross section of the pipe?
4. Is a half–filled pipe flow open channel flow or pipe flow?
5. What is open channel?
6. What are the different types of channel? Give example in each case.
7. What are the criteria for the channel said to be open channel flow?

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Classification of Open Channel flows

Types of flows
Open channels flow can be classified into many types and described in various ways. The following
classification is made according to the change in flow depth with respect to time and
 dy dy 
space  ,  .
 dt dx 
Steady flow and unsteady flow: Time as the criterion
Flow in an open channel is said to be steady if the depth of flow does not change or if it can be
assumed to be constant during the time interval under consideration at a fixed point. In steady flow
the flow variables (velocity, pressure, density, flow path etc) do not vary with time at the spatial
point in the flow. In steady flow streamline is also the path followed by an individual water particle.
The flow is unsteady if the depth changes with time. In most open channel problems it is necessary
to study flow behavior only under steady conditions. If, however, the change in flow condition with
respect to time is of major concern, the flow should be treated as unsteady. In floods and surges, for
instance, which are typical examples of unsteady flow, the stage of flow changes instantaneously as
the wave pass by, and the time element becomes vitally important in design of control structures. In
unsteady flow the flow variables (velocity, pressure, density, flow path etc) vary with time at the
spatial points in the flow.
Examples of unsteady flow:
 Oscillatory sea waves,
 Dam break flood waves,
 Surges due to gate operation,
 Floods.
For any flow, the discharge Q at a channel section is expressed by
Q = VA…………………………………………………………….Equation 1. 1
Where v is the mean velocity and A is the flow cross sectional area normal to the direction of the
flow, since the mean velocity is defined as the discharge divided by the cross-sectional area.
In most problems of steady flow the discharge is constant throughout the reach of the channel under
consideration; in other words the flow is continuous. Thus, using equation 1-1.
Q = V1 A1 = V2A2 ……………………………………………Equation 1.2
Where the subscripts designate different channel sections. This is the continuity equation for a
continuous steady flow.

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Figure 1. 1b steady and unsteady flow

Equation 1.2 obviously invalid, however, where the discharge of a steady flow is non-uniform along
the channel, that is, where water runs in or out along the course of the flow. This type of flow is
called spatially varied or discontinuous flow. Spatially constant flow occurs when the density and
average velocity are the same in all points in a flow field. If these quantities change along or across
the flow lines the flow is spatially variable. Examples are side channel spillways, roadside gutters,
and the flow in uniform canal of constant slope receiving inflow or having outflow (e.g. main
drainage channels and feeding channels in irrigation systems). The law of continuity of unsteady
flow requires considerations of the time effect. Hence, the continuity equation for continuous
unsteady flow should include time element as a variable.
Uniform flow and varied flow: space as the criterion
Open channel flow is said to be uniform if the depth of flow is the same at every section of the
channel. A uniform flow may be steady or unsteady, depending on whether or not the depth changes
with time.
Steady uniform flow is the fundamental type of flow treated in open channel hydraulics. The depth
of flow does not change during the time interval under consideration. The establishment of unsteady
uniform flow would require that the water surface fluctuate from time to time while remaining
parallel to the channel bottom. Obviously, this is a practically impossible condition. The term
“uniform flow” is therefore, used here after only to steady uniform flow.
Flow is varied if the depth of flow changes along the length of the channel. Varied flow may be
either steady or unsteady. Since unsteady uniform flow is rare, the term “unsteady flow” is used here
after to designate unsteady varied flow exclusively.

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Varied flow may be further classified as either rapidly or gradually varied. The flow is rapidly
varied if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short distance; otherwise, it is gradually
varied. A rapidly varied flow is also known as a local phenomenon; examples are the hydraulic jump
and the hydraulic drop. For clarity, the classification of open-channel flow is summarized as:

Uniform flow

Flow Steady Flow

Gradually Varied (non-
uniform) Flow
Varied Flow
Gradually Varied (non-
uniform) Flow
Unsteady uniform flow
(Quasi uniform flow)
Gradually varied
Unsteady Flow unsteady Flow

Unsteady Flow (i.e.

unsteady varied flow)
Rapidly varied unsteady
flow

Figure 1. 1 Classification of open channel flows

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Figure 1. 2 various types of open channel flows.

