Thermodynamics

branch of physics that has to do

with ​heat and temperature ​and
their relation to energy
and work.
The behavior of these quantities is
governed by the four laws of
thermodynamics

Thermodynamic Systems
 Open
System
(control
Volume)
Open systems is one
that freely allows
energy and matter to
be transferred in an
out of a system ​For example
boiling ​ ​water
without a cover
Closed System
(control Mass)
A closed system, on
the other hand, does
not allow the
exchange of matter
but allows energy to
Example of a closed system ​
be transferred. ​ ​is a
pressure cooker.

Isolated System
This system is
completely sealed
Matter is not allowed
to be exchanged with
the surroundings
Heat cannot transfer
Example – A thermoflask is
to the surroundings ​
an isolated system
Classification of
Thermodynamics properties
Intensive properties
properties which are size independent
such as temperature, ​pressure, density,
etc.
Extensive properties
properties which depend on the size like
mass, volume and total energy.
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
STATE
- a set of properties that completely describes the condition
- At a given state, all the properties of a system have fixed
values. If the value of even one property changes, the state will
change to a different one.
EQUILIBRIUM
- The word ​equilibrium ​implies a ​state of balance​. In an equilibrium state
there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system.
- A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated ​from
its surroundings.
There are many types of equilibrium namely, ​thermal equilibrium​,
mechanical equilibrium, phase equilibrium, chemical equilibrium.

PROCESSES AND CYCLES

Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another is called a ​process, ​and the series of states through which a
system passes during a process is called the ​path ​of the process
When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains
infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a
quasistatic, ​or ​quasi-equilibrium, process.

A ​quasi-equilibrium ​process can be viewed as a sufficiently slow process

that allows the system to adjust itself internally so that properties in one part
of ​the system do not change any faster than those at other parts.
When a gas in a piston-cylinder device is compressed suddenly, the
molecules near the face of the piston will not have enough time to escape
and they will have to pile up in a small region in front of the piston, thus
creating a high-pressure region there. Because of this pressure difference,
the system can no longer be said to be in ​equilibrium, and this makes the
entire process ​nonquasi-equilibrium.
The ​P​-​V ​diagram of a compression process
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
- ​is a process during which the ​temperature T remains constant

ISOBARIC PROCESS
- i​ s a process during which ​the pressure P remains constant

ISOMETRIC ​(or ​ISOCHORIC​) ​process

- i​ s a process during which the ​specific volume v remains
constant.
The Steady-Flow Process
- which can be defined as a ​process during which a fluid flows through ​a
control volume steadily.

That is, the fluid

properties can
change from point to
point within the
control volume, but at
any fixed point they
remain the same during the entire process.

Therefore, the volume ​V​, the mass ​m​, and the total energy content ​E ​of the
control volume remain constant during a steady flow process.
FORMS OF ENERGY
Macroscopic
The ​macroscopic ​forms of energy are those a system possesses as a
whole with respect to some outside reference frame, such as ​kinetic ​and
potential energies​.
Microscopic
The ​microscopic ​forms of energy are those related to the molecular
structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity, and they are
independent of outside reference frames. The sum of all the microscopic
forms of energy is called the ​internal energy ​of a system and is denoted by
U.​

Kinetic Energy (KE)

The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion
relative to some reference frame.
Potential Energy ​(PE)
The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a
gravitational field
Conversion of Units – Energy
1 BTU = 1.055 kJ
= ​778 ​ft - lb​f
1 J =1 N-m
1 erg = 1 dyne-cm
 = 10 ​J
-7

1 Cal = 4.187 J
-19 ​
1 eV= 1.602 x10​ J
1 CHU = 1.8 BTU
Conversion of Units – Power
1 Hp (mechanical) = 0.746 kW
= 33 000 ft – lb​f /min
​
= 550 ft – lb​f /​ s
= 2545 BTU/ hr
= 42.42 BTU/ min
1 Watt (W) = 1 J/s
= 1 volt ampere
1 PS = 1 Hp (metric) = 0.736 kW

The magnetic, electric, and surface tension effects are significant in some
specialaized cases only and are usually ignored. In the absence of such
effects, the ​total energy of a system consists of the kinetic, potential, and
internal energies and ​is expressed as:

Control volumes ​typically involve ​fluid flow ​for long periods of time, and ​it
is convenient to express the energy flow associated with a fluid stream in ​the
rate form.

