CVE 705

HYDRAULICS &
HYDROLOGY
 What is Hydraulics???
•The word hydraulic comes from two Greek words: “hydor”
(meaning water) and “aulos” (meaning pipe).
•Hydraulics is a branch of science concerned with the practical
applications of fluids, primarily liquids, in motion.
•It is related to fluid mechanics, which in large part provides its
theoretical foundation.
•Hydraulics deals with such matters as the flow of liquids in pipes,
rivers, and channels and their confinement by dams and tanks.
•Some of its principles apply also to gases, usually in cases in
which variations in density are relatively small.
•Consequently, the scope of hydraulics extends to such
mechanical devices as fans and gas turbines and to pneumatic
control systems.
 BASICS OF HYDRAULICS
• Force – it is an agent, which produces or tends to
produce, destroy or tends to destroy motion
• The unit of force is called newton (N) and 1 N is the
force which accelerates a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1
m/s2 (1 N = 1 kgm/s2)
 PRESSURE
• Pressure may be defined as force per unit area
• Pascal’s law states that the pressure at certain point
in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions
 PRESSURE Cont.
Pressure (P)=ρgh
Where;
P = Pressure
ρ= density
g= acceleration due to gravity
h= elevation
or
Pressure (P)=F/A
F= force
A=cross sectional area
Flows under Pressure in Pipes

If the fluid is flowing full in a pipe under

pressure with no openings to the atmosphere, it
is called “pressured flow”. The typical example
of pressured pipe flows is the water distribution
system of a city.
The flow in a pipe is Laminar in low velocities
and Turbulent in high velocities. Since the
velocity on the wall of the pipe flow should be
zero, there is a thin layer with laminar flow on
the wall of the pipe. This layer is called Viscous
Sub Layer and the rest part in that cross-section
is known as Center Zone.
 Pressure at a depth z in a volume of water

The weight of a vertical column of water above the surface equals the
force exerted there
The pressure at point P is the same in
each container provided the vertical
depth z is the same
 PRESSURE HEAD

The law of hydrostatics states that the pressure P of a

fluid at rest increases on increasing the depth. It is also
called as head pressure.
 Atmospheric Pressure
• The atmosphere air exerts a normal pressure upon the
surface with which it is in contact and it is known as
atmospheric pressure
• The atmospheric pressure is also known as barometric
pressure
• The atmospheric pressure arises at sea level is called
standard atmospheric pressure
 Gauge Pressure
• If the pressure is measured with reference to the atmospheric
pressure, then it is called gauge pressure.
• It is the pressure, measured with the help of pressure measuring
instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The
atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.
• Gauge pressure measure is universally used in most of the hydraulic
and pneumatic systems.
• The pressure of the liquid may be above or below the atmospheric
pressure. If it is below the atmospheric pressure, then the gauge is
designated as vacuum gauge and the pressure is known as vacuum
pressure. The vacuum (i.e., negative) pressure - indicates the amount
by which the pressure of the liquid is below the atmospheric
pressure.
 Absolute pressure
• Any pressure measured above the absolute zero
pressure (perfect vacuum) is termed as an absolute
pressure
• Absolute pressure is important in the comparison of
the compression of gases
 Closed and Open Channel Hydraulics

Open channel flow is a flow of liquid in a conduit

with free space. Open channel flow is particularly
applied to understand the flow of a liquid in
artificial (flumes, spillways, canals, weirs, drainage
ditch, culverts) and natural (streams, rivers, flood
plains). Closed channel flow is a flow in conduit or
pipes that are fully flowing.
The two kinds of flow are similar in many ways but
differ in one important respect.
Open-channel flow must have a free surface,
whereas pipe flow has none.
 Difference between open channel and pipe flow

Pipe Flow Open Channel Flow

Flow driven by Pressure work Gravity (potential energy)

Flow cross section Known, Fixed Unknown in advance

because the flow depth is
unknown

Characteristic parameters Flow velocity deduced Flow depth deduced

from continuity simultaneously from
solving both continuity
and momentum equations

Specific boundary Atmospheric pressure

condition at the free
surface
Open and Close Channel Hydraulics
 Kinds and Types of Open Channels

Kinds
1. Artificial channels
These are channels made by man. They include irrigation canals,
navigation canals, spillways, sewers, culverts and drainage
ditches. They are usually constructed in a regular cross-section
shape throughout - and are thus prismatic channels (they don’t
widen or get narrower along the channel).
In the field they are commonly constructed of concrete, steel or
earth and have the surface roughness’s reasonably well defined
(although this may change with age – particularly grass lined
channels.)