Real or ideal flow
Real flow implies viscosity and frictional (viscous) effects. Ideal flow is hypothetical, ideal flow
assumes no friction, which means that the velocity is zero. There are no frictional effects between
moving fluid layers or between these layers and boundary walls; there is no energy dissipation due to
friction.
Incompressible or compressible flow
Incompressible flow assumes a constant density in time and space. Also liquids are slightly
compressible, it is assumed that they are incompressible. Compressible flows consider liquids, which
undergo changes in their density due to changes in absolute pressure and/or temperature.
Depending on the channel is manmade:-
Natural channel
Artificial channel
Based on boundary characteristics
Rigid boundary: - lined channel no problem of sediment
Mobile boundary:-unlined channels where sediment problem exists
Based on cross section and slope
Prismatic: - Cross section and slope remain constant in the reach.
Non-Prismatic: - cross section and slope vary with space and time.

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ACTIVITY 1.2
1. Discuss all the types of flow based on different categories of classification and give examples for
each classification?

1.3. BASIC HYDRAULICS PRINCIPLES

1.3.1 Geometric Elements of Channel Section
Geometric elements are properties of a channel section that can be defined entirely by the geometry
of the section and the depth of flow. The most used geometric properties include:

1 Y

Figure 1.3. Geometry of an open channel

Water depth (y) : Vertical distance bottom to surface (measured on a vertical plane)
Section depth (d) : Normal distance from bottom to surface, depth perpendicular to
the bottom (measured on a plane perpendicular to the canal
bottom)
Area (A) : area normal to flow direction
Wetted perimeter (P) : length of line of wetted intersection
Hydraulic radius (R) : R = A/P
Hydraulic depth (D) : D = A/BS = Area A/top width BS
Total energy (E) : E= z + y + αv2/2g (for small slopes θ with y = d)
Specific energy (ES) : ES energy in relation to lowest point in a section ES = y + αv2/2g
Velocity (V) : v = Q/A
Velocity head : αv2/2g = αQ2/2gA2
Froude number : Fr2 = αQ2BS/gA3
Friction Slope : Sf = Q2n2/A2R4/3 (Manning)
2 2 2
Friction Slope : Sf = Q /C A R ( Chezy)

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Figure 1.4. Presents geometric elements of the most common channel sections

1.4. Main Principles

To any situation in hydraulics we can apply two out of three principles:
1-a Principle of conservation of matter (continuity)
1-b Principle of conservation of energy (in case all energy “losses” are known)
2-a Principle of conservation of matter (continuity)
2-b momentum principle (in case all external forces are known)
1.4.1. Continuity Principle
In open channel flow the continuity principle for a constant discharge Q is:
 
Q  V1 A1  V2 A2
A = the cross-sectional area in sections 1 and 2,

V = the mean velocity in sections 1 and 2
If the mean velocity remains constant (V1 = V2) then the cross-sectional area A (A = Q/V) remains
constant. The open channel has a prismatic cross -section. This means for uniform flow a constant

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water depth in all section. Uniform flow is a result from an exact balance between the force of
gravity and the frictional resistance.

Application of the continuity principle to unsteady, open channel flow is more difficult. In unsteady
open channel flow the water surface will change over a certain distance X  X 2  X 1 . and during a
certain time t .
During t : Inflow-Outflow = Storage
Q t  y x BS
As the velocity and the discharge will change over a distance.
x : Q  Q2  Q1  Q / x  x.
The discharge Q will vary with time t and with the distance along the canal.
If y is the water depth and Bs the width at the water surface, then the increase of volume between the
sections 1 and 2 during time t : Q t  Vo1  y Bs x.
The two terms derived are equal in magnitude, but different in sign:
Q y
 BS 0
x t
This is the equation of continuity for unsteady open channel flow.

1.4.2. Energy Principle

The energy equation and the momentum equation are used in addition to the continuity equation in
analyzing fluid-flow situations. They are both derived from Newton’s second law of motion. In this
section, the force components on a fluid particle in the direction of its motion are equated to the
product of mass of the particle and acceleration along the streamline. The equation is obtained in
differential form and requires the assumption of a frictionless fluid and steady flow. The equation
may then be integrated for particular assumptions regarding the relation between density and
pressure to obtain the energy equation.

