Chapter 3

Closed Conduit Flow

or
Pipe Flow
or
Pressurized Conduit Flow
 3.0 Closed Conduit Flow
Open channel flow
 Flow is open to the atmosphere
 Flow occurs due to the action of
gravity
o Flow is external flow where the
flow is unbounded.
o The flow characteristic parameters
(velocity) deduced from both
continuity and energy or momentum
equations
Closed Conduit flow
 Flow is circular in section and run
fully
 Although gravity is important, the
main driving force is the pressure
gradient along the flow.
 Flow a type of internal flow, i.e., the
flow is bounded by the walls
 The flow characteristic parameters
(velocity) deduced from continuity
equation
IMPORTANCE / APPLICATION OF PIPE FLOW :

 Our homes – building water supply

 City water supply

 Irrigation system

 Sewer water system

 Power plants

 Transport of oil and natural gases

 Cars

 Bloods in our body

 3.1 Condition near the pipe entry

o At the entrance to the conduit there appears what is known

as entrance region with in which the viscous boundary
layer grows and finally at the downstream end of this region
covers the entire cross section.

o The flow beyond the entrance region is said to have fully

developed and is characterized by a constant velocity
profile (for a steady flow), a linear drop in pressure with
distance, and a constant wall shear stress.
3.1 Condition near the pipe entry
 3.1 Condition near the pipe entry
 The entrance length is a function of Reynolds number and is given by
relations below:

Le
 0 .06 Re For laminar flow (Re < 2000)
d

Le
 4.4 Re 1 / 6 For turbulent flow flow (Re > 4000)
d
Where,
Vd
Re 

3.2 Laminar and Turbulent Flow Equations

 In fully developed laminar flow, each fluid particle moves at a

constant axial velocity along a streamline and the velocity profile
u(r) remains unchanged in the flow direction. There is no motion
in the radial direction, and thus the velocity component in the
direction normal to flow is everywhere zero.
 Laminar flow ‐ in laminar flow the particles of fluid move in an
orderly manner & the stream lines retain the same relative
position in successive cross section. Laminar flow is associated
with low velocity of flow and the velocity profile is parabolic.
 Turbulent flow ‐ Here the fluid particles flow in a disorder
manner occupying different relative positions in successive
cross section. Turbulent flow is associated with high velocity
flows.
 In turbulent flow the velocity profile is fairly flat (almost
uniform) over the central region of the flow and very steep
near the wall.
 For a turbulent flow, V/Umax = 4/5

 Shear stress is directly related to velocity gradient at the

wall, thus turbulent flow has greater shear stress than
laminar.
 3.3 Head Losses in Pipes
 The pipe boundary and fluid viscosity offer resistance to the flow.
 Fluid need to do work to overcome this resistance: thus available
energy gets consumed.
 Therefore, estimating head losses in pipe is great importance.
 Generally in any pipe we have losses and this loss will be divided
into major losses (losses created by friction) & minor losses (losses
occur due to change in the velocity of flow).

Due to sudden enlargement

Due to sudden contraction
Loss at entrance to a pipe
Due to gradual contraction or enlargement
Loss at bends
Loss at various fittings
 3.3.1 Derivation of basic equations of steady
laminar flow (slow flow) in pipes – Major losses

 Consider a case of steady laminar flow in a circular pipe shown below:

 Derivation of basic equations of steady laminar
flow in pipes
Since the flow is steady velocity
distribution remains the same through out
the length of the pipe. Hence acceleration
of the flow is zero. Hence the sum of all
forces for the fluid element shown should
be zero.

 dp 
pA   p  s  A   * 2rs  W sin   0 but W  As and A  r 2
 ds 
dp
r 2 s sin   2rs  sr 2  0
ds
1  dp  z dz
      sin  r sin   and p is a function of s only
2  ds  s ds
1 d
   p  z r
2 ds
 Derivation of basic equations of steady laminar
flow in pipes

dv
But for laminar flow,    dy

Substituting this and simplifying one

obtains the relationship for velocity as:
R2  r 2 d
V  ( z  p )
4  ds

Thus the velocity distribution in a circular pipe under laminar flow condition is
parabolic, with maximum value at the center.