Analysis of flow in such well defined channels will give reasonably

accurate results.
 Kinds and Types of Open Channels Cont.

Kinds Cont.
2. Natural channels
Natural channels can be very different. They are neither
regular nor prismatic and their materials of construction can
vary widely (although they are mainly of earth this can
possess many different properties.)

The surface roughness will often change with time distance

and even elevation. Consequently it becomes more difficult
to accurately analyse and obtain satisfactory results for
natural channels than is does for manmade ones. The
situation may be further complicated if the boundary is not
fixed i.e. erosion and deposition of sediments.
 Kinds and Types of Open Channels Cont.

Types
Steady flow: depth of flow at a particular point does not
change (Time is the criterion).
Uniform Flow: depth and velocity of flow are the same at
every section (Space as the criterion).
Steady non-uniform flow: depth varies with distance but not
with time. This type of flow may be either (a) gradually
varied or (b) rapidly varied. Type (a) requires the application
of the energy and frictional resistance equations while type
(b) requires the energy and momentum equations.

Unsteady flow : depth varies with both time and space.

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW: cross-sections geometry
 Fundamental equations

The equations which describe the flow of fluid are

derived from three fundamental laws of physics:
1. Conservation of matter (or mass)
2. Conservation of energy
3. Conservation of momentum

Conservation of matter:- says that matter cannot be

created nor destroyed, but it may be converted (e.g. by
a chemical process.) In fluid mechanics we do not
consider chemical activity so the law reduces to one of
conservation of mass.
 Fundamental equations Cont.

Conservation of energy:- says that energy cannot be

created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one
type to another (e.g. potential may be converted to
kinetic energy). When engineers talk about energy
"losses" they are referring to energy converted from
mechanical (potential or kinetic) to some other form
such as heat.

Conservation of momentum:- says that a moving body

cannot gain or lose momentum unless acted upon by an
external force. This is a statement of Newton's Second
Law of Motion: Force = rate of change of momentum.
 Fundamental equations Cont.

The Continuity Equation (conservation of mass)

 Fundamental equations Cont.

Energy equation (conservation of energy)

 Fundamental equations Cont.

The momentum equation (momentum principle)

 Example 1
Figure below shows the branching of a water pipe system.
The diameters of the circular cross-section pipes at
positions 1, 2 and 3 are, respectively 20, 6 and 12 cm.
Assume inviscid flow so that the flow across any cross-
section is uniform. The volumetric flow rates past positions
1 and 2 are, respectively 0.01 and 0.004 m3/s.
 Example 1 Cont.

1- Calculate the mass flow rates through the pipes

at positions 1 and

2- Find the mass flow rate at position 3.

3- Find the flow speed at positions 1, 2 and 3.

 Example 2
Figure below shows a sprayer system. At the inlet side, the
pipe diameter is 2 cm and flow speed is 2 m/s. The spray
rose has 100 holes, each with a diameter of 1 mm.
Assuming inviscid flow throughout, calculate the speed of
the jets that leave the sprayer
 Example 3

Water with specific gravity 0.9 enters a tee section, as

shown in Fig. below, with velocity v1 =10 m/s. The
diameter at section 1 is 15 cm, the diameter at section 2 is
12 cm and the diameter at section 3 is 11 cm. If equal flow
rates are to occur at sections 2 and 3, find the velocities v2
and v3.
 LOSS OF ENERGY IN PIPES
In reality a certain amount of energy loss occurs when the water
mass flows from one section to another
1. Major energy losses
This loss is due to friction
2. Minor energy losses
These losses are due to :
(i) Losses in valves and pipe fittings
(ii) Sudden enlargement/contraction of pipe
(iii) Bend in pipe
(iv) An obstruction in pipe
 Losses in pipe Cont.