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Figure 1.5. Force components on a fluid particle in the direction of streamline.

In figure 1.5 let S be a streamline in steady flow, and consider the forces acting on a fluid particle in
the direction S of the streamline. The element has a prismatic cross-sectional area A and length s –
a frictionless fluid is assumed in order to eliminate all shear in the fluid (i.e. ideal flow is assumed
instead of real flow). On the upstream end the element the force is PA, in which P is the pressure
intensity at the center of the face. The force on the downstream end of the element is:-
 dP 
P  s  A
 ds 
and acts in the negative direction. Any forces acting on the sides of the element are normal to the
streamline do not enter the equation. The only other force acting is due to gravity and is AS,
acting vertically down ward. The component in the S-direction is: -AS Cos. By substituting in
to

 FS  mas .
 
 S  A  A S cos 
dP
PA   P  A S as
 ds  g
After dividing through by the weight of the element  AS and simplifying.
1 dP a
 cos  S  0
 ds g
Z is the increase in elevation for a displacement S along the stream line and from Figure 1.5.

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Z d
 cos   Z
S dS
dv
The acceleration as is . To keep this expression simple, the assumption of steady flow is
dt
introduced, so that V is a function of S only along a streamline. Writing,
dV ds dV
aS  . V
ds dt ds
ds
as the velocity along the streamline is . The equation becomes.
dt
1 dP dz V dV
  0
 ds ds g ds
By multiplying the above equation trough by g and with the additional assumption that the fluid is
incompressible (i.e. assuming a constant density in time and space) and integrating with respect to S.

p V2
 gz   Constant. Equation 1-3
 2
This is Energy equation (Bernoulli’s Equation) for steady flow of a frictionless, incompressible fluid
along a streamline. It states that energy per unit mass of a flowing fluid is constant, the dimensions
L2
for this equation are , i.e. energy per unit mass.
T2
Potential energy = mgZ  gZ is potential energy per unit mass.
2
1 V
Kinetic Energy ( mV 2 )  is kinetic energy per unit mass.
2 2
Work/Energy = F.S = ( P  A)  S
We can represent he unit mass as: unit mass =   A  S
PAs P
Therefore, Pressure Energy per unit mass = 
As  
By dividing equation 1-3 through by g we get on expression for energy per unit weight, or more
simply, meters. This expression is particularly convenient form to apply to situations with free liquid
surface, i.e. open channel flows.
p V2
Z    C
 2g

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For open channel section with steady flow and straight and parallel streamlines, there is no
centripetal acceleration, i.e. where the hydrostatic pressure distribution holds true, the pressure head
p
lies in the water surface.

p
  d cos  - For channel with large slope and

p
 y - For channel with small slope

Substituting for channel of large slope the total energy may be written as
V2
Z  d cos  C
2g
In general, every streamline passing through a channel section will have a different velocity head,
owing to the non-uniform velocity distribution in actual flow. Only in an ideal parallel flow of
uniform velocity distribution can the velocity head be truly identical for all points on the cross-
section. In the case of gradually varied flow, however, it may be assumed, for practical purposes,
that the velocity heads for all points on the channel section are equal, and energy coefficient
(Coriolis Coefficient ) may be used to correct for the over all effect of the non-uniform velocity
distribution. Thus, the total energy, equation at a channel section takes the form
v2
Z y   C
2g
According to this equation (the principle of conservation of energy), the total energy head at
upstream section 1 should be equal to the total energy head at downstream section 2 plus the loss of
energy hf between the two section; or
2 2
v v
Z1  y1   1  Z 2  y 2   2  h f
2g 2g
This equation applies to parallel or gradually varied flow. Consider now a prismatic channel. The
line representing the elevation of the total head of flow is the energy line. The slope of the line is
known as the energy gradient, denoted by Sf. The slope of the water surface is denoted by Sw and the
slope of the channel bottom by So = tan . In uniform flow, Sf = Sw = So = tan .

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Figure 1.6. Energy in gradually varied open channel flow

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