R2 d
Vmax  ( z  p )
4  ds
 Derivation of basic equations of steady laminar
flow in pipes
2
For a horizontal pipe, Vmax   R dp
4  ds
The discharge through the pipe is obtained as:
 R2  r2 d 
R
R 4

d
Q   ( z  p ) 2r .dr   ( z  p )
 4  ds  ds 8
0 

The average velocity,

_
Q R2 d D2 d V
V   (z  p)   ( p  z )  max
A 8 ds 32  ds 2
_
d dH H 2  H1 32  V
( p  z ) or  
ds ds L D 2
_
32  V The Hagen –Poiseuille
h f  H  H 1  H 2  L
D 2 Formula for Laminar flow
This equation for head loss due to friction is commonly written as:

64 L V 2
hf 
Re D 2 g
 3.3.2 Turbulent Flow or Fast Flow
In turbulent flow there is no longer an explicit relationship between mean
stress and mean velocity gradient u/r (because momentum is transferred
more by the net effect of random fluctuations than by viscous forces).

 Hence, to relate quantity of flow to head loss we require an empirical

relation connecting the wall shear stress and the average velocity in the
pipe.

 For turbulent flow, the boundary shear stress is taken as:

V 2
o  
2
and the derivation of the equation for the friction head loss proceeds in the
same way as in the case of laminar flow.
Turbulent Flow:
 Consider a segment of an inclined circular pipe conveying a fluid of density
ρ and viscosity µ,
Sin θ = Δz/L

For steady uniform flow, since there

is no acceleration, ΣF = ma=0

(P1 – P2)A + γAΔz – τoPL = 0 ,

Where, P is the wetted perimeter

Turbulent Flow:

Substituting ΔP = (P1- P2) and dividing the whole expression by A, one gets

ΔP+Δz = oL/R where R = A/P

Hence, (ΔP +  Δz)/  L – ½ λ V2/gR. But (ΔP+γΔz)/γ = hf

Thus,
hf V2

L 2 gR

For a pipe flowing full R= D/4,

L V2 Where, f = 4λ which is friction factor or Darcy’s Coefficient

hf  f
D 2g for turbulent flow. λ is friction Coefficient

The above equation represents the major losses of head due to

friction in pipes.
Turbulent Flow:

The last equation for the friction loss in pipes is known as the Darcy-
Weisbach equation, f is called the Darcy coefficient.

This equation also applies for laminar flow with a substitution of 64/Re for the
friction factor.

For a turbulent flow f is a function of the Reynolds number and the relative
wall roughness of the pipe.

A graphical summary of past experimental results has been presented by

moody. This chart, known as the Moody diagram, is a plot of the friction factor
as a function of Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the pipe wall,
i.e. ε/D where, ε is the roughness in consistent units.

An empirical equation for the friction factor is also given by Colebrook and
White, which applies in both smooth and rough turbulent zones.

1   2.51 
 2 log   
f  3 . 7 D R e 
f
MOODY CHART
PIPE ROUGHNESS

pipe material pipe roughness (mm)

glass, drawn brass, copper 0.0015
commercial steel or wrought iron 0.045
asphalted cast iron 0.12
galvanized iron 0.15
cast iron 0.26
concrete 0.18-0.6
rivet steel 0.9-9.0
corrugated metal 45
PVC 0.12
Hazen-Williams Formula

V= 0.849CR0.63 s0.54

Where: V = average velocity of flow, (m/s)

R = hydraulic radius, m
S = slope of the energy gradient ( s = hL/L)
C = a roughness coefficient

This formula can be rearranged to give

1.852
hL  V 
 0.63 
L  0.849CR 
Where, R= D/4 for pipes
 EXAMPLE 3.1
 Oilflows through a 25 mm diameter pipe
with a mean velocity of 0.3 m/s. Given
that µ = 4.8*10-2 kg/ms and ƍ = 800 kg/m3 ,
calculate the pressure drop in a 45 m length
pipe.
 EXAMPLE 3.2
 Waterflows at a velocity of 2 m/s in a 300-mm
new cast iron pipe. Estimate the head loss over
500 m, using:
(a) the Hazen-Williams formula
(b) the Darcy-Weisbach equation
 3.4 Local Losses (Minor Losses)
In addition to head loss due to friction there are always head losses in pipe
lines due to bends, junctions, valves etc. such losses are called Minor losses.