The head loss due to friction is HL = (ƒ * LP/DP) (V2/2g)

Where LP = Total length of pipe
DP = Diameter of pipe
ƒ = 64/Re = Frictional factor which depends on the value of
Reynolds number (Re) = (VDP )/Ѵ
Where V = velocity
DP = diameter of pipe
Ѵ = Kinematic viscosity
V2/2g = Velocity head
 Example 4

The oil tank for the hydraulic system shown in Fig.1.26 is

pressurized at 68 kPa gauge pressure. The inlet to the pump is
3 m below the oil level. The pump flow rate is 0.001896 m3/s.
Find the pressure at station 2. The specific gravity of oil is 0.9
and kinematic viscosity of oil is 100cS. Assume the pressure
drop across the strainer to be 6.9 kPa. Also given the pipe
diameter is 38 mm and the total length of the pipe is 6 m.
Example 4 Solution
Example 4 Solution Cont.
Example 4 Solution Cont.
Example 4 Solution Cont.
Example 4 Solution Cont.
 Torricelli’s Theorem
Torricelli’s theorem is Bernoulli’s equation with certain assumptions
made. Torricelli’s theorem states that the velocity of the water jet of
liquid is directly proportional to the square root of the head of the
liquid producing it. This deals with the setup where there is a large
tank with a narrow opening allowing the liquid to flow out (Fig. 1.30).
Both the tank and the narrow opening (nozzle) are open to
the atmosphere:
 Torricelli’s Theorem Cont.
In the above setup, certain assumptions are made:
1. Pressure is the same because the tank and the nozzle are open to
the atmosphere, that is, P1=P2.
2. Also, let z2 - z1 =h.
3. The fluid velocity of the tank (water level) is very much slower than
the fluid velocity of the nozzle as the area of the liquid surface is
much larger than that of the cross section of nozzle, that is, v2 << v1.
4. There is no pump or motor, that is, Hp = Hm = 0.
5. There are no frictional losses, that is, HL = 0.
Keeping all these assumptions in mind, Bernoulli’s equation gets
reduced to
 Torricelli’s Theorem Cont.

Where v2 is the jet velocity (m/s), g is the acceleration due to gravity

(m/s2) and h is the pressure head (m). Now if we do not consider an
ideal fluid, then the friction head will be present (HL).
In that case

This shows that the velocity of jet decreases if the friction losses are
taken into account.
Siphon
 Siphon Cont.
A siphon is a familiar hydraulic device (Fig. 1.31). It is commonly used to cause
a liquid to flow from one container in an upward direction over an obstacle to
a second lower container in a downward direction. As shown in Fig. 1.31, a
siphon consists of a U-tube with one end submerged below the level of the
liquid surface, and the free end lying below it on the outside of the container.

For the fluid to flow out of the free end, two conditions must be met:
1. The elevation of the free end must be lower than the elevation of the liquid surface
inside the container.
2. The fluid must initially be forced to flow up from the container into the center portion
of the U-tube.

This is normally done by temporarily providing a suction pressure at the free

end of the siphon. For example, when siphoning gasoline from an automobile
gas tank, a person can develop this suction by momentarily sucking the free
end of the hose. This allows atmospheric pressure in the tank to push the
gasoline up the U-tube hose, as required. For continuous flow operation, the
free end of the U-tube hose must lie below the gasoline level in the tank.
 Siphon Cont.
We can analyze the flow through a siphon by applying the
energy equation between points 1 and 2 as shown in
Fig. 1.31:

The following conditions apply for a siphon:

1. P1= P2= atmospheric pressure.
2. The area of the surface of the liquid in the container is
large so that the velocity V1 equals essentially 0.
 Example 5
For the siphon system shown in Fig.1.32, the following data
are given:z1= 4 m, z2 = 0.2 m, HL = 0.5 m. If the inside diameter
of the siphon pipe is 30 mm, determine the velocity of the
fluid and the flow rate (in LPM) through the siphon. Apply the
energy equation and solve the problem.
Example 5 Solution
Example 5. Solution Cont.
 Example 6
A siphon is made of a pipe whose inside diameter is 25.4 mm
and is used to maintain a constant level in a 6.0975 m deep
tank (Fig. 1.33). If the siphon discharge is 9.144 m below
the top of tank, what will be the flow rate if the fluid level is
1.524 m below the top of tank?

Fig. 1.33
Example 6 Solution
 Example 7

• The diameters of cylindrical pistons A and B are 3

cm and 20 cm, respectively. The faces of the pistons
are at the same elevation, and the intervening
passages are filled with an incompressible hydraulic
oil. A force P of 100 N is applied at the end of the
lever, as shown in Figure. What weight W can the
hydraulic jack support?
Solution to Example 7