GENERAL FLOW EQUATIONS:

Volume flow rate, (Q) ​��​��​/��
- which is the volume of a fluid flowing through a cross section per
unit time.
Q = Area x Velocity
Q=AxV
where:
A = ��​
​ 4​��​2​(For circular cross section)
A = L x w (for rectangular)

​ �ሶ ),​����
Mass flow rate ​(�
������
- the amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time

��​
��ሶ​= ​ ��
��ሶ ​= ​��​A​V
where:
�� ​= specific volume
V = velocity
�� ​= density
A = area
Q = volume flow rate

If Q is constant:
��​1 ​= ��​2

��​1​��​1​= ​��​2​��​2
��
2 ​ ��​ 2
4​ (��​ 1​ )​ =​ 4​ (��​ 2​ )​

(��​1​)​2​��​1 =
​ ​
( ��​ 2​
2​ ��​2
)​

where:
��​1 ​= inlet area
��​2 ​= exit area
��​1 ​= inlet velocity
��​2 ​= exit velocity
SOLUTION:
Using formula:
​ ​��​AV
��ሶ =

��ሶ = ��. �������� ����/��

Solution:
Using Formula:

(��​1​)​2​��​1 ​= ​(��​2​)​2​��​2
(4​2​) 1 = (2​2​)��​��

��​�� ​= ​������/��

A fluid moves in a steady flow manner

between two sections in the same flow
line. At the 1 ​: ��​1 =
​ 0.10 ��​ , ​υ​1
2​

6��/�� ​, ​��​1 = ​
0.33

��​ /����​. At section 2: ​��​ =

3​ =​

0.2��​ , ​�� = ​2 2
2​
0.27 ����/�� o ​ f​ .
3​

Calculate the velocity flow

section 2.
m​1 ​= m
​ 2​
ρ​1​A​1​V​1​=
ρ​2​A​2​V​2​ ​�� =
 ��/��
��​1​��​1
��​1​= ρ​2​A​2​V​2
��​�� =
​ ����. ���� ��/��
ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT (HEAT TRANSFER)
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two
systems by virtue of a ​temperature difference​.
Note: there cannot be any heat transfer between two systems
that are at the same temperature.

Heat has energy units kJ (or BTU). Rate of heat transfer is the amount ​of
heat transferred per unit time.

Heat is a directional (or vector) quantity; thus, it has magnitude,

direction and point of action.

Notation:
– Q (kJ) amount of heat transfer
– Q° (kW) rate of heat transfer (power)
– q (kJ/kg) ​- h
​ eat transfer per unit mass
– q° (kW/kg) ​- p
​ ower per unit mass

Sign convention​: ​Heat Transfer to a system is positive​, and ​heat transfer

from a system is negative​. It means any heat transfer that increases the
energy of a system is positive, and heat transfer that decreases the energy
of a ​system is negative.

Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat can be transferred in three different modes ​conduction​,
convection​, and ​radiation​. All modes of heat transfer require the
existence of a temperature difference.

Conduction
is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles to
the adjacent less energetic particles as a result of interactions between
particles.

Convection
is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the
adjacent liquid or gas which is in motion, and it involves the combined
effects of conduction and fluid motion (advection).

Radiation
is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves ​(or
photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the
atoms or molecules.
ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
Work ​is the energy interaction between a system and its
surroundings. More specifically, work is the energy transfer associated ​with
force acting through a distance

Notation:
– W (kJ) amount of work transfer
– W° (kW) power
– w (kJ/kg) - work per unit mass
– w° (kW/kg) ​- p
​ ower per unit mass
 ​ ork done by a
Sign convention​: w ​ system is positive​, ​and the
work done on ​a system is negative.
Similarities between work and heat transfer:
• Both are recognized at the boundaries of the system as they cross them
(boundary ​phenomena).
• Systems posses energy, but not heat or work (transfer phenomena). ​•
Both are associated with a process, not a state. Heat or work has no
meaning at a state.
• Both are path functions, their magnitudes depend on the path followed
during a ​process as well as the end states.
The First Law of Thermodynamics: Closed Systems

The first law of thermodynamics can be simply stated as follows:

during an interaction between a system and its surroundings, the amount of
energy gained by the system must be exactly equal to the amount of energy
lost by the surroundings.
A closed system can exchange energy with its surroundings through ​heat
and work transfer. In other words, ​work​ ​and ​heat​ ​are the forms that energy
can be transferred across the system boundary.
 SYSTEM
where:
PE = potential energy
KE = kinetic energy
U = internal energy
Q = heat
W = work
Q - ​��​���� ​= ​∆���� +​ ​∆���� + ∆��
Most closed systems remain ​stationary ​during a process and thus
experience no change in their kinetic and potential energies​.

STATIONARY SYSTEM
- ​Closed systems whose velocity and elevation of the center of gravity
remain ​constant during a process
�� − ��​����​= ​∆�� + ​ ���� +
​ ∆ ​ ​∆����
�� − ��​���� = ​ ​∆��
​ ​��​���� ​+ ∆��
�� =

10 Btu (10 kJ) are transferred in a

process where a piston compresses a
spring and in so doing does 1500 ft-lbf
(2000J) of work. Find the change in
internal energy of the system.
�� = ∆�� ​+ �
​ �����
�������� = ∆��
+������
 ∆�� = ������
During a “non-flow” process, the internal energy of
a fluid changes from an initial value of 500 Btu/lb to
a final value of 440 Btu/lb. If 30 000 ft – lb/lb of
work is performed by the fluid, compute the
quantity of heat in Btu/lb added to or removed
from ​the fluid during the process?
Q=∆
​ KE​+ ∆​PE​+ ∆U+ Wnf
Q = -21.44 BTU/lb​m