For completeness of analysis these should be taken into account.

In practice, in long pipe lines of several kilometers their effect may be

negligible but for short pipeline the losses may be greater than those for
friction.

Local losses are usually expressed in terms of the velocity head, i.e.

V2
hi  k i
2g

where ki is the minor loss coefficient

 3.4 Local Losses (Minor Losses)
Losses at Sudden Enlargement

Consider the flow in the sudden enlargement,

shown in figure.

Fluid flows from section 1 to section 2.

The velocity must reduce and so the pressure

increases (as follows from Bernoulli).

At position 1' turbulent eddies occur which give

rise to the local head loss.

Apply the momentum equation between positions 1 and 2 to give:

P1A1 – P2 A2 = ρQ(V2 – V1)

Now use the continuity equation to remove Q. (i.e. substitute Q = A2V2)

P1A1 – P2 A2 = ρA2V2(V2 – V1)

Local Losses (Minor Losses) Continued …
Rearranging gives,
P2  P1 V2
 V1  V2 
g g

Now apply the Bernoulli equation from point 1 to 2, with the head loss term hL
P1 V12 P2 V22
    hL
g 2 g g 2 g
And rearranging gives,
V12  V 22 P2  P1
hL  
2g g
Combining the two expressions
V12  V22 V2 V1  V2 
hL  
2g g

hL 
V1  V2 
2

2g
 Local Losses (Minor Losses) Continued …
Substituting again for the continuity equation to get an expression involving
the two areas, (i.e. V2 = V1A1/A2) gives
2
 A1  V12
hL  1  
 A2  2 g

This gives the expansion loss coefficient

2
 A 
k e  1  1 
 A2 

When a pipe expands in to a large tank A1 << A2 i.e. A1/A2 ≈ 0, so ke = 1.

That is, the head loss is equal to the velocity head just before the expansion
into the tank.

In other situations such as bends, junctions, sudden contractions,

valves and fittings determination analytical values for the loss
coefficient is difficult. The loss coefficient is a function of the type of
obstruction in the flow and its values are given as in the subsequent
figures and tables.
Local Losses (Minor Losses) Continue …
Typical values of KL
 Local Losses (Minor Losses) Continue…

Loss coefficient for a sudden

contraction

Loss coefficient for a typical

conical diffuser
SOLUTION OF SINGLE – PIPE FLOW PROBLEMS

The total head losses between two points is the sum of

the pipe major loss and the minor losses, i.e.,

hL  h Lf   h'
hL – total head loss
hLf – major head loss
 h' ‐ total minor loss

L V2
h Lf  f
D 2g
 EXAMPLE 3.3
A pipe 5 cm diameter is 5 m long and carries a
discharge of 0.005 m3/sec. Find the loss of head
due to friction. The central 2 m length of the pipe
is next replaced by a pipe 7.5 cm diameter, the
change of section being sudden. Determine the
total loss of head corresponding due to adoption
of this alternative and the power loss. Take
Darcy’s coefficient, f = 0.04 for a pipe of both
diameters and contraction loss coefficient = 0.5
 EXAMPLE 3.4 ( EXERCISE)
 A horizontal pipe, 10 cm in diameter, is joined by
sudden enlargement to a 15 cm diameter pipe.
Water is flowing through it at the rate of 2
m3/min. Find the loss of head due to abrupt
expansion and the pressure difference in the two
pipes.
 EXAMPLE 3.5 (EXERCISE)
o A pipe of 30 cm diameter and 400 m
length connects two reservoir with the
ends submerged in reservoirs. Discharge
through the pipe and friction factor of pipe,
f are 0.2 cumecs and 0.02 respectively.
Find out the elevation difference between
the levels of water in the two reservoirs.
3.5 MULTIPLE PIPE SYSTEMS
 EXAMPLE 3.6
 Two reservoirs are connected by a
pipeline which is 15 cm in diameter for the
first 5m and 25cm in diameter for the
remaining 15m. Entry to and exit from the
pipe is sharp, and the water surface in the
upper reservoir is 7.5m above that in the
lower reservoir. Determine flow rate
through the arrangement by assuming
that friction coefficient, λ is 0.01 for both
the pipes.
 EXAMPLE 3.7
 Two reservoirs are connected by three
pipes laid in parallel. The pipe diameter
are respectively 10cm, 20cm and 30cm
and they are of the same length. If the
discharge through 10 cm pipe is 0.1
m3/sec, calculate the discharge through
the larger pipes. Assume the friction
coefficient ‘ λ ‘ to be the same for the
pipes.
 CONCEPT OF EQUIVALENT PIPE
Quite often, designers of conduit systems analyze the
pipe flow by replacing the series combination by a single
pipe of uniform diameter which would have the same
head loss and discharge rate. The pipe is called an
equivalent pipe and the uniform diameter of the
equivalent pipe is known as the equivalent diameter of
the compound pipe.
 let l1, l2, l3 etc, represent the lengths and d1, d2, d3 etc,
denote the respective diameters of the different pipes
constituting the series arrangement. Then, neglecting
the minor losses, the total head loss hf = hf1 + hf2 + hf3 +
…
BRANCHING OF PIPES

Such an arrangement of pipes falls in neither of the

above two (i.e. parallel or serial) categories. The
pipes do not also form a network of complete
loops. A typical example is the three-reservoir
problem shown in the figure next page. The
problem is often to find the flow rate (including the
direction) in each pipe. As the elevation of the HGL
at the junction is not known, the flow can not be
readily computed. Hence the procedure for solution
starts by assuming a value for this head at the
junction. The flow rate in each pipe is then
computed for the assumed head at the junction.
 The flow rates computed in such a way are then checked if
they satisfy continuity. If the sum of the discharges in the
pipes is less than zero (with flow away from the junction
taken negative), then this is means the assumed head is
too high and it is reduced for the next trial. The procedure
is repeated until the sum of the flow rates is very close to
zero.

Datum
 EXAMPLE 3.8
 Reservoirs A, B, and C are connected as
shown in Figure next page. The water
elevations in reservoirs A, B, and C are 100
m, 80 m, and 60 m, respectively. The three
pipes connecting the reservoirs meet at the
junction J, with pipe AJ being 900 m long,
BJ 800 m long, CJ 700 m long, and the
diameter of all pipes equal to 850 mm. If all
pipes are made of ductile iron (f = 0.004)
and the flow in pipe JB is 0.01 cumecs , find
the flow into or out of each reservoir.
 PIPE NETWORK ANALYSIS
 Pipe network analysis involves the determination
of the pipe flow rates and pressure heads at the
outflows points of the network. The flow rate and
pressure heads must satisfy the continuity and
energy equations.
Complex pipe Networks
 Hardy Cross Method can be used
 Assign the required demand at each node

 Assume the best distribution of flow that satisfies

continuity by careful examination of the network.
 The flow entering a node must be equal to the
flow leaving the same node
PIPE NETWORK ANALYSIS
 Calculate the head loss, hf, in each pipe.
 The algebraic sum of the heads around a closed
loop must be zero.
 For a loop, take head loss in the clockwise flows as
positive and in the anti-clockwise flows as negative
 Calculate the correction factor for each loop by
 
n 1
rQ Q h
Q   
o o f

 rn Q
n 1
h
o n f

Q o

Where, n = 2

1 . 851
Q  1
hl  10 . 704     4 . 87
L
C  D
Pipe material Value of C (in MKS units),
Depending up on the smoothness of
the pipe material
Concrete (regardless of age) 130
Cast iron
New 130
5 years old 120
20 years old 100
Welded steel (New) 120
Riveted steel (New) 110
Vitrified clay 110
Brick sewres 100
Asbestos_ cement 140
 EXERCISE

Determine the discharge in

each of the pipes using
Hardy-Cross Method. Use
Hazen – William’s formula
and take C= 100.
 Apply head loss

FIRST TRIAL formula

SECOND TRIAL
THIRD TRIAL
FINAL SOLUTION
THANK YOU